Chapter One: Illumination Design

1.1 Terms and Definitions

1.2 Practical Lighting Schemes
1.3 Design of Lighting Systems
1.4 Application Fields
1.5 Exterior Lighting

Introduction

Lighting is the deliberate application of light to achieve some aesthetic or practical

effect. Lighting includes use of both artificial light sources such as lamps and natural
illumination of interiors from daylight. Artificial lighting represents a major component
of energy consumption, accounting for a significant part of all energy consumed
worldwide. Artificial lighting is most commonly provided today by electric lights.

The objective of lighting is clearly to provide lighting to the quantity and quality
standards required, with the minimum usage of electrical energy.

Poor lighting results in: eye strain, headache, accidents due to insufficient lighting or to
glare

Good lighting addresses aesthetic and decorative aspects. It reduces accidents,

increases productivity, and improves general health (reduces eye strain)

Here we are only concerned with the visible region of the radiant energy spectrum.
(400nm – 700nm)

1.1 Terms and Definitions

Plane Angle, Ѳ (0 ≤ Ѳ≤2π): is subtended at a point and is enclosed by two straight lines
lying in the same plane. A plane angle is expressed in terms of degrees or radian.

Solid Angle, ω (0≤ ω≤4 π): is a concept which is frequently used for illumination
calculation. It is defined as the ratio of the surface area of the proportion of a spherical
pyramid formed by the angle to the square of the radius of the sphere.

ω = Area of intersection at the sphere surface

(Radius of sphere)2

ω is expressed in steradians.

e.g. Solid angle subtended by a sphere at its center = 4πr2 = 4π steradians

R2

1
Luminous flux, ∅, F : is the rate of energy radiation in the form of light waves. It is
denoted by ∅ = ∂R/ ∂ /∂t, where R is radiant energy. Its unit is lumen (lm).

Lumen: one lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of one candle
power in a unit solid angle.

Lumen = Candle power of source × Solid angle

Candle power = the rate of light energy radiation per unit solid angle in a given
direction.

Luminous Intensity (I): The mean luminous intensity over a particular range of
directions or zone is the flux contained per unit solid angle in that zone. If the solid angle
is infinitesimally small the intensity is no more a mean value but the value in a specific
direction.

Hence, luminous intensity is matimatically defined as:

I = ∂F
∂ω

Where ∂F = the differential luminous flux in a differential solid angle ∂ω.

.
Its unit is Candela (cd) = lumens / steradian

Brightness or luminance (L): is defined as the intensity of a source in a given direction

divided by the orthogonally projected area of the source in that direction. The
orthogonal projection of any projected area of a surface ∂A is given by ∂A Cos(θ)
where θ is the angle between the normal to the element in the direction of the view.

Its unit is Lambert.

Uniform diffuse source: a uniform diffuse source is one in which the intensity per unit
projected area is the same for all directions of view.

Illumination: (E) of a surface: the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area

E = ∂F
∂A

Its unit is lux = lumen / m2 or foot-candle.

10.76 lux = 1ft.cd

2
Luminous Efficacy (η): luminous efficacy expresses the relative effectiveness of the
given radiant power in yielding luminous flux. That is, it expresses the effectiveness of
one watt of radiant power in producing luminous flux. By definition, one watt of
homogeneous radiation at 0.554 micron wavelength yields 621 lumens, and therefore
the luminous efficacy of this radiation is 621 lumens/watt.

All other forms of radiation are less effective in producing luminous flux and hence their
luminous efficacy is low.

Example: Luminous efficacy of the best known incandescent lamp never exceeds 25
lumen/watt or only 4.03 % of the maximum possible.

The luminous efficacy from the radiation of a firefly is approximately 560 lumens/lamp
Approximately 90% of the theoretical maximum.

Illumination Laws

1. The inverse square law: the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the source and the surface. Here the receiving surface
is assumed to be normal to the direction of flow of radiant power at the point.

E a 1/d2
E = I/d2

2. Cosine law: in case the normal to receiving plane subtends an angle θ with the radiant
energy as shown below, the illumination on the surface is proportional to the cosine of
the angle.

E = (I x cos θ) / d2

The above equations hold good when the size of the source is small compared with the
distances involved where illumination is required to be calculated. Such sources are
considered as point sources. In practice, however, point sources do not exist and the
inverse square law used for evaluating illumination introduces a significant error.

3
1.2 Practical Lighting Schemes

A good lighting should produce uniform illumination of not less than the required value.
It should be free from glare and hard shadows. In fact endeavor should be made to have
quality of light as close to day light as possible.

