October 2005

Design of High Energy Bypass Systems in Combined-Cycle Power Plants

The main purpose of the steam turbine bypass system is to virtually duplicate the expansion and heat transfer
normally undertaken in the operating steam turbine. By doing so, the steam turbine bypass system enables faster
plant startups, continued operation of the gas turbine generators (GTGs) and heat recovery steam generators
(HRSGs) following a steam turbine generator (STG) trip, and simple-cycle operation (if designed with the
condenser for this service) of the GTGs with the STG out of service.

Bypass systems in a combined-cycle power plant

Steam Turbine (ST) bypass systems may be categorized into cascading and parallel (non-cascading) type. For a
three pressure level steam system, ST bypass is usually cascading type with the cascade flow going from high
pressure (HP) steam to cold re-heat (CRH) steam line, through the HRSG re-heat section, exiting with hot re-
heat (HRH) steam bypass to the condenser. Low pressure (LP) steam from the HRSG bypasses directly to the
condenser.

In the parallel bypass arrangement, HP steam bypasses directly to the condenser through the HP bypass valve.
Steam generated by the IP drum is either admitted to the cold reheat section (CRH) or bypassed directly to the
condenser. IP admission to the CRH is only allowed when the generator breaker is closed. With this system,
there is no flow through the re-heater when the ST is not in operation. Boiler feed for any configuration
typically relies on condensate collected from the condenser hotwell, with boiler feedwater make up made
through the condenser.

Throttling devices are used to reduce the pressure from inlet throttle pressures to the desired output conditions.
The throttling process is isenthalpic since no work is accomplished and little or no heat transfer occurs across
the system boundaries, therefore the outlet enthalpy is virtually the same as the inlet enthalpy. Without some
additional conditioning, the discharging steam would most likely exceed the thermal limits of the downstream
piping and system equipment. To prevent this from occurring, the bypass system is normally supplied with a
water spray system that injects a controlled quantity of water into the steam flow. The actual volume of water
injected is dependent on the actual operating conditions being exhibited and a simple heat balance. This water
then mixes with the steam, absorbs heat via various heat and mass transfer processes, evaporates, and cools the
steam to an enthalpy level that is more representative of the actual turbine discharge and acceptable to the plant
equipment. This is in the range of less than 1,200 BTU/lbm, or as otherwise determined by the condenser
manufacturer.
Steam bypass systems are employed in many ways. The two most prevalent operating modes are between the
Main Steam and the Cold Reheat Line, when the plant design incorporates a reheat steam cycle, and the hot
reheat and low-pressure steam bypass(es) to condenser. See Figure 1 for a basic steam cycle flow diagram,
which illustrates the HP, hot reheat, and LP bypasses for a 2 x 1 or 3 x 1 configuration. The diagram illustrates a
triple pressure reheat unit since that is the most common combined-cycle commercially used today. There is a
separate set of bypass valves per HRSG-in normal practice-to assist with individual CTG/HRSG startup.

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Figure 1: Condenser Bypass Diagram. Note: Bypass may be configured in one condenser admission line or up
to three per service, depending on configuration (2x1 vs. 3x1) and control philosophy.

The HP bypass has fairly simple design and implementation requirements. The pressure drop, flow
requirements, rangeability, and quantity of spray water injected are minimal by valve engineering standards.
The hot reheat bypass to the condenser, on the other hand, is far more complex due to a number of factors,
including:

• Large quantity of water injected

• Minimal distance for vaporization and thermal equilibrium
• High-pressure drop ratios due to condenser vacuum conditions
• High rangeability and turndown requirements
• Speed of operation
• Noise limits
• Protection of the condenser (operating permissives in place)

Turbine bypass system design criteria

From a valve sizing and pipe sizing point of view, the criteria needs to be established with the owner on
pressure, temperature, and flow rates during the startup phase through all modes of operation, as well as percent
of bypass (based on contract requirements) at full pressure and temperature from a steam turbine trip scenario.
Turbine bypass modes of operation are established for all equipment, and the bypass systems consider:

• Commissioning start-up and check-out

• Normal start-up (cold condition)
• Warm / hot start-up
• Steam turbine trip
• Gas turbine trip
• HRSG high drum-level trip
• Extended bypass operation

The owner's business plan integrated with the plant heat balances will establish the criteria for bypass design. In
an organized approach, this will be solidified early in the project, prior to detail design and equipment selection.

