DATA COLLECTION &

SAMPLING METHOD
SI-5098 Metoda Penelitian
 Research Staging
OBSERVATION
Broad area of
research interest
identified

THEORETICAL
PROBLEM
FRAMEWORK GENERATION OF SCIENTIFIC
DEFINITION
Variables clearly HYPOTHESES RESEARCH
Research Problem DESIGN
identified and labeled
Deliniated

PRELIMINARY DATA DATA COLLECTI

GATHERING ANALYSIS AN
NO INTEPRETATIO
Interviewing
Literature survey DEDUCTION
Hypotheses substantiated
?
? Research Question
answered ?

Report Writing
ssues Involved in the Research Design
MEASUREMENT
DETAILS OF STUDY
• Operational DAT
establishing • Studying event definition
• Manipulation • Items
ANALY
• Exploration • Causal relations
• Description • Corelations • Control • Scaling
• Hypotheses • Group Differences, • Simulation • Contrived • Categorizing
Testing rank, etc • Non-contrived • Coding
Extent of
Purpose of the Type of Researcher Study Setting Measurements • Feel for
Study Investigation Interference and Measure
• Goodne
data

• Hypothe
Unit of Sampling Time Horizon Data Collection testing
Analysis Design Method
• Cross-sectional
• Individuals • Sampling Method • Longitudinal • Observation
• Dyads • Sampling Size • Interview
• Groups • Questionaire
• Organizations • Physical
• etc Measurements
• Unobtrusive
Data Collection Process
Preliminary Sample
Planning Design

Questioner Pilot Survey

Design Survey Administration

Coding Editing

Presentation
Results
Survey Process

• Overall study objectives

• Specific survey objectives
• Review of existing
information
• Formulation of hypotheses
• Definition of terms
• Determination of survey
resources
• Specification of survey
content
Survey Process
• Selection of survey time frame
– Cross-sectional
– longitudinal
• Selection of survey technique
– Documentary search
– Observational survey
– Self-completion questionnaire
– Telephone survey
– Interview survey
– Intercept survey
– Group survey
• Consideration of survey errors
Survey Process
• Definition of target population
• Sampling units
• Sampling frame
• Sampling method
• Sampling error and sampling bias
• Sample size and composition
• Estimation of parameter variances
• Conduct of sampling
Survey Process
• Types of survey
instrument
• Question content
• Trip recording techniques
• Physical nature of forms
• Question types
• Question format
• Question wording
• Question ordering
• Question instructions
Survey Process
• Adequacy of sampling frame
• Variability within survey
population
• Estimation of non-response rate
• Size of the pilot survey
• Suitability of survey method
• Adequacy of questionnaire
• Efficiency of interviewer training
• Suitability of coding, data entry,
and editing procedures
• Suitability of analysis procedures
• Cost and duration of surveys
• Efficiency of organization
Survey Process
• Procedures for self-
completion personal
interview, telephone,
intercept, and in-
depth interview
surveys
• Survey execution and
monitoring
• Quality control
• Use of computer in
surveys
Survey Process
• Selection of coding method
• Preparation of code format
• Development of data entry
programs
• Coder and data entry
training
• Coding administration
Survey Process
• Editing of field sheets
• Verification of data entry
• Development of editing
computer programs
• Consistency and range
checks
Survey Process

• Editing check
corrections
• Secondary data
comparisons
• Corrections for internal
biases
Survey Process

• Exploratory data analysis

• Model building
• Interpretation of results
• Database management
• Provision of data suppor
services
Survey Process

• Verbal presentations
• Visual presentations
• Preparation of reports
• Publication of results
Survey Process

• Documentation of
survey method
• Storage and archival of
data
• Completion of
administrative duties
Trade-Offs in Survey Design
Why do we use sampling?
Get information from large populations with:
– Reduced costs
– Reduced field time
– Increased accuracy
– Enhanced methods
Definition of sampling

Procedure by which some members

of a given population are selected as
representatives of the entire population
Definition of sampling terms
Sampling unit (element)
• Subject under observation on which information is collected
– Example: children <5 years, hospital discharges, health events…

Sampling fraction
• Ratio between sample size and population size
– Example: 100 out of 2000 (5%)
Definition of sampling terms

Sampling frame
• List of all the sampling units from which sample is drawn
– Lists: e.g. children < 5 years of age, households, health care units…

Sampling scheme
• Method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame
– Randomly, convenience sample…
Survey errors
• Systematic error (or bias)
Sample not typical of population
– Inaccurate response (information bias)
– Selection bias

• Sampling error (random error)

Representativeness (validity)
A sample should accurately reflect distribution of
relevant variable in population

• Person e.g. age, sex

• Place e.g. urban vs. rural
• Time e.g. seasonality

Representativeness essential to generalise

Ensure representativeness before starting,

Confirm once completed

Sampling
(select)
Population Sample

(estimate)
Parameter Statistic
true proportion sample proportion
true mean sample mean
 Sampling and representativeness
Target Population  Sampling Population  Sample