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as:

• Direct lighting
• Semi-direct lighting
• General lighting
• Semi-indirect lighting
• Indirect lighting

1. Direct lighting

• The most commonly used type of lighting scheme

• More than 90% of the total light flux is made to fall directly on the working plane
with the help of deep reflectors.
Advantage: it is more efficient
Disadvantage: causes hard shadows and glare
Application: generally used for industrial and out-door lighting

2. Semi-direct lighting

• 60 -90% of the total light flux is made to fall downwards directly with the help of
semi-direct reflectors
• Remaining light is used to illuminate the ceiling and walls

Application: best suited to rooms with high ceiling where there is a high level of
uniformity of illumination required.
Advantage: avoid direct glare and improves efficiency of the system with respect to the
working plane

3. General lighting

• Nearly equal illumination in all directions by use of diffusing glasses.

4. Semi-indirect lighting

• 60 -90% of the total light flux is thrown upwards to the ceiling and the rest reaches
the working plane directly except for some absorption by the bowl.
Advantage: soft shadows and glare free

4
Application: mainly used for indoor decoration purposes

5. Indirect lighting

• More than 90% of the total light flux is thrown upwards the ceiling for diffuse
reflection by using inverted or bowl reflector.
Advantage: glare free, soft and more diffused illumination, and less prominent shadows
and much improved room appearance
Application: for decoration purposes in cinemas, theatres, and hotels and in areas were
troublesome shadows are produced if direct lighting is employed.

1.3 Design of lighting schemes

Lighting objectives are:

a. Visual performance: - refers to providing adequate illumination. Here topics like

illumination level, uniformity of illumination, color of light, shadows, and glare are
dealt with.
b. Visual comfort and pleasantness: - attends to color, glare, and shadows
c. Energy and cost effectiveness

1. Illumination level
In order to see the details of the things that surround us, the source has to illuminate
them very well in order the objects take the necessary brightness. For each type of work
there is a range of brightness most favorable to output in terms of quality and quantity.
Degree of illumination (to give necessary brightness to objects) depends on:

• The size of the object (visual task) and distance from the eye (apparent size)
• Contrasts in color and luminance, that is between object and background (greater
contrast requires greater illumination)
• Speed of the visual task
• Duration of gazing

Recommended illuminance for various areas and activities

5
 Recommended illumination (lux) Types of area of activity
30 Outdoor circulation and work areas
100 Circulation areas, simple orientation or
short-term visits
150 Rooms not used continuously for working
purposes
300 Visually simple tasks
500 Average visual tasks
750 Visually demanding tasks
1000 Tasks with difficult visual requirements
1500 Tasks with special visual requirements
2000 Very exacting visual tasks

2. Uniformity of illumination

It has been found that visual performance is best if the range of brightness within the
field of vision is not greater than 3 : 1 which can be achieved by employing general
lighting in addition to localized lighting. Otherwise due to frequent accommodation of
the pupil or iris of the eye, fatigue is caused and it creates the psychological feeling of
loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.

3. Color of light
The appearance of the body color entirely depends upon the color of incident light. In
general the composition of the light should be such that the color appears natural.

4. Shadows
In lighting installation formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue and is
undesirable. However a certain amount of shadow is desired as it helps to give shapes
to solid objects and make them easily recognized. (Exception: drawing offices)

Hard and long shadows can be avoided by:

• Using a large number of luminaires mounted at a height not less than 2.5m
• Using wide surface of light, that is using globes or indirect lighting

5. Glare
Glare is generally produced by very sources of light, which emit light directly or at very
low angle towards the viewer. This causes the person to neglect the other surrounding
objects, as they appear darker and is a major cause of road accidents. The glare is also
caused by highly polished (glossy) surfaces when the angles are incorrect. This also
tends to damage retina of the eye.

6
Glare may be direct or indirect. E.g. Motor car head light is a direct glare.

In other words glare may be defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such
character as to cause annoyance, discomfort, interference with the vision or eye fatigue.
Therefore, glare is to be avoided at any cost. For this purpose very bright point sources
of light should be avoided. Highly reflective surfaces should be replaced by mat surfaces
which cause diffusion. The angle of light should be such that it does not dazzle the
person. (A surface which is almost free from mirror reflection is referred to as a mat
surface)

If a glare is produced by a lighting point, such as an incandescent lamp, it can be avoided

by the use of globes or making the light sources at such a height that to place them
above the ordinary range of vision

Energy and cost effectiveness

The following six basic rules for achieving energy-effective lighting should be
considered.
1. Use the most efficient light source suitable
2. Use the light output of the lamp efficiently
3. Maintain lighting equipment in good order
4. Use well –designed energy-effective lighting schemes
5. Control the switching operation and usage of the lighting installation, and try to
make full use of day light
6. Consider the effect of surrounding decor, use light-colored décor where suitable

7
Choice of lighting system

The function of the room, the occupancy, and the visual tasks to be carried out there
and the style of the decor will all influence the choice of the lighting system to be used.

