Post Frame

POST-FRAME
BUILDING DESIGN MANUAL

Second Edition
Copyright © 2015, 2016. All rights reserved.
This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part by any means (with the exception of short quotations for
the purpose of review) without the permission of the publisher. For information, contact the National Frame
Building Association (NFBA).
NFBA, its members, and its agents make no warranty, either expressed or implied, including but not limited to
any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose regarding these design practices. NFBA shall assume
no responsibility for the sufficiency or completeness of the information contained herein. Any practice de-
scribed in the manual should be applied by the building professional in accordance with the most current profes-
sional standards applicable in the specific situation.
In no event shall NFBA be liable to anyone for special, collateral, incidental, or consequential damages in connec-
tion with or arising out of the purchase or use of the materials in this manual, and the sole and exclusive liability to
NFBA, regardless of the form of action, shall not exceed the purchase price of the manual. Moreover, NFBA shall
not be liable for any claim of any kind whatsoever against the user of these materials by any other party.
NFBA is not responsible for statements and opinions advanced in its meetings or printed in its publications.
Such statements and opinions represent the view of the individual to whom they are credited and are not binding
on the association as a whole.
National Frame Building Association

8735 W. Higgins Road, Suite 300
Chicago, IL 60631-2738
Phone: 800.557.6957
www.nfba.org
Contents
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
1 Introduction to Post-Frame Buildings

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
1.2 ANSI/ASABE S618 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
1.3 General Building Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
1.4 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
1.5 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21
1.6 Ideal Structural Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23
1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-34
1.8 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-35
2 Building Regulations
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.3 Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
2.4 International Building Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.5 Federal Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2.6 NFBA Sponsored Fire Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2.7 Zoning Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2.8 Codes and Farm Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2.9 Significant Design Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
3 Structural Load and Deflection Criteria

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Load Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.3 Building Risk Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.4 Load Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.5 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.6 Tributary Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
3.7 Load Representations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
3.8 Dead Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.9 Live Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3.10 Snow Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.11 Wind Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3.12 Seismic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
3.13 Deflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
3.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
4 Structural Design Overview
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.2 Broad Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.3 Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4.4 Trusses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.5 Girders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.6 Knee Braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.7 Roof Purlins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.8 Wall Girts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
4.9 Large Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4.10 Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4.11 Shearwalls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4.12 Decay Resistance of Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4.13 Electrochemical Corrosion Resistance of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
5 Post and Pier Foundation Design

