Cell division

Mitosis

Prophase: Chromosomes condense; spindles form.

Metaphase: Chromosomes align.

Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate.

Telophase: New nuclear membranes form.

Key Concept

Binary fission results in two cells of equal size, whereas budding results in cells of unequal size.

Both methods however, give rise to genetically identical cells.

Meiosis

During meiosis, the following things happen to the chromosomes:

• They duplicate; the DNA in each chromosome makes an exact

copy of itself and histones associate with it to make another

chromosome. Te original and the copy remain attached by a

centromere and are called not chromosomes but chromatids.

• They ‘condense’; when chromosomes are not involved in cell

division, they are very long and thin and all the genes can be

active. However, they cannot be moved around a cell in this

form, so they become much shorter and fatter.

• The chromosomes of a homologous pair (each one by now

duplicated) ‘find’ each other (this is called synapsis and no one is

quite sure how it happens) and form a bivalent.

~The chromatids that make up one chromosome are sister chromatids.

Meiosis 1:separation of homologous chromosomes

Meiosis 2:separation of sister chromatids

# crossing over occurs at prophase 1(between homologous chromosomes)

#Anaphase 1 separation of homologous chromosomes

#Anaphase 2 sep of sister chromatids

Non-disjunction
If, during anaphase I or II of meiosis, homologous chromosomes (anaphase I) or sister

chromatids (anaphase II) fail to separate (nondisjunction), one of the resulting gametes

will have two copies of a particular chromosome, and the other gamete will have none.

Subsequently, during fertilization, the resulting zygote may have one too many or too

few copies of that chromosome. Nondisjunction can affect both autosomal

chromosomes (e.g., trisomy 21, resulting in Down syndrome) and the sex chromosomes

(Klinefelter’s and Turner syndromes).

HUMAN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

*The combination of sperm and seminal fluid is known as semen.

* To remember the pathway of sperm from creation to ejaculation, think

SEVEN UP:

1)Seminiferous tubules : produce sperm

2)Epididymis :

3)Vas deferens : connects epididymis with ejaculatory duct

4)Ejaculatory duct

5)(Nothing)

6)Urethra

7)Penis

*The production of female gametes is known as oogenesis.

Multiple Births

*Monozygotic (Identical) Twins

Monozygotic twins develop when a single zygote splits into two. Because the genetic

material is all the same, so too will be the offspring. If division is incomplete, conjoined

twins may result in which the two offspring are physically attached at some point.

Genetically identical offspring share the same genome and blood type.

*Dizygotic (Fraternal Twins)

If two eggs are released in the same cycle, they may both be fertilized. Each zygote will

implant in the uterine wall individually and develop a separate placenta, chorion, and

amnion (although the placentas may fuse if the zygotes implant close to one another).
Fraternal twins are no more genetically similar than any other pair of siblings.

The Musculoskeletal System

*skeletal system are divided into axial and appendicular sections . The axial skeleton consists of the
skull, vertebral column and ribcage; it provides the basic central framework for the body. The
appendicular skeleton consists of the arms, legs, and pelvic and pectoral girdles that are attached to the
axial skeleton for stability.

*Bone cavities are filled with bonemarrow, which may be either red or yellow. Red marrow is filled with
hematopoietic stem cells, which are responsible for generation of all the cells in our blood. yellow
marrow is composed primarily of fat and is relatively inactive.

*periosteum surrounds the long bone to protect it as well as serve as a site for muscle attachment.

*most of the bones in the body are created by the hardening of cartilage. This process is known as

endochondral ossification.

* Hemo– and hemato–are word roots that mean “blood”.

# Why do muscle fibers contract in an all-or-none fashion? Because they are innervated by

neurons whose basic signal is an action potential, which is an all-or-none phenomenon.

Key concept

Skeletal Muscle

• Striated

• Voluntary

• Somatic innervation

• Manynuclei per cell

• Ca2+ required for contraction

Cardiac Muscle

• Striated

• Involuntary

• Autonomic innervation

• 1–2 nuclei per cell

• Ca2+ required for contraction

Smooth Muscle

• Non-striated
• Involuntary

• Autonomic innervation

• One nucleus per cell

• Ca2+ required for contraction

@ Cartilage, bone, ligaments, and tendons are all connective tissues. Muscle is contractile tissue.

@ Cartilage is made by chondrocytes and serves as a flexible building medium.

@ Compact bone is filled with bone marrow, which may be red or yellow. Red marrow is

important for hematopoeisis.

^ Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells involved in bone resorption.

Osteocytes are mature osteoblasts that eventually became surrounded by their matrix and whose
primary role is bone maintenance.

Finally, chondrocytes are cells that secrete chondrin, an elastic matrix that makes up cartilage.

Enzymes

• Lower activation energy of a reaction.

• Increase the rate of the reaction.

• Do not affect the overall ΔG or ΔH of the reaction.

• Are not changed or consumed in the course of the reaction.