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Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power AUGUST 2010, Vol. 132 / 081501-1
Copyright © 2010 by ASME
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B&K microphones and showed good agreement. A total of nine
axially distributed microphones were used: four in the plenum
chamber and five in the combustion chamber. Controlled excita-
tion of the acoustic field was accomplished by a circumferential
array of four loudspeakers equally spaced in polar angles. One set
of loudspeakers was placed in the plenum chamber at a distance
x / D = 4.2 upstream of the dump plane and the second at x / D
= 6.8 downstream of the dump plane, where D is the diameter of
the combustion chamber.
2.3 Optical Setup. The light emitted by the flame is collected
through a water-cooled window by a lens system. The optical
detection was accomplished by a nonimaging system of quartz
lenses focusing the light on seven different fibers. This setup as-
Fig. 1 Experimental setup: atmospheric pressure combustion sures that each fiber obtains the same light and avoids angle de-
test equipped facility with loudspeakers, microphones, and op- pendency. The lens was optimized in order to minimize the inten-
tical access via a fiber bundle sity dependence from flame position. This is important in order to
avoid that the flame movement is interpreted as intensity fluctua-
tion. The opening angle of the system was chosen such that the
intensity signals. In the first step, steady state calibration curves entire heat release zone was covered. The geometrical extent and
are measured. These calibration curves are linearized and inverted movement of the heat release zone are known from previous flame
to convert measured fluctuating intensity signals into signals rep- visualization studies.
resenting mixture mass flux and fuel mass fraction fluctuations. The light is then distributed to a system of filters and detectors.
The heat release fluctuation is then obtained as the sum of these This yields five separate signals for five different wavelength re-
two fluctuations. In this way not only a quantitative estimate of gions. These chemiluminesence signals are recorded simulta-
the heat release fluctuation is obtained but the method also shows neously with the microphone signals on the same data acquisition
by what mechanisms the heat released fluctuation are caused. system. The optical setup was tested on a Bunsen flame with five
A proof of concept is delivered by testing this method on a different band pass filters of about 10 nm width at central widths
prototype gas turbine burner and by comparing the results with a 共CWs兲 of 307 nm, 431 nm, 450 nm, and 515 nm, and one UV
purely acoustic method to measure the heat release fluctuations. transparent broad band filter 共DUGX11, Schott兲. The transmission
curves are shown in Fig. 2. Using this optical setup, the different
channels can be attributed to the occurrence of chemilumines-
2 Experimental Setup
cence of mainly the species 共OHⴱ , CHⴱ , Cⴱ2兲, as indicated in Refs.
2.1 Atmospheric Combustion Facility. The tests were per- 关15,18兴. To monitor the broad emission 共attributed to the CO+ O
formed in an atmospheric pressure, single burner combustion test → COⴱ2 chemiluminescence兲, which contributes as background in
facility with a full-scale prototype gas turbine burner. The test rig the spectrum 关19兴, a filter with CW of 450 nm is used. All chan-
is shown in Fig. 1. The test rig consists of a plenum chamber nels mainly detect emission from different species probing a dif-
upstream of a swirl-inducing burner and a combustion chamber ferent part of the flame chemistry. Each of these detection win-
downstream of the burner. The circular combustion chamber con- dows scales differently with the operating parameters mass flow
sists of an air cooled double walled metal liner. Combustion air is and flame temperature. With the calibration of at least three aver-
electrically preheated, fed into a plenum chamber, and flows from aged steady operating points, this ratio of the channels allows the
there through the burner and the combustion chamber. The ex- interpretation as instantaneous measurements of these operating
haust system is an air-cooled tube with the same cross section as parameters. This reading can be interpreted as fluctuations of the
the combustion chamber to avoid acoustic reflections at area dis- governing heat release parameters 共adiabatic flame temperature
continuities. The acoustic boundary conditions of the exhaust sys- and mixture mass flow兲, as described in Refs. 关13,14兴. A further
tem can be adjusted from almost anechoic 共reflection coefficient correlation of the signals to individual molecular emissions utiliz-
兩r兩 ⬍ 0.15兲 to open end reflection by means of suitably dimen- ing the spectra can be undertaken and would improve the quality
sioned orifice plates. of the interpretation. However, because it is not necessary for the
The test was performed on an Alstom EV-type test burner. Such approach described in this work, this was omitted here.
