TRANSFORMER MATERIALS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON DIAGNOSTICS

Ivanka Atanasova-Hoehlein

Siemens Transformers, Nuremberg, Germany

INTRODUCTION
Fax
Materials used for the manufacturing of
transformers are considered „the same“ as 40
years ago, but actually they have been
developing according to the requirements of
users and manufacturers and reflect the „state of
art“ in the industry.

CONTINUOSLY TRANSPOSED
CONDUCTORS (CTC) Fax

The application of CTC brings a great advantage

in reduction of eddy current losses, as well as
improvement of the space factor of the winding.
The epoxy bonded CTC bring additionally an
increase in the short circuit resistance in
comparison to the normal CTC, due to the
interconnection of the single conductors with an
epoxy glue. The right choice of the epoxy bonded
material and the knowledge of its properties allow
the choice of the right process for winding drying
and pressing for the achievement of a high short
circuit resistance at high temperatures. A short
overview of the hardening properties of the epoxy
bonded CTC, as well as testing methods are
presented.
EPOXYBONDED CONTINUOUSLY
TRANSPOSED CONDUCTORS
Epoxy bonded CTC are made covering the
enamelled flat wire with thermosetting epoxy
resins in B-stage . The aim is to bond the
conductors together using the thermal treatment
for drying the paper insulation of the windings.
Such a bonding is intended to improve the
reistance of the winding in case of a short circuit.
Fig. 1. Winding tilting due to axial stresses
There are a lot of manufacturers of epoxy
bonded CTC, who are using different epoxy
resins with different glas transition temperature
and different properties. Furthermore it is
important to guarantee the short circuit
improvement not only at room temperature, but
mainly at transformer service temperatures.
TEST METHODS PRACTICED BY THE
MANUFACTURERS OF EPOXY BONDED CTC
The methods consist mainly of determination of
the shear strength at room temperature, after
overlapping and curing (Fig. 2) of two single
epoxy treated enameled wires. This method
gives an idea of adhesion and cohesion strength
of the resin itself, but no information about the
behaviour of the winding.

Epoxybonded conductors can effectively prevent

the tilting (Fig. 1) of axially stressed windings. Fig. 2 : Test of shear strength of overlapped
Through increasing the conductor stiffness they epoxy bonded conductors.
make the winding self supporting.
TEST METHOD REPRESENTING THE 18
WINDING STRAIN IN CASE OF A SHORT 16
CIRCUIT 14

Stiffness Factor
12
The radial flexural strength represents a good 10 A
B

model for the winding strain in a transformer in

C
8 D

the case of a short circuit (Fig. 3). 6

4
2
0
RT 80 105 120
Temperature

Fig. 4: Degree of stiffness of epoxy bonded CTC

from 4 different suppliers at different
temperatures.

The degree of stiffness describes the extent of

winding solidification at room and higher
temperatures in comparison to a not epoxy
bonded winding at room temperature and
compensates to a high extent the conductor
geometry. This testing method allows the choice
F
of epoxy bonded CTC (Fig. 4), which guarantees
the reliability of a transformer to short circuits
under real service conditions.
X X

B INSULATING OIL
H
A user of an electrical equipment does not have
an access to further transformer materials except
Fig. 3: Test of radial flexural strength for epoxy
the insulating oil., therefore it is historically
bonded CTC
regarded as a major carrier of diagnostic
characteristics.
As a measure for the increase of the flexural
strength is the product of E-Modul and axial
Gassing of insulating liquids is considered to
angular impulse second derivation, called flexural
happen under thermal and electrical stress and
rigidity, because this product is not dependent
the diagnostic instrument – DGA (dissolved gas
on the geometry of the conductor. The degree of
analysis) is believed to reveal the condition of the
stiffness is the ratio between the flexural rigidity
electrical equipment. Different insulation
of the bonded CTC at 25°C, respectively at
characteristics like breakdown voltage, lossfactor
105°C in comparison to the flexural rigidity of the
or physical-chemical characteristics like
unbonded CTC at 25°C.
neutralisation value, colour etc are considered to
reflect (at least partially) the condition of the
The results of shear test (Fig. 2) and flexural
insulating fluid.
bending test (Fig. 3) are different and not
comparable. Not only the value of the glas
These two groups of diagnostic tools are not
transition temperature itself, but also the
always interconnected and their integrity is not
properties of the epoxy resin, e.g. behaviour
always obvious. For example a transformer may
during smelting and curing plays an important
have a severe failure according to the DGA, but
role for the end properties of the winding, i. e.
the state of the insulating fluid may be good and
resistance against short circuit strain.
vice versa. Thereby it should be considered that
the measured disgnostic parameters represent
only the tipp of the iceberg, since the degradation
mechanisms are very complex.

