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“GF” = “Galois field.” Evariste Galois (1811–1832) was a much better mathematician than marksman.
EE 387 Notes #4, Page 2
Field characteristic
The characteristic of a field is the least positive number of 1s that adds to 0.2
Theorem: The characteristic of a finite field is a prime number.
Proof : By contradiction. Let the rs be smallest positive number of ones that adds
to zero where r > 1 and s > 1. By associative law for addition,
1 · · + 1} = |1 + ·{z
| + ·{z · · + 1} + |1 + ·{z · · + 1} = r| + ·{z
· · + 1} + · · · + |1 + ·{z · · + r}
rs r r r s
| {z }
s
where r denotes the sum of r ones. Now use the distributive law:
· · + r} = r(1
rs = r| + ·{z | + ·{z
· · + 1}) = 0 .
s s
But r 6= 0, so rs = 0 implies that s = 0, i.e.,
1| + ·{z
· · + 1} = s = 0 .
s
In other words, a sum of s ones equals zero, which contradicts assumption that rs
is smallest sum of ones that equals 0.
2
If no sum of ones is zero, the field is said to have characteristic 0.
EE 387 Notes #4, Page 3
Field integers
In any field, the additive subgroup generated by 1 is called the field integers.
In a finite field F of characteristic p, the field integers are
{ 0, 1, 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1, . . . , 1| + ·{z
· · + 1} }
p−1
Arithmetic is the same as the integer arithmetic modulo p, since any sum of a
multiple of p ones is 0. The field integers are also closed under division, since every
nonzero field integer has a reciprocal modulo p.
Therefore the field integers are a subfield of F . They form the smallest subfield
because every field must contain 1 and all of its sums and products.
Every field F is a vector space over the subfield GF(p) of its field integers.
Thus if m is the dimension of F over GF(p), then F has pm elements.
Theorem: A finite field of characteristic p has pm elements.
A field of characteristic zero is infinite. Its field integers behave like normal integers, and rational numbers — ratios of
field integers — are the smallest subfield.
where m00
i is the i-th coordinate of product of first unit vector with itself.
GF(4) (continued)
Arithmetic modulo x2 + x + 1 is equivalent to replacing all occurrences
of x2 + x + 1 by 0. In particular, over GF(2)
x2 + x + 1 = 0 ⇔ x2 = x + 1 .
Thus x2 and all higher powers of x modulo x2 + x + 1 can be replaced by a
polynomial of degree ≤ 1. Every nonzero element of GF(4) is a power of x :
GF(4) = {0, 1, x, x2 = x + 1} .
In other words, x is a primitive element.
Definition: A primitive element of a finite field is any α that is a generator of the
mulitiplicative group of the field.
It is easier to understand GF(4) if we replace the indeterminant x by α. Then
every element in GF(4) is a linear combination of the basis vectors, 1 and α:
GF(4) = {0, 1, α, α + 1} .
Therefore multiplication in GF(4) is determined by the products of 1 and α.
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 × 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 3 2 5 4 7 6 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 2 3 0 1 6 7 4 5 2 0 2 4 6 3 1 7 5
3 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 0 3 6 5 7 4 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 3 7 6 2 5 1
5 5 4 7 6 1 0 3 2 5 0 5 1 4 2 7 3 6
6 6 7 4 5 2 3 0 1 6 0 6 7 1 5 3 2 4
7 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 0 7 5 2 1 6 4 3
Multiplication is determined by 2 · 4 = 3 ⇔ α · α2 = α3 = α + 1.
Important: the symbols 0, 1, . . . , 7 for elements of GF(8) are just abbreviations for
the 3-bit vector representations. Elements of GF(8) do not behave like integers.
Blahut (Theorem 4.3.9) calls this the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Gauss’s FTA: every polynomial equation with
complex coefficients and degree ≥ 1 has at least one complex root.
Part 4 means that minimal polynomials are minimal in a stronger sense than smallest degree.
Note that part 2 follows from part 4.
EE 387 Notes #4, Page 25
Conjugates are algebraically indistinguishable. E.g., the complex number +i has coordinates (0, 1) only by convention.
EE 387 Notes #4, Page 27
Conjugates of β (2)
i
Next we show that all conjugates of β are in {β q }. Consider the product
2 r−1
f (x) = (x − β)(x − β q )(x − β q ) · · · (x − β q )
i
of linear factors for all the distinct conjugates of β of the form β q :
2 r
f (x)q = (xq − β q )(xq − β q ) · · · (xq − β q )
2
= (xq − β q )(xq − β q ) · · · (xq − β) = f (xq )
r
since β q = β. Therefore
r r
f0q + f1q xq + · · · + frq xq = f0 + f1xq + · · · + fr xq
Since fiq = fi, all the coefficients of f (x) are in GF(q).
Obviously, β is a zero of f (x). Any other polynomial over GF(q) that has β as
zero must have the same r linear factors. Therefore f (x) is a divisor of every such
polynomial, hence f (x) is minimal.