a burner has the unique property of flame stabilization in free
space near the burner outlet utilizing the sudden breakdown of a 3 Analysis of Optical Data
swirling flow, called vortex breakdown. The swirler consists of
two halves of a cone, which are shifted to form two air slots of The heat release rate does not only depend on equivalence ratio
constant width 关17兴. Gaseous fuels are injected into the combus- but is given 共for a combustion efficiency of 100%兲 by the follow-
tion air by means of fuel distribution tubes comprising two rows ing expression:
of small holes perpendicular to the inlet ports of the swirler. Com- Q = m f H f = myH f 共1兲
plete mixing of fuel and air is obtained shortly after injection.
where m f and m are the instantaneous values of the mass fluxes of
2.2 Acoustic Measurement Setup. Pressure fluctuations are fuel and mixture entering the reaction zone, y is the mass fraction
measured using Brüel and Kjær water-cooled microphones. The of fuel 共y = m f / m兲, and the chemical enthalpy of the fuel is repre-
1
water-cooled 4 in. condenser microphones are flush mounted on sented as Hfuel.
the walls of the plenum chamber and combustion chamber. The The mass flux of the mixture through the flame front fulfills the
holder consists of a small orifice 共d = 0.5 mm兲 open to the com- following equality: m f + ma = 兰SdA = SflameAflame. The definition
bustion chamber. The microphone diaphragm is placed in a small of the flame surface and flame velocity is somewhat arbitrary.
cavity and is protected from heat radiation. The resonance fre- However, the definition of both quantities should be such that the
quency f res of the holder is larger than 20 kHz. Using condenser product of flame speed and flame area conserves mass across the
microphones rather than piezoelectric pressure transducers has the flame front. Please note that in the following, all relevant quanti-
advantage of highly accurate phase and amplitude data, which is ties are considered as averages of the quantity over the flame
necessary for acoustic measurements. The frequency response of surface 共hence assuming homogeneity of the time-averaged quan-
the microphones in probe holders were compared against standard tities and linearity of the perturbations兲.
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Fig. 2 Transmission curve of the filters used and flame spectrum from a test
flame
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power AUGUST 2010, Vol. 132 / 081501-3
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冤冥 冤 冥
I1⬘ m⬘ fluctuations of mass flux and mass fraction on the acoustic pres-
冋 册
sure and velocity is investigated. These quantities are related by a
Ī1 1 ␣1 m̄ transfer matrix C:
= 共9兲
I2⬘ 1 ␣2 y⬘
冤冥 冤冥
m̂ p̂1
冋 册
Ī2 ȳ
m̄ C11 C12 ū1
If ␣1 ⫽ ␣2, then the system can be inverted in order to calculate = 共13兲
ŷ C21 C22 û1
m⬘ / m̄ and y ⬘ / ȳ from measured I⬘1 / Ī1 and I⬘2 / Ī2.
ȳ ū1
This concept can be extended to the more general case with K
species and a model structure different from Eq. 共2兲 by lineariza- Note that the matrix is a function of frequency and that the Fourier
tion of the intensity functions. coefficients of the pressure are normalized by c, thus p̂共兲 has
冤冥冤 冥冤 冥 冤 冥
units of m/s. In order to obtain the four matrix elements from the
I1⬘ m̄ I1 ȳ I1
m⬘ m⬘ experimental data, at least two linearly independent test states are
Ī1 I1 m I1 y required. These test states are generated by consecutively applying
m̄ m̄ forcing with the upstream and downstream loudspeakers. Denot-
] = ] ] =J 共10兲
y⬘ y⬘ ing the upstream forcing test results with superscript A and the
IK⬘ m̄ IK ȳ IK downstream excitation case with superscript B, the matrix C is
ȳ ȳ
ĪK IK m IK y obtained as
冤 冥
The matrix J is thus a normalized Jacobian matrix of the intensity m̂A m̂B
functions. In the case of K ⬎ 2, the system is overdetermined and
hence the system has to be inverted in least-squares sense: 冋 C11 C12
册 =
m̄
A
m̄
B 冋 册 p̂A1 p̂B1
ûA1 ûB1
−1
1
共14兲
冤冥
C21 C22 ŷ ŷ ū1
I1⬘
冤冥
ȳ ȳ
m⬘
Ī1
m̄ The pressure and velocity fluctuations û1 and p̂1 can be obtained
= J† ] 共11兲 from acoustical measurements. This is done using the micro-
y⬘
IK⬘ phones placed before and after the burner together with the mul-
ȳ timicrophone method as will be explained in Sec. 4.