Diagnostics based on gassing – DGA
Gassing in case of a serious problem, whether
thermal or electrical is not difficult to recognize.
Different liquids, however, can develop different
amount of fault gases under normal thermal
stress, e. g. temperatures up to 150°C. The
evaluation of these fault gases in terms of
amount and distribution is not unambigious.
Existing limits in some standards may lead to
erronious interpretation, concerning the type and
seriousness of event.
Carbon Oxides
Carbon oxides in the classical DGA-scheme
evaluation are usually considered to be
degradation products of solid insulation – mainly
Kraft paper and pressboard. It is often, however,
forgotten, that carbon- containing insulating fluids
like mineral oil or ester fluids can be another
significant source. For evaluation in the field it is
important to have in mind, that the partition
coefficients of carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide in mineral oil are quite different.
Accordingly the concentration of carbon
monoxide will be quite different in a free-
breathing transformer (likely to escape through
atmosphere exchange over the conservator) and
in a transformer, which is hermetically sealed or
with a rubber bag (likely to accumulate).
Carbon Oxides in Mineral Oils
Although mineral oils themselves form a certain
amount of carbon dioxide, the presence of paper
increases this amount significantly. In
comparison carbon monoxide levels seem not to
be very different in the presence of paper.
Generally the formation of carbon monoxide
shows a temperature dependence and in case of
absence of a severe fault (no acetylene) is
mainly deriving from the insulating fluid. The
carbon dioxide content is indicative for the
degradation of the solid insulation. As a
consequence a growing trend ratio of carbon
dioxide/carbon monoxide quotient seems to be a
better indication of degradation of the solid
insulation than the carbon oxides alone.
The usual used criteria of the ratio carbon
dioxide/carbon oxide lower than 3 and higher
than 10 should be further specified and in many
cases revised.
For free breathing systems where an excess of
oxygen can be present and oxidation accelerated
a value of 10 has be proven to be indicative.
For closed type systems or transformers working
on a steady high load ratios carbon
dioxide/carbon oxide of 1 – 5 have been often
observed in reality without any indication of fault.
Carbon Oxides in Natural and Synthetic Esters
Natural esters show a lower tendency than
mineral oils concerning the evolution of carbon
monoxide. Carbon dioxide may evolve as well as
from the degradation of the fluid under the
influence of copper and from paper degradation
and is comparable to the amounts evolving from
mineral oil. This leads to much higher ratios of
carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide than usual for
mineral oils.
Synthetic esters show a much higher evolution of
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide from the
liquid itself than mineral oils do. The ratio of
carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide is in between
this of mineral oils and natural esters.
Stray Gassing
Stray Gassing is considered to be a phenomenon
where insulating oils develop at moderate
temperatures hydrogen as well as hydrocarbon
gases without a fault.
Typical for these cases is the production of
ethane, propane and methane in high amounts.
The ratio ethane/ethylene, resp.
propane/propylene may be higher than 10.
Ethane, propane and methane increase steadily
in the first years after commissioning. The
amounts of hydrogen and ethylene stay constant
and very low. From 30 typical examples (different
manufactureres, different oil) 15 were over 40
years old, the rest between 5 and 15 years old.
In any case there is a relative quick increase of
saturated hydrocarbons at the beginning (the gas
increase rates for ethane and methane are 1,5 –
3 ppm/day against gas increase rates of ethylene
nearly zero), reaching a plateau later on. The gas
increase rates slow down to near zero later.
Such behaviour has been observed in new