Turbine bypass system configuration

As with the design and layout of a combined-cycle power station, there is no one specific configuration for a
turbine bypass system. The number of components, how and where they are installed, will all be determined
based on the mode of operation and the physical constraints mandated by the plant logistics. In some cases,
these factors will have little or no effect on the performance of the system; however, in other cases they will
directly affect the end result and may create problems. For example, the steam bypass valve is physically placed
in the line to allow for complete zone mixing to reach the pre-determined enthalpy or temperature for the exit
condition. Failure to drain the pipeline upstream or downstream of the valve or to allow for necessary residence
time for complete mixing could result in impingement damage to the condenser tubes. Meeting the required
entrance conditions to the condenser must be considered in the overall layout of the condenser and piping with
the plant's physical constraints. The two most basic component configurations can be seen in Figures 2 and 3.

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Figure 2: Combined Bypass System

Both Figures illustrate the basic components needed in most all bypass systems. They include a pressure-
reducing device, a water injection system including a spray water control valve, and a backpressure element.
The spray control valve and water injection points are diagrammatically shown and are located much further
away from the condenser. The bypass installations are shown penetrating the condenser wall at the neck in the
vicinity of the turbine discharge; however, the exact location will be determined by the condenser manufacturer
based on the condensers design, spatial and structural limits, and the steam flows' proximity to sensitive heat
transfer surfaces.

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Figure 3: Separate Bypass System

Figure 1 illustrates a system layout utilizing a combined pressure-reducing and attemperating valve. This
arrangement has an advantage in that the conditioning of the bypass steam is accomplished in a minimum of
space, and the number of components, as well as associated installation costs, is reduced. However, flexibility in
the layout of the system is constrained by the installation requirements and limitations of the valve, i.e., weight,
orientation, support, etc.

Figure 2 is similar to the combined system except that the pressure-reducing component is separated from the
cooling section. This arrangement provides greater flexibility in terms of component placement in the plant and
may provide significant benefits for inspection and maintenance. By separating the valve from the cooler
section, it is much easier to orient the valve with the stem in the preferred vertical direction, especially if the
design utilizes an angle configuration, thus reducing side loads, sliding friction, and wear on the valve trim.
However, the arrangement may not be capable of achieving the same degree of turndown that the combined unit
affords. Turndown is defined as the ratio of maximum to minimum controllable steam flowing through the
system. When considering just the valve, the turndown would be equivalent to the unit's rangeability, or the
ratio of maximum to minimum controllable flow coefficients, i.e., Cv. However, since we are also adding the
attemperating function into this equation, the system must consider the valve's contribution and assistance in the
mass, momentum, and energy transfer to the injected water particles. In a combined system, the proximity of
valve discharge, and its resultant turbulence and high kinetic energy, to the water injection system enhances the
mixing and heat transfer between the steam and water. While this localized region of high velocity and
turbulence is relatively short lived, its benefit to the process is greatly utilized. If the separate cooler section,
having been placed some distance downstream of the valve, does not provide a means to produce a similar flow
stream conditioning, the same degree of mass, momentum, and energy will not be accomplished and thus the
expected turndown could be considerably less. The result would be in the form of water fallout and pooling on
the bottom of the outlet pipe. This condition will result in overspray scenarios and quenching, which will
promote low cycle fatigue failures. To reduce this problem, many manufacturers will include a diffuser plate, or
some other means of geometrically enhancing the flow, to produce localized turbulence and high velocities in
the vicinity of the water injection.