ĪK The Rankine–Hugoniot relations give the following relations
in which the following notation was introduced: X† ⬅ 共XⴱX兲−1Xⴱ, between the acoustic velocities on both sides of a low Mach num-
where the asterisk denotes the transposed complex conjugate of ber interface with heat release:
冉 冊
the matrix.
This equation can either be applied to the time traces of the T2 Q̂
û2 = û1 + − 1 ū1 共15兲
signals I⬘共t兲 or to the Fourier coefficient of the transformed signal T1 Q̄
Î共兲. In order to apply this method, the derivatives of the intensi-
From the definition of the flame transfer matrix and Eqs. 共13兲 and
ties with respect to the mass flow and fuel fraction need to be
共15兲, it follows that the transfer matrix elements are given by
known. These can be obtained from a set of calibration measure-
ments where the chemiluminescence intensities of all the species
are measured while changing the time-averaged mass flow and
fuel fraction. The derivatives can be obtained by approximating
F21 = 冉 冊 T2
T1
− 1 共C11 + C21兲 共16兲
speed, and density over the flame area. In the steady state, both The subscripts d and u refer to locations upstream and down-
quantities will be equal 共up to order of M 2兲, but for higher fre- stream of the element. The symbols p̂ and û represent acoustic
quencies, the flame front dynamics 共i.e., the kinematic response of pressure and velocity. These quantities correspond to the unsteady
the instantaneous flame front location and area to a velocity per- irrotational part of the pressure and velocity field.
turbation兲 will cause a frequency dependent difference between The four frequency dependent elements of the transfer matrix T
the two. are obtained by forcing the system with loudspeakers and measur-
The optical method proposed here has the advantage since it ing the response with microphones. A detailed description of this
does not only provide quantitative heat release fluctuations but it technique is given in Ref. 关7兴. The most important aspects will be
also quantifies the underlying physical mechanisms that cause the repeated here. Because Eq. 共18兲 provides two equations in four
heat release fluctuations: It shows what part of the heat release is unknowns, at least two independent test states are required to
caused by equivalence ratio fluctuations and what part by flame extract the four elements of T. Thus, using the same notation as in
front dynamics. To exploit this even more, the dependence of the Eq. 共14兲, the transfer matrix is obtained as
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冋 T11 T12
T21 T22
册 冋 册冋 册
=
p̂Ad p̂Bd
ûAd ûBd
p̂Au p̂Bu
ûAu ûBu
−1
共19兲
冤冥冤 冥冋 册 冋 册
p̂1 z1共1/1+M 兲 z1共−1/1−M 兲
f̂ f̂
] = ] ] =Z 共20兲
ĝ ĝ
p̂N zN共1/1+M 兲 zN共−1/1−M 兲
in which the following notation zn ⬅ e−i共xn/c兲 is used. The Rie- Fig. 3 Normalized mean chemiluminescence intensity as a
mann invariants can be calculated from the measured microphone function of adiabatic flame temperature and mixture mass flow.
signals by solving Eq. 共20兲, provided that at least two micro- Crosses: measured data; circles: data fit using Eq. „2…; solid
phones were used. The solution in the least-squares sense is given line: trend line of Eq. „2…
by
冋册 冤 冥
f̂
ĝ
=Z †
p̂1
]
p̂N
共21兲 fit was performed for the other chemiluminesence signals. Re-
markably, the curves were very similar with only about 10% dif-
ference in the value of the exponent ␣. The values of ␣ for all five
The acoustic velocity at the reference position is then given by signals are shown in Table 1 together with the fitting statistics.