Sampling
Population
Sample

arget Population
Types of sampling

• Non-probability samples

• Probability samples
 Nonprobability Sampling

 Probability of being chosen is unknown

 Cheaper but unable to generalise, potential for
bias

• Convenience
• Judgment
• Quota
• Snowball
 Convenience Sampling
• Obtaining the people who are most conveniently (readily)
available
 Judgment (purposive) Sampling
• An experienced individual selects the sample based on his/her
judgment about some characteristics required of the sample
member
 Quota Sampling
• Various subgroups in a population are represented on relevant
sample characteristics according to researchers desire
Snowball Sampling
• Initial members are selected
• Additional members are selected based on information
provided by the initial participants

1
2 3
1
Probability samples
• Random sampling
– Each subject has a known probability of being selected
• Allows application of statistical sampling theory to results to:
– Generalise
– Test hypotheses
Probability Sampling Method

1. Simple random sampling

2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Multi-stage sampling
5. Cluster sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
• Principle
–Equal chance/probability of drawing each unit

• Procedure
–Take sampling population
–Need listing of all sampling units (“sampling frame”)
–Number all units
–Randomly draw units
1. Simple Random Sampling
• Advantages
–Simple
–Sampling error easily measured

• Disadvantages
–Need complete list of units
–Does not always achieve best representativeness
–Units may be scattered and poorly accessible
1. Simple Random Sampling
Example: evaluate the prevalence of tooth decay among 1200
children attending a school :

• List of children attending the school

• Children numerated from 1 to 1200
• Sample size = 100 children
• Random sampling of 100 numbers between 1 and 1200

How to randomly select?

1. Simple Random Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic sampling
• Principle
– Select sample at regular intervals based on sampling fraction
• Advantages
– Simple
– Sampling error easily measured
• Disadvantages
– Need complete list of units
– Periodicity
2. Systematic sampling
• N = 1200, and n = 60
 sampling fraction = 1200/60 = 20

• List persons from 1 to 1200

• Randomly select a number between 1 and 20 (ex : 8)

 1st person selected = the 8th on the list
 2nd person = 8 + 20 = the 28th etc .....
2. Systematic sampling
2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
• Principle :
– Divide sampling frame into homogeneous subgroups (strata) e.g.
age-group, occupation;

– Draw random sample in each strata.

3. Stratified sampling
• Advantages
– Can acquire information about whole population and
individual strata
– Precision increased if variability within strata is less
(homogenous) than between strata
• Disadvantages
– Can be difficult to identify strata
– Loss of precision if small numbers in individual strata
• resolve by sampling proportionate to stratum population
3. Stratified sampling
4. Multiple stage sampling
Principle:
• consecutive sampling
• example :
sampling unit = household
– 1st stage: draw neighborhoods
– 2nd stage: draw buildings
– 3rd stage: draw households
5. Cluster sampling
• Principle
– Sample units not identified independently but in a group (or
“cluster”)

– Provides logistical advantage.

5. Cluster sampling
• Principle
– Whole population divided into groups e.g. neighbourhoods

– Random sample taken of these groups (“clusters”)

– Within selected clusters, all units e.g. households included (or

random sample of these units)
5. Cluster sampling
 5. Cluster Sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section

Section 5

ction 4
5. Cluster sampling
• Advantages
– Simple as complete list of sampling units within population not
required
– Less travel/resources required

• Disadvantages
– Potential problem is that cluster members are more likely to be
alike, than those in another cluster (homogenous)….
– This “dependence” needs to be taken into account in the sample
size….and the analysis (“design effect”)
Selecting a Sampling Method
• Population to be studied
– Size/geographical distribution
– Heterogeneity with respect to variable
• Availability of list of sampling units
• Level of precision required
• Resources available
Developing a Sample Plan

• Sample plan: definite sequence of steps that

the researcher goes through in order to draw
and ultimately arrive at the final sample
Developing a Sample Plan
• Step 1: Define the relevant population.
• Specify the descriptors, geographic locations, and
time for the sampling units.
• Step 2: Obtain a population list, if possible;
may only be some type of sample frame
• List brokers, government units, customer lists,
competitors’ lists, association lists, directories, etc.
• Incidence rate (occurrence of certain types in the
population, the lower the incidence the larger the
required list needed to draw sample from)
Developing a Sample Plan
• Step 3: Design the sample method (size and method).
• Determine specific sampling method to be used. All
necessary steps must be specified (sample frame, n, …
recontacts, and replacements)
• Step 4: Draw the sample.
• Select the sample unit and gain the information
• Drop-down substitution
• Oversampling
• Resampling
Developing a Sample Plan

• Step 5: Assess the sample.

• Sample validation – compare sample profile with
population profile; check non-responders
• Step 6: Resample if necessary.