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5.3 Soil Characteristics, Classification and Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
5.4 Engineering Properties of Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
5.5 Foundation Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
5.6 Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
5.7 Governing Strength Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
5.8 Bearing Strength Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
5.9 Lateral Strength Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
5.10 Uplift Strength Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
5.11 Frost Heave Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-40
5.12 Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-40
5.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-41
6 Diaphragm Design
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 Structural Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6.3 Frame Stiffness, k. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6.4 Diaphragm Stiffness, Ch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.5 Eave Load, R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.6 Load Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6.7 Component Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
6.8 Rigid Roof Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29
6.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30
7 Metal-Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragm Properties
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 Design Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.3 Diaphragm Test Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.4 Building Diaphragm Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.5 Building Shearwall Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.6 Tabulated Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.7 Example Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
8 Post Design
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.2 Post Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.3 Relative Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
8.4 Preservative Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
8.5 Corrosion Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8.6 Bending Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8.7 Structural Framing Requirements and Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
8.8 Thermal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
8.9 Post Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
8.10 Reference Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13
8.11 Adjustment Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
8.12 Controlling Design Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-31
8.13 Example Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-32
8.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-35
Acknowledgements
The National Frame Building Association (NFBA) would like to gratefully acknowledge those
who have given generously of their time and talent in the production of this second edition of the
Post-Frame Building Design Manual.
We would like to especially thank NFBA Technical & Research Committee member David R.
Bohnhoff, PhD, PE, professor of biological systems engineering at the University of Wisconsin–
Madison, who served as the author of this manual. Dr. Bohnhoff’s tireless dedication and
commitment to the advancement of the post-frame industry are recognized and appreciated by
NFBA.
NFBA would also like to recognize Harvey Manbeck, PhD, PE, Distinguished Professor
Emeritus of Engineering at Penn State University and a technical advisor to NFBA. Dr. Manbeck
and other members of the NFBA Technical & Research Committee provided expertise in
reviewing and contributing to the Post-Frame Building Design Manual.
Members of the NFBA Technical & Research Committee who contributed to this project were
Paul Boor, PE, John Fullerton, Al Geisthardt, Mark Goble, Ken Guffey, PE, Aaron Halberg, PE,
Ed Lash, Kris Owen, Stan Pissarski, Tim Royer, PE, Al Schambach, Leo Shirek, PE (cochair),
Ron Sutton (cochair), and Doug Thomsen.
vi
.
CHAPTER 1 .
Introduction to Post-Frame Buildings
1.1 General
Contents 1.1.1 Building Systems
1.1 General 1–1 A post-frame building system is one of many types of
1.2 ANSI/ASABE S618 Definitions 1–1 framing/support systems. In general, a framing/support
1.3 General Building Terminology 1–13 system is concrete-based, steel-based, wood-based, or a
combination of these three. Even though they may
1.4 History 1–16 contain structural steel or concrete components, post-
1.5 Advantages 1–21 frame building systems fall under the broad category of
1.6 Ideal Structural Applications 1–23 wood-based framing systems. From a structural framing
perspective, a post-frame building system is analogous to
1.7 References 1–34
the typical low-rise metal building system. Conventional
1.8 Acknowledgements 1–35 buildings of both types have two-dimensional primary
frames that are connected with secondary framing
members, and nomenclature for both building systems is
similar. The major difference is that the majority of
framing members in a post-frame building are wood-
based, and the majority of framing members in a low-rise
steel framing building system are steel.
1.1.2 Use
Post-frame buildings are well-suited for many
commercial, industrial, agricultural and residential
applications. Post-frame buildings offer unique
advantages in terms of design and construction flexibility
and structural efficiency.
1.2 ANSI/ASABE S618 Definitions

Definitions for post-frame building systems and
components are contained in ANSI/ASABE S618 Post-
Frame Building System Nomenclature. This standard
was written to establish uniformity of terminology used
in building design, construction, marketing and
regulation. All definitions appearing in ANSI/ASABE
S618 are repeated here as an introduction to this unique
building system.
1.2.1 Building Systems
Post-Frame Building System: A building
characterized by primary structural frames of wood posts
as columns and trusses or rafters as roof framing. Roof
framing is attached to the posts, either directly or
indirectly through girders. Posts are embedded in the
soil and supported on isolated footings, or are attached to
National Frame Building Association 1-1

Post-Frame Building Design Manual (January 2015)
© 2015. All rights reserved.
NFBA Post-Frame Building Design Manual
the top of piers, concrete or masonry walls, or slabs-on- Pole-Frame Building System: A post-frame building
grade. Secondary framing members, purlins in the roof in which all posts are round poles. Commonly referred
and girts in the walls, are attached to the primary framing to as a pole building. See figure 1-3.
members to provide lateral support and to transfer
sheathing loads, both in-plane and out-of-plane, to the 1.2.2 Building Subsystems
posts and roof framing. See figures 1-1 to 1-3.
Primary Frame: The two-dimensional interior frame
that is formed by the direct attachment of a roof
truss/rafter to its respective posts. Also known as a post-
frame or a main frame. See figures 1-4 to 1-9.
• Single-Span Primary Frame: Primary frame
without any interior supports. Also known as a clear
span primary frame. See figure 1-4.
• Multi-Span Primary Frame: Primary frame with
one or more interior supports. See figures 1-5 to 1-9.
• Solid-Web Primary Frame: Primary frame
assembled without using any open-web trusses. See
figures 1-6 and 1-8.
Figure 1-1. Post-frame building with trusses • Open-Web Primary Frame: Primary frame
supported directly by embedded posts.
fabricated with open-web trusses and no solid-web
members for roof support. See figures 1-4, 1-5 and 1-
7.
• Hybrid Primary Frame: Primary frame assembled
with both open-web trusses and solid-web members
for roof support. See figure 1-9.
Figure 1-2. Post-frame building mounted on a

concrete stem wall.
Figure 1-4. A single-span, open-web primary frame.
Figure 1-3. Post-frame building featuring girder

supported rafters. Since all posts are round poles, Figure 1-5. A three-span, open-web primary frame
this post-frame building could also be identified as a featuring twin inverted trusses.
pole building.
1-2 National Frame Building Association