û共x = 0兲 = f̂ − ĝ. Using the matrix notation, this can conveniently be The relative error E represents an average value of the normalized
expressed as residuals of the fit E = 1 / N兺n兩In − Ĩn兩 / In. The value of R2 is a mea-
冋 册冋 册 冤 冥
sure for the explained variation of the data. It is defined as one
p̂A1 p̂B1 minus the variance of the residuals divided by the variance of the
p̂A p̂B 1 1
= Z† ] ] 共22兲 data. It was tabulated together with the values obtained for ␣ in
ûA ûB 1 −1 Table 1. Considering that only two parameters were fitted to six
p̂NA p̂NB
data points, the fit is remarkably good. A transfer function experi-
Applying the operation of Eq. 共22兲 to both the microphones up- ment was carried out by applying a sequence of pure tone excita-
stream and downstream of the element yields the matrix with tions to the loudspeakers. Excitation was applied upstream and
acoustic pressures and velocities required to solve Eq. 共19兲 for T. downstream consecutively. The response of the nine microphones
4.1 Flame Transfer Matrix. In order to measure a transfer and the five chemiluminescence signals was recorded, and the
matrix, arrays of microphones have to be placed at both sides of Fourier coefficients at the forcing frequency were evaluated. The
the element. Since a flame is always stabilized by some kind of multimicrophone method 共Eq. 共22兲兲 was used to obtain the acous-
flame holder 共the “burner”兲, it is not possible to measure a flame tic velocities and pressures at the burner exit plane. First, a test
transfer matrix directly. However, the transfer matrix of the com- without combustion was done in order to obtain the burner trans-
bined burner and flame element 共T兲 can be measured, along with fer matrix B using Eq. 共19兲. A similar test with combustion was
carried out. From the measured acoustic signals, the heat release
the transfer matrix of the burner 共B兲 only 共in the absence of com-
bustion but with flow兲. The desired flame transfer function 共F兲 can
then easily be obtained from
F = TB−1 共23兲
The underlying assumption is that the transfer matrix 共B兲 does not
change due to the combustion process.
5 Results
Prior to the transfer function measurement experiments, a cali-
bration experiment was performed by operating the test facility at
three adiabatic flame temperatures and four mixture mass flow
settings. The time traces of the chemiluminesence data were re-
corded. In order to get an estimate of the mean intensities of the
signals, the median value of the time traces was evaluated. These
values are plotted in Fig. 3 for the signal of CW307. The values of
k and ␣ in Eq. 共2兲 were solved for in least-squares sense by linear
regression of the measured data. Linear regression could be used
because ln共I / m兲 = ln共k兲 + ␣ ln共T兲 is linear in the parameters ln共k兲
and ␣. The results of this curve fit are shown in Fig. 4 as well. Fig. 4 Comparison of heat release obtained from acoustic
Note that during the temperature variation experiment, the veloc- data „dashed… with heat release obtained from optical data ac-
ity was not held exactly constant. This explains why the fitted cording to Eqs. „11… and „3… „solid… and the relative OHⴱ inten-
trend line does not coincide with the fitted data points. A similar sity fluctuations „dash-dotted…
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power AUGUST 2010, Vol. 132 / 081501-5
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Table 1 Results of curve fitting the data with Eq. „2…; values of ␣, the relative error E in %, and
the goodness of fit R2 in %
Filter No filter F1 F2 F3 F4
fluctuations were calculated by making use of the Rankine– means that the influence of velocity fluctuations on the transfer
Hugeniot relation 共Eq. 共15兲兲 and the previously measured burner function is more important than the influence of pressure fluctua-
transfer matrix tions. However, the influence of pressure fluctuations on this
burner is significant and should not be neglected. In order to in-
Q̂ û2 − B12p̂0 − B22û0 vestigate the nature of this transfer matrix, the transfer matrix C is
冉 冊
= 共24兲
Q̄ T2 analyzed. It was obtained from Eqs. 共11兲 and 共14兲 and shows how
− 1 ū1 the mass flux fluctuations through the flame 共i.e., flame surface or
T1
flame velocity fluctuations兲 and fuel mass fraction fluctuations
The relative heat release fluctuations 共i.e., the Fourier coefficients depend on the acoustic pressure and velocity. The matrix elements
of the heat release signal divided by the mean heat release兲 were are plotted in Fig. 6. This figure shows that the C12 element
also calculated from the optical signals by making use of Eqs. 共3兲 共which relates mass flux to velocity兲 is most dominant. The C22
and 共11兲. A comparison between the results of the purely optical element has a considerable magnitude as well, which means that
method and the purely acoustical method for obtaining the heat fuel mass fraction fluctuations are caused by velocity fluctuations.