Another consideration for the separate configuration is the fact that an intermediate pressure class pipe section is
added to the system. This is the pipe length that communicates the valve outlet with the cooler inlet. Since no
desuperheating has been introduced, the steam temperature is still relatively high even though the pressure has
been greatly reduced. Thus, some form of high temperature grade piping may still be required and the pipe
diameter will be increased.

Bypass valve and desuperheating section

The bypass valve and desuperheating section comprise at least two-thirds of the major system components and
some comments on design differences/considerations are worthwhile to maximize longevity.
The bypass valve should be constructed for the intended severe service of a bypass system. This should include
materials of construction, both body and hardened trim parts, control trim style, pressure reduction staging, seat
integrity, accessibility of wearable components, noise and vibration resistance, and a solid, well-supported
structural design, especially if the valve will be installed with the stem in the horizontal plane. A partial listing
of typical main steam to condenser bypass valve specifications can be found in Table 1.
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The desuperheating sections may actually be more difficult to specify than the bypass valve or pressure
reduction device. One of the difficulties with any desuperheating device is the fact that it is a secondary control
device as compared to the bypass valve being a primary control device. The functional differences of these two
devices can be seen in Table 2.

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On condenser bypass applications, we are usually dealing with a considerable spray water flow. On a mass basis,
it can exceed 40 percent of the total steam mass flow through the system. In order to achieve good mixing and
distribution, as well as rapid vaporization, the cooler section has to be designed properly. To this end, most
manufacturers utilize multi-point injection systems. By multi-point, we are describing the distribution of the
total water flow through multiple injection ports or nozzles. Research has shown that the smaller the nozzle, the
smaller the spray particle it can produce. With ever-smaller particle sizes, the total surface area for interaction
and heat transfer with the flowing steam improves, thus increasing the vaporization rate. It should also be noted
that as nozzles become smaller, their susceptibility to clogging or debris interference increases. Even
moderately sized nozzles, when contaminated with pipeline debris, will lose efficiency in forming the desired
spray pattern, particle size, and distribution. To eliminate this problem, it is always recommended that strainers
be used in the spray water system and located as close as possible to the nozzles themselves. The size of the
mesh should be carefully considered both from a pressure drop and nozzle passage viewpoint. If the mesh is
selected too large, debris that could be damaging to the nozzles may pass. If the mesh is too small, the added
restriction to flow may consume too much pressure drop for the system. This will restrict the necessary quantity
of water from reaching the system and prevent the spray water from attaining the correct pressure required for
atomization by the spray nozzles.

At the present time, there are two types of nozzles used for cooler sections, fixed and variable geometry.
Generally speaking, the variable geometry styles will provide greater rangeability and more consistency in the
spray pattern created. This translates directly to improved turndown and more efficiency in the process.

The available water pressure is also a factor in terms of performance. Besides reducing the size of the nozzle,
increasing the pressure differential also produces smaller spray particle sizes. In a similar manner, the water
temperature also improves nozzle performance. With increased water temperature, the surface tension of the
water is reduced. This allows greater efficiency in the formation of droplets with a smaller diameter.
Additionally, these smaller and hotter droplets interact better with the flowing steam. Their latent heat of
vaporization is reduced, as is their resistance to shear by momentum transfer. This results in further droplet size
reduction and more rapid vaporization even though the fluid particles are hotter, an idea that is contrary to
discussions on cooling processes.

Unfortunately, the source of water selected by most users for this process is from the low-pressure condensate
system. Water temperatures are normally in the 100° F-150° F range and pressures in the 150 psi to 250 psi
range. Besides being relatively cool and with low pressure potential, this water source also affects another
component in the system, the backpressure device.