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Post-Frame Buildings
Diaphragm: A structural assembly comprised of

structural sheathing (e.g., plywood, metal cladding) that
is fastened to roof, ceiling, floor or floor framing in such
a manner that the entire assembly is capable of
transferring in-plane shear forces.
• Shearwall: A vertical diaphragm. Any endwall,
sidewall, intermediate wall or portion thereof that is
Figure 1-6. A three-span, solid-web primary frame. capable of transferring in-plane shear forces.
1.2.3 Primary Framing Members
Primary framing members are the main structural
framing members in a building. In a post-frame building
they include the posts, roof trusses/rafters, and any
girders that transfer load between roof trusses/rafters and
posts.
Post: A structural wood column. It functions as a major
foundation element when it is embedded in the soil.
Figure 1-7. A three-span, open-web primary frame Post-frame building posts include solid-sawn posts,
featuring a raised center bay. structural composite lumber posts, glulam posts,
mechanically-laminated lumber posts, and poles.
• Solid-Sawn Post: Post comprised of a single piece
of sawn lumber.
• Structural Composite Lumber Post (SCL
Post): Post comprised of a single piece of structural
composite lumber. Structural composite lumber
(SCL) includes, but is not limited to: parallel strand
lumber (PSL), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), and
Figure 1-8. A five-span, solid-web primary frame
utilizing knee-braces on the sidewall posts. (Knee laminated stand lumber (LSL).
braces per design requirements, not mandatory.) • Glued-Laminated Post (or Glulam Post): Post
consisting of suitably selected sawn lumber
laminations joined with a structural adhesive.
• Mechanically-Laminated Post (or Mechlam
Post): Post consisting of suitably selected sawn
lumber laminations or structural composite lumber
(SCL) laminations joined with nails, screws, bolts,
and/or other mechanical fasteners.
o Nail-Laminated Post (or Nail-Lam Post): A
mechanically laminated post in which only nails
Figure 1-9. A three-span, hybrid primary frame. have been used to join individual wood layers.
o Screw-Laminated Post (or Screw-Lam
Sidewall: An exterior wall oriented perpendicular to Post): A mechanically laminated post in which
individual primary frames. only screws have been used to join individual
wood layers.
Endwall: An exterior wall oriented parallel to
individual primary frames. o Spliced Post: A mechanically laminated post in
which individual laminations are fabricated by
• Endwall Frame: Consists of endwall posts and the end-joining shorter wood members. End joints are
attached endwall truss or rake rafters. generally unreinforced butt joints, mechanically-
reinforced butt joints, glued scarf joints, or glued
• Expandable Endwall: Endwall frame designed
finger joints.
with the load-bearing capability of an interior frame
(i.e. primary frame) so it can serve as an interior o Unspliced Post: A mechanically laminated post
frame when the building is expanded. See figures 1-1 in which individual laminations do not contain end
to 1-3. joints.

