Strain
Simple Strain
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the
applied force, to the original length
where & is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ¢ is dimensionless.
Stress-Strain Diagram
Suppose that @ metal specimen be placed in tension-compression testing machine. AS
the axial load Is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gage
length is measured at each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of
the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of the
specimen, the normal stress « and the strain : can be obtained. The graph of these
quantities with the stress o along the y-axis and the strain « along the x-axis is called
the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various
materials, The diagram shown below is that for a medium carbon structural steel
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A
ductile material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture
lice structural steel and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain
up to the point of rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05
mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line between these two classes.
ltrs Sanath
aN
¥
Unubinae Sgt
Ka Rape Sheng
)\ r= vt
Vee tin
P= Poses Lin
eo SanePROPORTIONAL LIMIT (HOOKE'
LAW)
From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain,
curve is a straight line, This linear relation between elongation and the
axial force causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is
called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain or
Rater Hooks
cxeors=ke
‘The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's Modulus
and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then
a
ELASTIC LIMIT
‘The elastic tim
limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e
developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is
entirely removed.
ELASTIC AND PLASTIC RANGES
‘The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range, The region
from P to R is called the plastic range.
YIELD POINT
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
ylelding without any increase in load.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
‘The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain Giagram is the ultimate strength or tensile
strength,
RAPTURE STRENGTH
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the
breaking strength.MODULUS OF RESILIENCE
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to P, in Nm/m*. This may be calculated as the area under
the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit € (the shaded area in
the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating
a permanent distortion.
MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to R, in Nm/m”, This may be calculated as the area under
the entire stress-strain curve (from to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to
absorb energy without causing it to break.
WORKING STRESS, ALLOWABLE STRESS, AND FACTOR OF SAFETY
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a materiel under a given loading, The
maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The
allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit.
However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress
's taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The
ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the
factor of safety.
AXIAL DEFORMATION
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional to strain and
's glven by
since «= P/ Aand ce
JL then P/A=E8/L. Solving for ,
To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional
area, and the stress must not exceed the proportional limit, If however, the cross-
sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be determined by considering a
differential length and applying integrationIf however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be
determined by considering a differential length and applying
oe
wy
>=
° i
For a rod of unit mass p suspended vertically from one end, the total elongation due to
its own weight is
ext _ ML
DE” AE
where p is in kg/m?, Lis the length of the rod in mm, M is the total mass of the rad in
kg, A is the cross-sectional area of the rod in mm? and g = 9.81 m/s".
ST
‘NESS, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the resulting
displacement. It has the unit of N/mm.
PyeSOLVED PROBLEMS IN AXIAL DEFORMATION
Problem 206
A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm? and a length of 150 m is,
suspended vertically from one end, It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end
If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m? and E
100 x 10° MIN/m?, find the total
elongation of the rod.
Solution 206
Lat 8 = total elongation,
6) = elongation due to ts own weight
5:= elongation dite to appised load
5-48,
W 3
y= 34053825 7500) = 655 nun
300 2000000)
g
wind Total elongation:
p2ds3 40-5433
Problem 207
A steel wire 30 ft long, hanging vertically, supports a load of 500 Ib, Neglecting the
weight of the wire, determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20 ksi
and the total elongation is not to exceed 0.20 in. Assume E = 29 x 10° psi.Solution 207,
‘Based on maximum allowable stress
20.000 = 220
ta
a=0088in
me ‘Based on maximum allowable deformation:
pez
jt aE
seo ng - 20180532)
J, Fat @ai0)
4=00805in
Use the bigger diameter, d= 00998 in
Problem 208
A steel tire, 10 mm thick, 80 mm wide, and 1500.0 mm inside diameter, is heated and
shrunk onto a steel wheel 1500.5 mm in diemeter. If the coefficient of static friction is
0.30, what torque is required to twist the tire relative to the wheel? Neglect the
deformation of the wheel. Use E = 200 GPa,
Solution 208
00200009)
+ 10m 775393033
Foor
7 (300)50) = 203 53838)
PS OGR00 Pa > ena pee
Tota cma oe 1
Ko Nps contac area bebseen tie ant shee
wk N= 05859 « (1500.5)
N-@9242N
Friction resistance,
f= wN'=030389 21492)
/= 100594.45 N= 100.50 eN
Torque ~ fx } (iameter of whee!)
