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Lecture 3
Supply and demand
The marginal and cost-benefit
principles
• http://www.economist.com/multimedia?bclid
=1777382270001&bctid=1722339398001
• What cost benefit principle is being
discussed”?
• Express this in marginal terms
• How does opportunity cost relate to this
problem?
• What do you need to improve decisions?
Core ideas
• What is an economic model?
• The nature of supply
– Price as the “prime independent” variable
– Shift in supply (the other independent variables)
• The nature of demand
– Price as the “prime independent” variable
– Shift in demand (the other independent variables)
• The market place model (scissors) – ceteris paribus again
• Key assumption - Consumer and producer sovereignty ( freedom to
transact)
• The concept of the “scissors” and equilibrium
• Key assumption – Many buyers and sellers
• Shifts in demand and supply change equilibrium price and quantity
• Key assumption – Information is costless
The market
• A market is any exchange of goods and services
– Labour market (university teaching, hiring at Burger King, …)
– Services (information, sports, sec trade…)
– Goods (wheat, oil….)
• A market unites willing buyers and willing sellers
• Markets may be periodic (auction for art, labour market) or
continuous (world market for oil)
– Depends on the institutional arrangements
– Markets exist only when transactions occur
– Example: Once I accepted the job at U of M (in 1974), I did not
continuously re-negotiate my wage every day
Why not?
Supply
• Each seller needs to cover the costs of creating the
goods/services for sale
• The higher the price the higher the net return (price –
costs)
• Each seller has a reservation price (a price too low to
cover costs)
• Different sellers will have different costs
• Therefore, as price rises (just how to be discussed), new and
higher cost sellers are attracted to the market (Why?)
• The total volume (quantity) of goods and services
supplied increases.
Figure 3.1: the Supply Curve of Hamburgers
Price
Q0 Q1 Quantity
Demand
• Each consumer develops an assessment of value for every
good/service offered
• For most of us, we have a value of “0” for most goods (we are
completely uninterested)
– If ballet shoes were $0, I would not be tempted!
– My granddaughter would take hundreds (especially the pink ones)
• Consumers have a reservation price (a price to high to induce
purchase)
• Different consumers have different valuations of a good
• As the price falls, consumers with lower valuations enter and
register their demand
• As price falls, existing consumers register increased demand
(opportunity cost again)
– At $500 a single iPhone 5 is purchased
– At $50, why not get a back-up and one for the spouse?
Figure 3.2: the Demand Curve of Hamburgers
A Demand curve shows the
relationship between price and
quantity demanded
Price
Quantity
• Increases amount
demanded at every
price.
• Allows new consumers
P0 to enter
• Encourages existing
consumers increase
amount demanded
Q0 Q1 Quantity
Figure 3.3: the Equilibrium of Hamburgers
Market equilibrium occurs when all buyers
and sellers are satisfied with their respective
quantities at the market price
Demand
Demand
ca
It is common to denote Q* c d
equilibrium points by * bd
Q* 0 4 3 12
Q* Quantity
Sellers that undercut the market
• Seller A decides to sell at
PA.
D0 • Recall that this model
S0
assumes that there are
Price
Q* Quantity
The Effect on the Market for New Houses of a Decline in the
Price of Lumber
S
S′
160
150
D
40 50
© 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited LO6: Shifts in Supply and Demand Ch3-25
Effect of Technical Change on the Market for French Fries
© 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited LO6: Shifts in Supply and Demand Ch3-26
Substitutes and complements
Substitute (Good A and B) Complement (Good A and B)
• Goods and services • Goods and services that must
consumers see as equivalent be consumed jointly (car and
(iPhone and Blackberry) gas)
• Perfect substitutes • A price increase/decrease in A
• Imperfect substitutes causes a decrease/increase in
demand for Good B
• Price increase/decrease in
Good A will create a
increase/decrease in
demand for Good B
S
1.40
1.00
D′
D
40 58
© 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited LO6: Shifts in Supply and Demand Ch3-28
FIGURE 3.10: Effect on the Market for Overnight Letter Delivery
of a Decline in the Price of Internet Access
D
D′
Q Q′
© 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited LO6: Shifts in Supply and Demand Ch3-29
FIGURE 3.12: Four Simple Rules
An increase in A decrease in
demand will lead to demand will lead to a
an increase in both decrease in both
the equilibrium price equilibrium price and
and quantity. quantity.
© 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited LO6: Shifts in Supply and Demand Ch3-30
FIGURE 3.14: Seasonal Variation in the Air Travel and Corn Markets
SW
SS
S PW
PS PS
PW DS
DW D
QW QS QW QS
Prices are highest during the Prices are lowest during the period of
period of heaviest heaviest consumption when heavy
consumption and are the consumption is the result of high
result of high demand. supply.
© 2012 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited LO6: Shifts in Supply and Demand Ch3-31
Model Assumptions
1. All participants small - that no single buyer or
seller can influence price.
2. Buyers or sellers cannot form combinations
(monopoly) that can influence price.
3. Suppliers provide an identical product;
4. Information on price and quality of the
good/service is freely available to all buyers and
sellers.
5. Transactions are easy - buyers and sellers meet
easily to conduct transactions.
• Write down a trade-off you made today. In
hindsight did you make the right choice?
• Why do some university courses have waiting
lists after the first day of registration, while
others never fill up? (The price is constant
across courses, while the demand for courses
and the number of seats available are
different.)
Problem
In 2010, the March price of strawberries (US) was $1.25/lb.
compared to $3.49 in 2009. Some growers ploughed the fields
and started to grow melons; others froze their harvest and
sold their output to jam and juice processors.
Answers
a. Equilibrium P = $5 and equilibrium Q = 175
b. A shortage (excess demand) of 120
c. A surplus (excess supply) of 120
d. The surplus of 120 signals firms to lower the price, which reduces the
quantity supplied and increases the quantity demanded until the
equilibrium price of $5 is reached.
WINNIPEG CHICAGO CORN
CANOLA