For the sake of convenience, the lighting systems employed in interiors can be divided
into those having mostly functional purpose – PRIMARY SYSTEMS - and those that
takeover where the functional lighting leaves off – SECONDARY SYSTEMS.

Primary lighting systems

The most common primary lighting systems are those providing general lighting,
localized lighting, or local lighting and general lighting.

General lighting: - general lighting provides the required horizontal illuminance

over the total area with a certain degree of uniformity. When used alone, the
average illuminance should equal to the required illuminance for the specific
visual task.

Advantage: it permits complete flexibility in task location. It is therefore widely

employed in such places as large open plan offices, workshops, factory halls,
storage areas, etc.

Disadvantage: Energy is wasted in lighting the whole area to the level for the
most critical tasks.

Localized lighting: - likewise provides illumination for the entire room but with
luminaires functionally arranged with respect to the visual tasks or work areas.
Away from these main places (as in circulation areas) the illuminance is normally
limited to 50% of the illuminance needed for the visual task.

Disadvantage: Provision must generally be made for repositioning the luminaires

as room layouts change.

Local lighting and general lighting: - local lighting is seldom desirable by itself.
To meet the requirements pertaining to luminance differences in the task area,
the local lighting should be used in conjunction with general lighting, that is, at
least 20% of the local lighting level.

Local lighting is recommended when

• The work involves very critical visual tasks, requiring illuminances of 1000lux
or more
• The viewing of forms or textures requires that the light comes from a
particular direction

8
 • The general lighting, due to obstructions, does not penetrate certain areas
• Higher illuminances are necessary for the benefit of older workers or workers
with reduced visual performance
• The area is only partly occupied for long periods

Secondary lighting systems

We use secondary lighting systems when something more than purely functional
lighting is required. E.g. stylish restaurant, creating appropriate ambiance, etc.

Secondary lighting systems include:

• Accent lighting – emphasizes a particular object or texture
• Effect lighting – has an attractive feature
• Decorative lighting
• Architectural lighting

Choice of lamps and luminaires

The type of lamp to be used is determined by the nature of activity. Incandescent and
fluorescent lamps are suitable for use in homes, offices, and factories. High pressure
mercury vapor lamps are suitable for parking sites, construction jobs, road lighting, rail
yards, railway platforms, shipping yards, and factories. The use of incandescent lamps,
due to their low efficiency and short life, is largely confined to tasks which need a strong
beam of direct light.

Sodium vapor lamps are suitable where color characteristic is of little importance and
there is not much human traffic as in railway yards, highways, parking sites, facades of
buildings, etc.

Utilization factor (coefficient of utilization), ku

The ratio of effective luminous flux to the total luminous flux is known as the utilization
factor (U.F.). It is, in other words, the ratio of the lumens reaching the working plane
(normally assumed to be a horizontal plane 80cm above the floor) to the total lumens
generated by the lamps. The influence of the following factors has been taken into
account while deriving the utilization factor:
• The lighting system
• The light output ratio of the fittings
• The reflection factors of ceiling and walls (rc and rw)
• The ratio of length, width and height of a room expressed as the room index
(RI)
• The distribution of the light source in the room. Light colored ceilings and walls
reflect 50 – 70% of the incident light, the dark ones only 10 – 20%. In direct

9
 lighting, reflection from ceilings and walls is of less consequence than in other
systems.

Reflection factors for ceilings are taken as 70% (very light colors or white), 50% (light
colors) and 30% (medium shades). In the case of walls, reflection factors of 50% (light
colors), 30% (medium shades) and 10% (dark colors) are assumed.

Room index

The room index allows for the effect of length, breadth, and height of a rectangular
room. The room index is related to room ratio (kr) which can be calculated from the
following equations:

• For direct, semi-direct, and general diffuse

Kr = [ hs (w + l) ] / wl

• For semi-indirect and indirect

Kr = [ 2hc (w + l) ] / 3wl

hs is equal to the distance between the light fitting and the working plane in the case of
direct, semi-direct, and general diffuse lighting, and hc equal to the distance between
the ceiling and the working plane, in the case of indirect and semi-indirect lighting.

In long room, the maximum length is assumed to be equal to 5 times the width.

Index 1 is valid for rooms with relatively high ceilings. If a building has a room index
more than 10, it may be assumed as 10 which will make little difference to the lighting
calculations.

The room index is related to the Kr by the following table.

Kr <0.7 0.7-0.9 0.9-1.12 1.12-1.38 1.38-1.75 1.75-2.25 2.25-2.75 2.75-3.5 3.5-4.5 >4.5
RI 0.6 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5
J I H G F E D C B A

Maintenance factor

The efficiency of a lighting installation is affected adversely by the deterioration of

lamps, and soiling of fittings, lamps, ceilings, and walls. All these unfavorable factors are
combined in the concept ‘maintenance factor’, which is the ratio of average illumination

10
on the working plane given by a new installation to that given by an installation which
has decreased in effectiveness due to soiling and ageing.