Torque = 100.50 x 0.75025
Torque 75.44 NamProblem 209
‘An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in’ carries the axial loads applied
at the positions shown in Fig. P-209. Compute the total change in length of the bar if E
= 10 x 10° psi. Assume the bar Is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling,
Faure P-209 and P-210 oe,
Solution 209,
—
coi
<_[ sor
caook
< (sha - ahs + see P
P=816l000N =S451N
Use the smallest value of P, P= 128 KNProblem 212
‘The rigid bar ABC shown in Fig. P-212 is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at 8.
Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is
limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.
Solution 212
Free badly and defcrmation diagrams:
Pa
P-0.4[80(050)]
Po skaps
Rased on movement at C
Pa($x12)
50286107)
P= 4553.39 1b ~ 4.59 haps
‘Use the smaller value, P= 4.83 kipsProblem 213
‘The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown In Fig. P-213, Is horizontal
before the load P is applied, Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50
KN.
Can” A= 200m!
FE ot tot ee
A
Solution 243
Free body diagoam
For aluminum:
[=O] ary -2560)
Py=20831N
FE], - 20868)1000%
4E, * ~S00,70000)
81-1782
560)
27 KN
a= 2.t7¢ap1000"
300200000)
321.94 an
‘Movement diagram
Bre 178+ y=173-+009
137 mun
Problem 214
‘The rigid bars AB and CD shown in Fig. P+214 are supported by pins at A and C and the
two rods. Determine the maximum force P that can be applied as shown if its vertical
movement is limited to 5 mm. Neglect the weights of all members,Figure P-214
i: ‘lurninum
Lean
500 mmé
Solution 214
[2]
LAE}.
a
5e-2 [ (2000) ]
FBD and movement diagram of bar AB 500(70000),
B= shy Pu= gp OP)
bs
Pap Movement of D:
Bo= ba + So
so~ P2120) ap,
300(200000)
So~ aby Pos
8D and movement a
diagram of bar CD
6P..= 3?
Py=4P
By ratio and proportion:
Sz _ 8p
36
Be $85
Seo sites Pot
5= stig (bP)
P= 76 363.64 N= 764 kNProblem 215
A uniform concrete slab of total weight W is to be attached, as shown in Fig. P-215, to
‘two rads whose lower ends are on the same level. Determine the ratio of the areas of
the rods so that the slab will remain level.
Figure P-215
Alucsinur
1010"
Laake
9 x 10 si
Lace
Gata
Solution 215
6P.=2W
Py~ LW
[EM,- 0] 6Pa-4W
Pox BW
4wlexi2) _ 3Wwx12)
A, 29x10") -Ag(10x10°)
Bg _ FW(4x12)(29«10°)
an S612) 10x10")
Aa/Aq— 3.867,
Problem 216
[As shown in Fig. P-216, two aluminum rods AB and BC, hinged to rigid supports, are
6000 Ib. If each rod has @
pinned together at B to carry a vertical load
crosssectional area of 0,60 in? and E = 10 x 10° psi, compute the elongation of each
rod and the horizontal and vertical displacements of point B. Assume « = 30° and 0 =
30°,Solution 216
Pie
ofa 20
0-20"
P= cob Pe
Movement of &
Pap cos 30°
Pas Pac
[EFr=0] Paz sin 30° + Frc sin 30° = 6000
Pap (0.5) + Paz (0.5) = 6000
Pap = 6000 Ib tension
Pec
Pac eos 30°
6000 Ib compression
PL
AE
60001012)
0.64010)
_ 6000(612)
D.6(10 x10")
0.12 in. lengthening
Bre
= 0.072 in. chostening
DB =8.9= 0.12in
BE ~ Ope 0.072 in.