• Pole: A round, naturally tapered, unsawn, wood post. o Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss
Poles are sometimes slabbed to aid in fastening (MPCWT): A truss composed of wood members
framing members. joined with metal connector plates (also know as
truss plates). Metal connector plates (MCP) are
• Endwall Post: Post located in an endwall. light-gage, toothed steel plates. The most common
• Sidewall Post: Post located in a sidewall. type of light wood truss.
• Corner Post: Post that is part of both a sidewall and • Heavy Timber Truss: A truss manufactured from
an endwall. wood members whose narrowest dimension is equal
to or greater than 5 nominal inches. Wood members
• Jamb Post: Post that frames the side of a door, include solid-sawn timber, structural composite
window, or other framed opening. lumber, and glulams. Members are generally
Truss: A structural framework, generally two- connected with steel gusset plates that are bolted in
dimensional (i.e. planar), whose members are almost place.
always assembled to form a series of inter-connected • Ganged Wood Truss: A truss designed to be
triangles. Perimeter members of the assembly are called installed as an assembly of two or more individual
truss chords and interior members are called truss webs. light wood trusses fastened together to act as one.
• Light Wood Truss: A truss manufactured from • Girder Truss: Truss designed to carry heavy loads
wood members whose narrowest dimension is less from other structural members framing into it.
than 5 nominal inches. Wood members include solid- Frequently a ganged wood truss.
sawn lumber, structural composite lumber, and
glulams. Members may be connected with metal • Parallel Chord Truss: Truss with top and bottom
connector plates (MCP), bolts, timber connectors, and chords with equal slopes
screwed- or nailed-on plywood gusset plates. • Roof Truss: A truss that directly supports a roof.
Figure 1-10. Typical corner framing.

Figure 1-11. Section of a post-frame building featuring girder-supported rafters. Although posts of any type can be
used to support girders, this image shows round poles being used as structural wood columns.
Rafter: One of a series of sloped, structural beams that • Spaced Girder: A girder composed of two beams
support a roof. that are separated a fixed distance by special spacers
and/or the girder supports. See figures 1-11 and 1-12.
• Rake Rafter: A rafter located in an end wall. See
figure 1-11. Header: Framing member at the top of a window, door
or other framed opening. In general, any framing
• Fly Rafter: Rafter at the rake overhang that is member that ties together the ends of adjacent framing
supported out from the endwall by rake purlins. See members and may or may not be load bearing. See
figure 1-10. figure 1-12.
• Stacked Rafter: A narrow, deep rafter made by Knee Brace: A diagonally-oriented member used to
placing one rafter on top of another and fastening stiffen and strengthen the connection between a post and
them together. Generally made by fastening the attached roof truss/rafter, or between a post and an
dimension lumber together with metal connector attached girder. See figures 1-8 and 1-11.
plates.
Bearing Block: A relatively short structural support
Girder: A large, generally horizontal, beam. Commonly used to transfer vertical load from one structural member
used in post-frame buildings to support trusses whose to another. Frequently used to transfer load from a girder
bearing points do not coincide with a post. Frequently to a post or a truss to a post.
function as headers over large door and window
openings. Rafter Extension: A framing member attached to the
end of a truss or rafter that extends the effective slope
• Eave Girder: Girder located at the eave of a length of the roof by supporting additional purlins and/or
building. See figure 1-11. subfasica. Rafter extensions are commonly used to help
• Ridge Beam: Girder located at the ridge of a form eave overhangs as well as over shot roofs. See
building. See figure 1-11. figures 1-10, 1-13, 1-14 and 1-15.
• Truss Girder: A truss that functions as a girder. Tie-Down Block: A framing member used to attach a
Top and bottom chords of a truss girder are generally roof truss/rafter to a girder. See figure 1-12.
parallel.

Purlin-on-edge Rafter extension Fascia trim

Inset purlin Fascia purlin
Roof sheathing Roof sheathing Two-ply rafter
Purlin-on-edge extension support
Roof sheathing
Eave trim
Truss Purlin-on-edge
Eave strut
Tie-down block Truss Figure 1-15. Overshot ridge with rafter extension
supported by a two-ply rafter extension support. One
Spaced girder ply is located between the rafter extension and truss
Wall sheathing
top chord; the second ply extends along the sides of
Door header the rafter extension and truss chord.
Door trim
Weather seal
Figure 1-12. Cross-sectional view through an
overhead door in the sidewall of a building without an
eave overhang.
Eave strut
Exterior girt Interior girt
Notched girt
Bookshelf girts
Inset girts
Figure 1-16. Girt types.
Figure 1-13. Cross-sectional view through an eave