transformers, as well as in old ones. The
interpretation of DGA evaluates usually hot spot
below 150°C. Actually the transformers are
failure-free. DGA of spare transformers, never
been in service are additionally an evidence of
such a behaviour.
All these phenomena (possibly on a catalytic
base) consume oxygen, therefore the oxygen
content is lower than expected in these
transformers, although they are free breathing.
We have observed this kind of stray gassing only
with non-inhibited oils. It is possibly related to
oxidation processes. This explains also why the
stray gassing can be seldom seen during the
factory tests and only later in service. Catalytic
influences of transformer materials may be
important, since it is known that metal surfaces
accelerate the peroxide formation.
An increase of the lossfactor is also sometimes
observed. An oil change against an inhibited oil
removes the source of stray gassing. It has also
been observed, that oil from the same batch in a
different transformer acts as a stray gassing oil .
The observed phenomena can be summarized
as follows:
- Hydrogen production due to stray gassing is
maybe due to strongly hydrotreated oils, but is as
well very strongly influenced by transformer
materials, e.g. grain oriented steel, zinc plated
steel, varnishes. The production of hydrogen is
temperature dependent.
- Stray gassing with overproduction of saturated
hydrocarbons (e.g. ratio ethane/ethylene ≥10)
with no production of hydrogen and no increase
rates of hydrogen, ethylene and further fault
gases has probably always existed and is
possibly related to oxidation. The
overproportional development of methane and
especially ethane (propane) proceeds in the first
years of service and reaches a plateau after a
considerable consumption of oxygen. Possibly
this process is also catalytically triggered by
transformer materials. It concerns different
transformer types, different oils (all non-
inhibited), different manufacturers.
- Catalytic phenomena and stray gassing can be
distinguished from a transformer fault through
regular check not only of the absolute DGA
values, but of the gas increase rates as well.
Thermal and oxidative stability of mineral oil
The expectations of a customer of an electrical
equipment is that the insulating fluid will last the
whole transformer life. In case of free breathing
transformers the mineral oil comes in contact
with air, inducing the formation of peroxides,
which decompose furtheron, initiating further
oxidation chains. Even in the case of sealed
transformers there is rest of air in the transformer
insulation and in the insulation fluid. However,
not all applications need ultimatively the highest
requirement for oxidation stability. The existing
practices and experience using either free-
breathing equipment or, alternatively, equipment
with a reduced oxygen content need to be
reviewed.
Progress of the oxidation in a mineral oil
The oxidation process of a mineral oil comprises
four main stages: initiation, propagation,
branching and termination. Heavy metals are well
known to catalyze the peroxide formation and
oxidation of oils.
Early investigations showed that heavy metals
like Al, Sn, Fe, Cu catalyze the oil oxidation in a
ratio: 1:1:4:13 in respect to oil ageing
products.The addition of copper blocking
substances, called passivators, slow down this
process (influence mainly the initiation step).
Combination of oxidation inhibitors from the
group of hindered phenols (e.g. DBPC (Fig. 5), a
primary antioxidant influencing the propagation
step) and passivators are well-known
synergistically acting oxidation inhibitors. Some
sulfides and disulfides are naturally abundant
compounds in mineral oils and contribute to the
oxidation stability. Sulfur compounds are
important oxidation inhibitors, mainly secondary
antioxidants and influence the propagation step.
The antioxidant additives in oil influence each
other. The same organosulfur compounds which
act as inhibitors are also responsible for the
corrosivity. Corrosivity and oxidation stability are
interconnected.