Backpressure device

The backpressure device, also referred to as a sparger, is utilized to create an elevated pressure downstream of
the valve. Without this device, the vacuum conditions of the condenser would exist in the discharge piping. At
these extremely low pressures, the velocity of the steam exiting the valve would reach sonic or choked
conditions almost immediately unless the outlet pipe size and resultant cross-sectional flow area, were sized to
accommodate the large specific volume of the free expanding steam. As this is normally not economically
feasible, nor logistically possible, the backpressure device is installed to provide a fixed resistance to the flow
entering the condenser. This translates to an intermediate pressure that is variable based on the valve inlet
conditions and the mass flow through the system. Ideally, we would prefer that this variable intermediate
pressure be as large as possible to keep the outlet pipe size to a minimum. In most condenser bypass
applications, the desired outlet flow velocity from the valve is in the 200 FPS-300 FPS range. As mentioned
previously, the available water pressure has a direct affect on the sizing of the backpressure device. Within the
design and layout of the spray water circuit, we have multiple orifices or restrictions that require pressure
differentials to operate, i.e., strainer, spray water valve, nozzles. If the backpressure is selected too high, we may
not have sufficient pressure energy remaining to get the spray water to the discharge pipe. Thus, a compromise
must be made relative to the distribution of water pressure as compared to the desired backpressure for the
maximum flowing steam conditions. Normally, backpressures of 50 psi to 100 psi are utilized, but under certain
conditions this could rise to as much as 200 psi.

The backpressure device also has an affect on the performance of the desuperheating system. Unlike most steam
applications where steam velocity is proportional to the mass flow of steam, the flow discharging from the
conditioned valve outlet will remain constant at all mass flow as long as the inlet conditions of pressure and
temperature stay the same. This is due to the thermodynamic relationship between the pressure, temperature,
and specific volume. Since we are dealing with an isenthalpic throttling process, the temperature will remain
nearly constant at a given backpressure. The backpressure device is sized to operate within a given flow range,
and once the upper flow range is set, maximum backpressure is set for the fixed openings in the backpressure
device. Thus, the pressure and specific volume will vary in an inversely proportionate manner as mass flow
changes. Therefore, once an outlet pressure is selected and the resultant velocity calculated, that velocity will
remain the same for all mass flows into the condenser.

The backpressure device also provides protection for the condenser. Its construction is usually that of a series of
orifices, sized for a particular pressure differential and mass flow, machined in rows, both axially and radially,
along the device circumference. The conditioned steam is then admitted to the condenser through this pattern of
orifices. Based on guidance and direction from the condenser manufacturer, who in normal practice supplies the
backpressure device within his own scope, the orifices are placed to direct the high-energy jets of steam away
from critical and sensitive heat transfer surfaces, such as tube bundles and structural members. The potential to
steam cut tubes, structural members or induce damaging vibration harmonics exist if the backpressure device is
not designed or coordinated within the condenser.

Piping system

Both the inlet and outlet piping associated with the bypass system are important for proper function. Two key
areas of interest are the excess fluid drain system and valve/piping preheating. The draining of excess fluid from
both the inlet and outlet of the bypass system are essential for proper operation and maintenance. Depending on
the mode of operation, the bypass may stand idle for long periods of time. Steam trapped upstream of the valve
inlet will begin to cool and eventually condense on the bottom of the pipe. This excess condensate must be
trapped and removed prior to the initiation of bypass system operation. If it is left in the pipeline, momentum
forces of the incoming steam flow could carry the fluid into the valve trim creating a two-phase flow scenario
with resultant damaging erosion and thermal shock problems. Sloping the pipe away from the inlet valve inlet
and installing a drip-leg or water separator system just upstream of the valve inlet can easily eliminate this
situation.

Similarly, the outlet has to be protected from the collection of excess fluids from desuperheating or
condensation. The valve outlet and condenser feed pipe normally has greater quantities of fluid to be removed
than the inlet and the flow energy is greater, thus compounding the situation. The elimination of excess fluid
can be handled in several ways. The first is to make sure that only the correct amount of spray is injected into
the discharge pipe. Thus, if all is evaporated effectively, there will be no excess fluid fall-out. The second is to
make sure that the backpressure device is equipped with a drain connection near its termination point to
continuously drain excess fluid build-up to the hotwell or some other low-pressure collection location. This is
normally the case in that the backpressure device orifices point radially out and away from the condenser tube
bundle, leaving a natural collection point at the end of the header.