overhang that is supported by a rafter extension that
1.2.4 Secondary Framing Members
runs continuously from the edge purlin/sub-fascia to Secondary framing members are structural framing
the first purlin above the post. The rafter extension is members used to transfer load between exterior
fastened to the post, purlin, and top of the truss. sheathing and primary framing members, and/or to
laterally brace primary framing members. Secondary
Purlins-on-edge
framing members in a post-frame building include girts,
purlins, eave struts and any structural wood bracing.
Roof sheathing
Rafter extension Girt: A member attached (typically at a right angle) to
posts. Girts laterally support posts and transfer loads
Fascia between any attached wall sheathing and the posts. See
purlin
figure 1-16.
• Exterior Girt: A girt located entirely on the outside
Truss of posts. Also known as an outset girt. See figure 1-
Fascia trim Soffit
Post
16.
Top girt
• Inset Girt: A girt located entirely between adjacent
Wall sheathing
posts. Frequently used to support both exterior and
Figure 1-14. Cross-sectional view through an eave interior wall sheathing and horizontally-placed batt
overhang that is supported by rafter extensions (one insulation. See figure 1-16.
on each side of the truss) that are attached to the tail
end of the truss.

• Interior Girt: A girt located entirely on the inside of • Purlin-Laid-Flat: A purlin that rests on top of roof
posts. Generally used to support interior wall trusses/rafters with its wide face in contact with the
sheathing in buildings with exterior girts. See figure trusses/rafters. See figures 1-11 and 1-17.
1-16.
• Recessed Purlin: A purlin located entirely between
• Notched Girt: A girt that is notched to facilitate adjacent trusses/rafters. Single-span components that
attachment to a post. Notching places a portion of the are typically held in place with special metal hangers.
girt between adjacent posts, with the remainder Also known as an inset purlin or dropped purlin. See
located outside or inside the posts. See figure 1-16. figure 1-17.
• Bottom Girt: The lowest girt. This could be a o Fully Recessed Purlin: Recessed purlin whose
regular girt, grade girt, or a splash plank. See figures top edge aligns with or is below the top edge of the
1-24 and 1-25. trusses/rafters to which it is connected. See figure
1-17.
o Grade Girt: A bottom girt located at grade. May
also function as a splash plank. See figures 1-22 o Partially Recessed Purlin: Recessed purlin
and 1-24. whose top edge is above the top edge of the
trusses/rafters to which it is connected. See figure
• Splash Plank: Any decay and corrosion resistant 1-17.
girt that is in soil contact or located near the soil
surface, that remains visible from the building exterior • Notched Purlin: A purlin that is notched to fit over
upon building completion, and is 2 to 4 inches in roof trusses/rafters. See figure 1-17.
nominal thickness. Frequently, multiple rows of
• Lapped Purlins: Two non-recessed purlins (i.e.,
tongue and groove (T&G) splash plank are used along
purlins-on-edge, purlins-laid-flat, or notched purlins)
the base of a wall. See figures 1-10, 1-11 and 1-24.
that bypass each other where they are connected to the
• Top Girt: The highest girt. A top girt to which both same truss/rafter. See figures 1-10 and 1-17.
roof and wall sheathing are attached is known as an
• Rake Purlin: A purlin that overhangs the endwall of
eave strut. See figures 1-10, 1-11, 1-13 and 1-14.
a building. See figure 1-10.
• Bookshelf Girt: A girt with its wide faces
• Ridge Purlin: A purlin adjacent to the building
horizontally oriented thus enabling it to effectively
ridge. See figures 1-10 and 1-11.
function as a shelf when left exposed. See figure 1-
16. • Eave Purlin: A purlin located at the eave line of a
building. An eave purlin to which both wall and roof
sheathing are attached is known as an eave strut. See
figure 1-13
• Fascia Purlin: A purlin that helps form the fascia of
a building. Also known as an edge purlin. See
• Edge Purlin: A purlin in the most outer row of
purlins. All fascia purlins are edge purlins but not all
edge purlins are fascia purlins. The edge purlins
shown in figure 1-11 are not fascia purlins as they do
not help form the fascia of the building.
• Beveled Purlin: A purlin with an edge that has been
cut at an angle, generally to facilitate cladding
Figure 1-17. Purlin types.
attachment. See figures 1-12, 1-13 and 1-14.
Purlin: A member attached (typically at a right angle) to
roof trusses/rafters. Purlins laterally support Eave strut: An eave purlin to which both wall and roof
trusses/rafters and transfer load between roof sheathing sheathing are attached or a top girt to which both wall
and roof trusses/rafters. See figures 1-10, 1-11 and 1-17. and roof sheathing are attached. Simultaneous
attachment of an eave strut to both wall and roof
• Purlin-on-Edge: A purlin that rests on top of roof sheathing generally provides the strut with effective
trusses/rafters with its narrow face in contact with the continuous lateral support to resist bending about both
trusses/rafters. See figures 1-10 and 1-17. primary axes. See figures 1-12 and 1-16.