release is shown in Fig. 4. The comparison shows a very good This is a well known mechanism: If the injected mass flow of fuel
agreement of the phase while the agreement of the absolute value is fairly constant, then a modulation of the velocity in the burner
is reasonable for lower frequencies, but shows stronger deviations will cause equivalence ratio fluctuations at the injection location.
for higher frequencies. In some literature references, the relative This mechanism is explained in more detail in Refs. 关6,7兴. These
intensity fluctuations are interpreted as relative heat release fluc- concentration waves are convected with mean flow from the in-
tuations. For comparison, this quantity was also plotted in Fig. 4. jector to the flame. Fuel mass fraction fluctuations caused by pres-
Although the phase matches reasonably, the absolute values do sure fluctuations 共C21兲 are significantly smaller but not negligible.
not even capture the trends. As will be shown later, the main The physical explanation is that the fuel system is not entirely
component of the heat release fluctuations in this case is due to stiff, which means that pressure fluctuations cause a modulation of
mass flux fluctuations. Note that if the interaction would take the fuel supplied by the injection holes. The C11 element describes
place via equivalence ratio fluctuations, then the relative intensity the influence of the pressure fluctuations on the flame speed or
fluctuations would be an order of magnitude larger than the values area. For natural gas flames, the flame area and speed can be
recorded here. Clearly, the method proposed in this paper is not considered independent of the pressure. So, this term is indeed
biased by prior assumptions on the nature of the interaction expected to be small. However, flame speed depends on the
mechanism. equivalence ratio and, as mentioned before, equivalence ratio fluc-
From the acoustic data available, the flame transfer matrix F is tuations can be caused by pressure fluctuations.
calculated using Eqs. 共19兲 and 共23兲. The result is plotted in Fig. 5 As a check of consistency of the method, it is interesting to
for the F12 and F22 elements. In the same figure, the flame transfer analyze the values of the C12 and C22 elements for frequencies
matrix elements obtained from the optical data are plotted 共using approaching zero. For quasisteady changes of the velocity 共i.e.,
Eq. 共16兲兲. Although the match is not perfect, the comparison is approaching zero Hz兲, the relative mass flux through the flame
reasonable both quantitatively and qualitatively. Note that the F12 front should be equal to the relative velocity in front of the flame.
element is considerably smaller than the F22 element, which Hence, the C21 element should approach a value of +1 for zero
frequency. Similarly, a quasisteady increase in velocity in the
burner at constant mass flow of fuel results in a proportional de-
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crease in the mass fraction of fuel. Hence C22 should be −1 at 0 ous investigations have shown, this is not always the case: De-
Hz. Note that the lowest frequency measured was a Helmholtz pending on the type of burner, either fuel system interactions or
number of He= 0.1; however, one can reasonably estimate from equivalence ratio fluctuations may become dominant.
Fig. 6 that toward zero frequency, both elements have an absolute
value of about 1, while the phase of C12 assumes a value of close 7 Conclusions
to zero and the phase of C22 a value of about , which demon- A novel method for the experimental determination of flame
strates that at least the very basic physical conservation laws are transfer matrices was presented. The proposed method makes use
correctly represented by this matrix. of multiple chemiluminesence signals. The method has the advan-
tage since it directly reveals the nature of the interaction mecha-
6 Discussion nism because it allows for the identification of the contribution of
Both the newly developed optical method for measuring trans- equivalence ratio fluctuations and flame front dynamics in an in-
fer matrices and the acoustic approach yield similar results. As termediate step. A proof of concept is given by comparing this
mentioned before, the two methods have a significant difference method with a purely acoustic method for measuring flame trans-
in the absolute values for the high frequencies. This difference can fer functions. The quantitative agreement between the two meth-
be due to uncertainties in both the optical and the acoustic ods is reasonable. Possible causes for the difference are discussed.