Preheating is used not only to keep the valve warm and to prevent thermal shock when the system is
commanded to operate, but also to keep the piping warm so that excess fluid condensation is minimized,
reducing the cyclic thermal stresses which can lead to thermal fatigue. The quantity and method of preheating
are dependent on the piping layout of the system, the design of the valve, and the mode of operation of the
system, i.e., long term stand-by vs. daily start and stop. In many situations, little or nothing is done to assist in
preheating beyond considerations for conduction through the pipe and valve walls. This will certainly have a
long-term affect on the reliability and longevity of the equipment. In other situations, a small bypass line is
installed between the upstream and downstream piping. A small needle valve is placed in the line and used to
control the quantity of steam being bypassed around the main valve. Temperature readings are monitored until
the desired thermal conditions are achieved. The system can be set up as automatic with temperature controls
included or as a manual system requiring monitoring by the operators. Table 3 indicates recommended
temperatures maintained through pre-heating of the valve dependent on temperature service.

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It is also important that the slope of the discharge piping be pitched, negative, with drainage towards the
condenser. This forces the entrapped fluid to move towards the internal condenser drain and discharges into the
hotwell. If the fluid is not adequately removed from the system prior to bypass valve operation, the resultant
momentum transfer could create a water hammer-like situation that could be seriously damaging to both the
backpressure device and the condenser.

In some installations, use of isolation valves upstream of both the attemperator spraywater control valve and
upstream of the bypass valves is utilized. Though an added expense, some owner/operators perceive that the use
of a motor-operated block-valve upstream of the spraywater valve reduces the chance for a constant leak of
spraywater through the bypass. The use of a motor-operated block valve upstream of the bypass valve is less
common, but is sometimes used to eliminate steam leaks through bypass valves, which can cause significant
MW losses that are "hidden" in many cases. A metal-to-metal seat valve is at best good for Class IV shutoff,
which means a small amount of steam will leak by at all times. By definition, leakage allowed for this type of
valve is 0.01 percent of rated valve Cv capacity at ANSI test conditions. Under actual service conditions, the
leakage is more significant due to the high system pressure.

In examining all aspects of the design and layout of a bypass system for a combined cycle power plant, it is
readily apparent how important defining the operating conditions, condenser, bypass valve, and supporting
systems are to the overall performance and life of the condenser. Definition of commercial objectives on how
the combined cycle plant should operate must be well defined in order for the equipment to support the plant's
performance criteria. The frequency of starts and stops, ramp rate during start-up, duration of start-up, extended
bypass operation at full or partial load for various reasons, and even the decision to run in simple cycle mode for
short periods of time all affect the plant reliability and working life.

The bypass system must be fully integrated into the operating logic of the plant such that its operation is nearly
transparent when put into service. Flow, pressure, and temperature fluctuations or oscillations cannot be
tolerated, as they will affect the input and performance of other systems. On the other hand, the bypass system
has another important function, the conditioning of the bypass steam for entrance into the condenser. It is
imperative that the conditioning is done correctly so as to prevent thermal or vibration damage to the sensitive
heat transfer surfaces and structures within the condenser itself.

Tightened condenser spaces (modern day combined cycle plants as compared to older fossil units) which handle
high energy dumps, pose greater challenges for dissipation of energy into the condenser. Established guidelines
may not be achievable in this case and the condenser designer is faced with challenges, which require designs to
evolve, to address some of the issues described in this paper.

Conclusions

To have a properly operating bypass system requires a concerted engineering effort as well as extensive
communication between all parties involved in its design and implementation, i.e., plant operations, bypass
supplier, condenser supplier. The key to proper and efficient bypass system operation is the understanding of all
possible facets of operation, the control interfaces with the equipment involved, and the physical match-up of all
the mechanical components required. E-TECH
References

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