Inhibited versus non-inhibited oils
In all specifications there is a differentiation
between non-inhibited and inhibited oils. There is
much more consensus on the definition of an
inhibited oil – this is a transformer oil, containing
0,25 – 0,40% of DBPC – these are e.g. Type II
oils according D3487 or standard and high-grade
inhibited oils according IEC 60296.
The definition of non-inhibited oils is not so
unambigious. According IEC 60296 the amount
of DBPC should not be detectable, according to
ASTM D3487 or e.g. IS 335 amounts of DBPC
up to 0,08% are acceptable. On the other hand
such oils are considered by IEC 60296 as trace
inhibited.
Inhibited insulating oils exhibit a higher oxidation
stability in comparison to non-inhibited oils. The
reason for this is comparatively simple -
The oxidation inhibitor present in the inhibited oils
can capture radicals and so protects the
insulating fluid from oxidation.
Through this protective influence less acids and
degradation products than in non-inhibited oils
are formed.
OH
Fig. 5. DBPC ist the most widely used primary
antioxidant
Inhibited mineral oils protect indirectly also the
solid insulation preventing the formation of acids,
which will attack insulating paper.
Important characteristics of inhibited oils is the
inhibitor content, as well as the refining grade of
the base oil.
Influence on the gas-in-oil analysis
Differently inhibited mineral oils may show
differences in the gassing behaviour and thus
differences in the gas-in-oil pattern.
The phenomenon “stray gassing” seems to be
closely related to non-inhibited mineral oils. The
addition of passivators may also influence the
gas-in-oil analysis.
Paraffinic versus naphthenic oils
Often there are specification, where a certain
type of mineral oil – naphthenic or paraffinic is
specified.
The definition naphthenic/paraffinic is very
course:
Paraffinic C below 50% naphthenic oils
Paraffinic C 50-56% intermediate oils
Paraffinic C 56% and above paraffinic oils
Some hydrocracked oils have higher than 65%
paraffinic C which is more than naturally
occurring in feedstocks.
Paraffinic mineral oils may have long paraffinic
chains, which lead to high pour points. Dewaxed
paraffinics and isoparaffinics can overcome this.
The existing practice all over the world shows
that both types naphthenics and paraffinics can
perform well.
Corrosivity
Corrosivity has been adressed in Cigre WG A2-
32 in detail. Sulfur compounds which contribute
to the oxidation stability are definitevely involved
in the corrosivity as well. There is no one single
mechanism of corrosivity appearance – it can be
the increased mobilisation of copper into paper,
which subsequently leads to degradation of sulfur
compound or it can be degradation to elemental
sulfur, formation of coppersulfide and its diffusion
through insulating paper. Diminishment of the
dielectric safety margin and breakdown withstand
of insulating paper is the major cause of failures
(Fig. 6).
 inhibitors in case transformer oil is in a good
condition.

N N
H3C N H3C N
N N

N N

Fig. 6. Copper and insulating paper contaminated

with copper sulfide.
Risk factors for an electrical equipment
From a practical point of view it is important to
carry out a risk assessment of an electrical
equipment considering not only the oil corrosivity,
but also the design and the service conditions.
Equipment at risk may be an equipment
combining two or more of the following factors:
Fig. 7. Irgamet 39 is a widely used passivator
for mineral oils because of its oil solubility
Passivators deminishes, however, very quickly its
concentration when added to acidic and strongly
oxidated oils.
Passivation can not reverse an already
deteriorated state of the winding. An oil change
can not do this as well.
CONCLUSIONS

Transformer reliability as design and in service is

highly dependent on a good knowledge of used
materials . Their properties, as well as the
customer`s requirements determine the right
combination of materials and allow the
interpretation of ageing data with condition
evaluation and life assessment later in service.

Mitigation Techniques

The most widely applied mitigation technique in

case of an equipment on risk is the passivation.
Passivators (Fig. 7) are chemical compounds,
which deactivate and protect the copper surface.
The bonding to copper is, however, not of
permanent nature, especially in the presence of
oxidation products.

The historical experience, available up to now,

shows that passivators can be efficient corrosion