method. The main possible sources of uncertainty of the optical The method was applied to a full-scale prototype gas turbine
method are as follows: 共1兲 The optical arrangement does not have burner and quantified the underlying interaction mechanisms: fuel
a spatially uniform efficiency 共i.e., light of equal intensity emitted system interaction, equivalence ratio fluctuations, and flame front
from different regions of the combustion chamber is measured dynamics. Due to the stiff fuel system and distributed fuel injec-
with a different intensity兲. Because of this, an intensity fluctuation tion, the first two interaction mechanisms were found to be less
due to periodic flame motion could be recorded, although this pronounced, which made the flame front dynamics the dominant
does not represent fluctuating heat release. 共2兲 The inversion op- interaction mechanism.
eration in Eq. 共11兲 may cause strong sensitivity to measurement
uncertainty if J is badly conditioned 共i.e., if the rows of matrix J Acknowledgment
are linearly dependent兲. Indeed, the values of ␣ 共Table 1兲 do not This work was conducted in the framework of AG Turbo/
differ strongly. However, an error analysis shows that the discrep- COOREFF-T. The authors would like to acknowledge Brian Cox
ancy cannot be explained by this. 共3兲 It was assumed that the for his assistance in the experiments, Daniel Guyot 共TU Berlin兲
flame is spatially homogeneous. If this is not the case 共i.e., there for his interesting discussions on the feasibility of the proposed
are hot spots in the flame兲, then Eq. 共2兲 will no longer be valid for method, and Peter Flohr for his support of this work.
the integrated light intensity. However, because measured levels
of NOx emissions were low during the experiment, it is likely that
Nomenclature
the temperature distribution was homogeneous. 共4兲 It is assumed
that the intensity signals are proportional to the fluctuating heat Af ⫽ flame area
release components. In case a quasisteady component contributes Hf ⫽ chemical enthalpy
to the signal 共e.g., black body radiation of the liner兲, this would He ⫽ Helmholtz number, He= L / 共2c兲
bias the calibration process. It is, however, not expected that to be I ⫽ chemiluminesence intensity
the case here because the liner temperature was cold enough to Q ⫽ heat release rate
avoid components in the UV bands. 共5兲 It is assumed that the time Sf ⫽ flame speed
scale of the chemical reaction is much smaller than acoustic or T ⫽ temperature
convective time scales. If this is not true, then the matrix J would c ⫽ speed of sound
not be constant but frequency dependent. For the range of fre- m ⫽ mass flux through flame surface
quencies considered here, we may consider this assumption to be p ⫽ pressure
valid. 共6兲 Linearization is applied, which implies that the fluctua- u ⫽ velocity
tion amplitudes are assumed small enough. y ⫽ fuel mass fraction
The main sources of uncertainty in the acoustically measured ␥ ⫽ ratio of specific heats
transfer function are as follows: 共1兲 Speed of sound downstream of ⫽ density
the combustion zone. Although the adiabatic flame temperature ⫽ angular frequency
can be obtained with reasonable accuracy 共from the measured x̄ ⫽ steady component of x
mass flow, temperature, and composition of the mixture兲, the heat x⬘共t兲 ⫽ unsteady component of x, x⬘共t兲 ⬅ x共t兲 − x̄
flux through the cooled combustion chamber liners is more diffi- x̂共兲 ⫽ Fourier coefficient of x⬘共t兲
cult to estimate. A resulting error in the speed of sound may cause
problems when using the multimicrophone method. The intro-
duced error can be very large in the case of resonant behavior. The References
1
relative error is of order 2 Z He times the normalized error in the 关1兴 Cremer, L., 1971, “The Treatment of Fans as Black Boxes,” J. Sound Vib.,
temperature, where Z is the specific impedance of the test rig. 16共1兲, pp. 1–15.
关2兴 Bodén, H., and Åbom, M., 1986, “Influence of Errors on the Two-Microphone
Since the test rig is nearly anechoic Z ⬇ 1 and He⬇ 1, then even Method for Measuring Acoustic Properties in Ducts,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.,
an error in the temperature as large as 100 K will not cause an 79共2兲, pp. 541–549.
error larger than 3% in worst case conditions. 共2兲 The inversion of 关3兴 Paschereit, C. O., Schuermans, B., Polifke, W., and Mattson, O., 2002, “Mea-
surement of Transfer Matrices and Source Terms of Premixed Flames,” ASME
the burner transfer matrix in Eq. 共23兲 introduces an uncertainty, J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, 124共2兲, pp. 239–247.
which is more difficult to quantify. It was assumed that the burner 关4兴 Paschereit, C., Schuermans, B., Polifke, W., and Mattson, O., 1999,“Measure-
transfer matrix measured in the reactive case is the same as in the ment of Transfer Matrices and Source Terms of Premixed Flames,” ASME
nonreactive case, which is difficult to verify. Paper No. 99-GT-0133.