Ge = BB’ = displacement of B
B’ = final position of B after elongation
Triangle BDB’
042,
3
012
cos
cos
‘Triangle BEB’:
cos (120° - 8)
_ 0.072
cos (120°-B)
n= or
02 0.072
cosB cos (120°-8)cos 120° cas B
cos B
0.5 + sin 120° tan B-0.6
tan B= 1.1/sin 120%; = 51.79°
in 120° sin B
§ = 90 ~ (30° + B) = 90° - (30° + 51.70")
g-s21
oz
cos SLIP
de = 0.94in
‘Triangle BEB:
VF = Gp sin 9 = 0.194 sin 8.21°
8,7 0.0277 in
.0023 ft-> norzortl dsplacemert of 8
On=
IF = 5p cos 6= 0.194 cos 8.21
192 in
.016 ft > verucal displacement of 5
Problem 217
Solve Prob. 216 if rod AB is of steel, with E = 29 x 10° psi. Assume a = 45° and @ =
30°; all other data remain unchanged.
Solution 217
By Sine Law
4 Pap 6000
fee] sin 60° sin 75°
8 ag = 5879.45 Ib (Tenscn)
Ory as _ 5000
vin 5° ain 75
ooo Pac= 439230 Ib (Comeresson)
poh
AE
79.45(10.12
Bap = 2304800%12) _ 9.9371 in, enatrerna)
(0.6(29« 10°)1302.30(6%
0.5(10%10°)
.0527 in. (shortening)
DB = daz = 0.0371 in
BE = yr = 0.0527 in
52 ~ BB’ ~ displacement of B
BY ~ final position of B after deformation
Triangle BDB’:
0.0371
cos B=
Teinngle BEB
cos (105° - p)
0.0527
os (105°—)
cos 105° cos P~ sirt 105° sin
cos
0.2588 + 0.9559 tan B= 1.4205
1.4205 + 0.2588
0.9699
7386
= 1.4205
tan
tan B
B= 504?
0.0371
os 60.
5p = 0.0744 in
[45° + B) 90
= (45° + 60.1") - 90°
pale
‘Triangle BEB’
Sn= FB! = Sp in § = 0.0744 sin 15.1°
y= 0.0194 in
i= 0.00162 ft > horizontal dnlacemert of &
&= BE= 8g cos,
G07 0.07189 in
5 0.00598 ft > vertca displacement of 8
0.0744 cos 15.1°Problem 218
A uniform slender rod of length L and cross sectional area A is rotating in a horizontal
plane about a vertical axis through one end, If the unit mass of the
rod is p, and it is rotating at a constant angular velocity of « rad/sec, show that the total
elongation of the rod is pa®L'/3E.
Solution 218
PL
“AE
from the frigure:
apx
AE
Where:
eruifual force of diferertial mass
iMate = (9h dow
3E
8- owL?/SE oktProblem 219
Around bar of length L, which tapers uniformly from a diameter D at one end to a
smaller diameter d at the other, is suspended vertically from the large end. If w is the
weight per unit volume, fing the elongation of the rod caused by its own weight. Use
this result to determine the elongation of a cone suspended from its base.
Solution 219,
rameter, D
a
Section along the
‘oxic of the bar
diameter,
For the ferential strip shown
= 05
weight caied by the strp
Weight of segment y
Lewy
A= ares ofthe ap
For weight of segment y (Frstum of cone):
P-wVy
From section along the axis
D-a
Volume for frustum of cone
v= doh (2+ +R)
ni[} (+a?
+ dE t6+ HEH]
Vyr deay [lat dy? + + (e+ A]
= krwlato +++ addy
shaw fe + 2ud+ P+ P+ ads Ely
bmw he +3ud+34ly
nos
mol (O-d* 340-4)
Be) OAD" 2 OWD 5g |y
ao rath
Area of the strip:
Antara 4 y+d}4w
DE! (Dd? 2 2a(D-d)
Ee
(D-d)?y? +3La(D-d)y +3024?
wl
®- Fl Doe aye YY
VID = dy+ ET
=
gee 8 Ona? =31a1D-Aya314d | “y
3E| (D=d)°y"+2Ld(D-djy+d?
let 3-0-4) baud
= 2] ey? +3aby +30"
V+ abys
_w0 [ay +3@y)*0+ Seay? +0 ]- | y
BaE | (y=
“Te quantty (a) + {ay + 3ay)bt + bi the expansion of (ay +B)
= w | (ay+t)-0*
2 Gy |.
_wfayeo?
3aE| (ay +b)? (ays
ayb)—B*(ay+by7] ay
= flay +b)-D¥ay+b)7 Lay
2 flyby eet)!
Suz, 2a ma
yey? I
3a |? aso? |
(aL +b)? + 2b* 307 (el =b)]
g~