The maintenance factors have been classified into three groups:

1. Good maintenance factor - as in the case of shops, offices, schools, etc where
fittings are cleaned at frequent intervals.
2. Medium maintenance factor – where lamps are replaced only after burnout
3. Poor maintenance factor – the type that takes place in dusty surroundings of
foundries, smithy shops, textile factories, mining operations, etc.

Lighting calculation

I) Lumen method of calculation

The steps followed in the lumen method are the following:

1. Determine the required level of illumination

2. Select lighting scheme and luminaires
3. Draw floor plans and section
4. Determine the coefficient of utilization
5. Estimate maintenance factor (light loss factor)
• Loss in light output of the lamp
∅av = 75 – 90% ∅initial
• Loss through accumulated dirt on luminaires
• Loss of reflected light through accumulation of dirt on walls and
ceilings (where an excessive reduction in room surface reflectance is
anticipated)
6. Calculate the number of lamps and luminaires

Number of lamps = __________A x E___________

Lumens/lamp x U.F. x M.F.

Number of fittings = __________No of lamps___________

Lamps per luminaire

7. Determine location of luminaires

11
Spacing of lights

The distribution of light sources in a room has an important bearing on the quality of
lighting. The distance of a light source from the wall should be equal to the one half the
distance between two adjacent light sources.

The maximum distance between luminaires is determined by the mounting height and
spacing ratio of the luminaire. Spacing ratios are given by luminaire manufacturers.
Narrow beam luminaires have small spacing ratio (less than 0.5) while wide beam
luminaires have high spacing ratio (0.6 – 0.9 for medium and above 1 for wide).

Maximum allowable spacing = SR x MH

Point-by-point method of calculation

Contrasted with the lumen method of calculation, which is based on the average light
flux effective throughout an area, the point-by-point method of calculation is based on
the actual amount of light which will be produced at specific points in the area. This
requires the knowledge of the way in which light is distributed from sources of various
shapes and sizes.

Illumination design for exterior lighting and localized lightings are generally done using
point-by-point method. In the point-by-point method selected points’ illumination is
calculated from the total illuminated area. This is an accurate illumination level for the
points of calculation.

1.4 Application fields

This section illustrates the current thinking regarding the design of a good cross section
of different types of lighting installation.

[Assignment]

Sample: Industrial Interiors

The design of a work may make the task of lighting it easy, on the other hand, there may
be obstructions formed by awkwardly shaped machines and the like to contend with.
Again, the work itself may be easy to light, or it may impose certain special
requirements on the lighting such as, for example, freedom from producing reflections
or conversely, the deliberate creation of these to bring out surface detail or reveal
imperfections in surface finish.

Protection and safety

12
 • In humid areas luminaires affording protection against the ingress of water are
needed.
• In dirty environments, luminaires have to be dust protected.
• In areas where lamps or luminaires can be touched, electrical safety is especially
important.

Environmental requirements
• In very low ambient temperatures care should be taken to avoid problems with
lamp starting and light output. This is more critical with tubular fluorescent
lamps than with most high-intensity discharge lamps. With incandescent lamps
this problem does not exist.
• In areas where the temperature in the vicinity of the luminaires is high, as in
foundaries and steel mills, it is important to ensure that the working
temperature of the ballasts is not exceeded.

Lighting systems

There are three systems of lighting. These are general, localized, and local lighting.

General lighting: uniform illumination throughout the area

Emin / Eav = 0.8

It ensures complete freedom in the placement of machinery and work benches. It is

achieved by employing a more or less regular array of overhead luminaires. The choice
between tabular (compact) fluorescent and high pressure or metal halide lamps for
general lighting will be influenced primarily by the mounting height available.

Localized lighting: it has the advantage of increased worker comfort and reduced
maintenance and energy costs. The luminairs should be concentrated relatively low
above the work areas so as to provide the higher illuminances at these points whilst
providing at the same time an adequate level of lighting in the gangways where
orientation is required.

Local lighting: it is designed to illuminate an area occupied by the visual task, and its
immediate surroundings. It is also employed to increase the illuminance at work
positions, that due to the presence of obstructions (including the worker itself) are not
sufficiently well lighted by the general lighting. A useful supplement of the general
lighting though not a substitute for it.

1.6 Exterior lighting

The three broad lighting design objectives of visual performance, visual comfort and
pleasantness, and energy and cost effectiveness cited for interior lighting apply also to
exterior lighting. However, whereas with interior lighting it was possible to translate

13
these objectives into a number of lighting parameters, or criteria, that could be applied
in all sorts of indoor situations, this is not so easily done with exterior lighting. Here,
each area of application, from road lighting through to the floodlighting of buildings and
areas, has its own more or less unique set of lighting criteria.

[Assignment]

14