关5兴 Schuermans, B., 2003, “Modeling and Control of Thermoacoustic Instabili-
The determination of the matrix C allows for an assessment of ties,” Ph.D. thesis, EPFL Lausanne, Switzerland, http://library.epfl.ch/theses/
the underlying physical mechanisms of the thermoacoustic inter- ?nr⫽2800.
action processes. It directly relates the contribution of the fuel 关6兴 Schuermans, B., Polifke, W., and Paschereit, C., 1999, “Modeling Transfer
system interaction, equivalence ratio fluctuations, and flame front Matrices of Premixed Flames and Comparison With Experimental Results,”
ASME Paper No. 1999-GT-0132.
dynamics on the heat release. For the test burner under investiga- 关7兴 Schuermans, B., Bellucci, B., Guethe, F., and Meili, F., 2003 “A Detailed
tion, the most important coupling mechanism was found to be the Analysis of Thermoacoustic Interaction Mechanisms in a Turbulent Premixed
flame front dynamics 共mass flux fluctuations兲. However, as vari- Flame,” ASME Paper No. GT-2004-53831.
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power AUGUST 2010, Vol. 132 / 081501-7
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关8兴 Bellucci, V., Schuermans, B., Nowak, D., Flohr, P., and Paschereit, O., 2003, Fuellean Methane/Air Flames,” Fuel, 80, pp. 1583–1591.
“Thermoacoustic Modeling of a Gas Turbine Combustor Equipped With 关15兴 Hardalupas, Y., and Orain, M., 2004 “Local Measurements of the Time-
Acoustic Dampers,” ASME Paper No. GT-2004-53977. Dependent Heat Release Rate and Equivalence Ratio Using Chemiluminescent
关9兴 Langhorne, P., 1988, “Reheat Buzz: An Acoustically Coupled Combustion Emission From a Flame,” Combust. Flame, 139, pp. 188–207.
Instability. Part 1. Experiment,” J. Fluid Mech., 193, pp. 417–443. 关16兴 Ayoola, B. O., Balachandran, R., Frank, J. H., Mastorakos, E., and Kaminski,
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关11兴 Auer, M. P., Hirsch, T., and Sattelmayer, T., 2006, “Influence of Air and Fuel 关17兴 Zajadatz, M., Bernero, S., Lachner, R., and Motz, C., 2007, “Development and
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ASME Paper No. GT-2006-90127. ASME Paper No. GT 2007–27730.
关12兴 Haber, L., Vandsburger, U., Saunders, W. R., and Khanna, V., 2006, “An 关18兴 Kojima, J., Ikeda, Y., and Nakajima, T., 2000, “Detailed Distributions of OHⴱ,
Examination of the Relationship between Chemiluminescent Light Emissions CHⴱ and Cⴱ2 Chemiluminescence in the Reaction Zone of Laminar Methane/
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ference and Exhibit, Paper No. AIAA-3394.
关13兴 Higgins, B., McQuay, M., Lacas, F., Rolon, J., Darabiha, N., and Candel, S.,
关19兴 Nori, V., and Seitzman, J., 2007, “Detailed distributions of OHⴱ, CHⴱ and Cⴱ2
2001, “Systematic Measurements of OH Chemiluminescence for Fuel-lean
Highpressure, Premixed, Laminar Flames,” Fuel, 80, pp. 67–74. Chemiluminescence in the Reaction Zone of Laminar Methane/Air Premixed
关14兴 Higgins, B., McQuay, M., Lacas, F., and Candel, S., 2001, “An Experimental Flames,” 45th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, NV, Jan. 8–11, Paper No.
Study of Pressure and Strain Rate on CH Chemiluminescence on Premixed AIAA-2007-0466.
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