Base Plate: A corrosion and decay resistant member Bracing: Axially-loaded structural members used to
that is attached to the top of a concrete floor or wall. A help stabilize other structural components. The
base plate is generally located between posts and may definitions in this section pertain to permanent bracing.
function like a bottom girt. Unlike a girt, primary Additional temporary bracing is generally required
attachment of a base plate is to the concrete and not the during construction
posts. See figures 1-21 and 1-25.
• Continuous Lateral Restraint (CLR): An
Sill Plate: A corrosion and decay resistant member that uninterrupted row of structural framing members
is attached to the top of a concrete foundation wall, and connecting a series of trusses. The row is
upon which posts are attached. perpendicular to truss members and thus provides
lateral support to the truss members it connects. See
o Bottom Chord Continuous Lateral
Restraint: A row of structural framing members
that provides lateral support to the bottom chords
of adjacent trusses. See figure 1-19.
o Web Member Continuous Lateral Restraint:
A row of structural framing members that provides
lateral support to the web members of adjacent
trusses. See figure 1-18.
• Diagonal Brace. A framing member that runs at an
angle to other framing members, and with other
framing members generally forms a structurally-stable
triangular assembly.
Figure 1-18. Components of a continuous lateral o Web plane diagonal brace: A diagonal brace
restraint system for web members. For larger truss that lies in the plane formed by the web members
spacing, individual web member reinforcement may of adjacent trusses. The brace generally runs from
be more economical for lateral bracing of webs than the roof plane to the ceiling plane, and is required
a continuous lateral restraint system.
in truss web planes that contain continuous lateral
restraints to keep the CLR from shifting. See
figure 1-18.
o Bottom chord diagonal brace: A diagonal
brace that lies in the plane formed by the bottom
chords of adjacent trusses (a.k.a.., the ceiling
plane). The braces are used to prevent bottom
chord continuous lateral restraints from shifting.
o X-brace: A pair of diagonal braces that cross each
other thus forming an “X”. Generally, one brace
will be in axial tension while the other brace is
loaded in axial compression.
o V-brace: A pair of diagonal braces that meet at
one of their ends, thus forming a “V”. Generally,
one brace will be in axial tension while the other
brace is loaded in axial compression.
o Endwall diagonal brace: A framing member
used to transfer load from an endwall to the roof
Figure 1-19. Endwall diagonal brace used to transfer plane. Generally used above large endwall
endwall forces into roof diaphragm and to keep openings or where an endwall post is not
bottom chord continuous lateral restraint from continuous from grade to the rake (e.g., an endpost
shifting. is terminated near the bottom chord of an endwall
truss). See figure 1-19.

Track Board: A member to which a sliding door track

is directly attached.
Track Board Support: A structural framing member
that is used to support a track board.
1.2.5 Diaphragm Components

When post-frame building components (e.g., purlins,
girts, purlin blocks, mechanical fasteners, etc.) are
positioned and connected in such a way to form a
diaphragm (see diaphragm definition in 1.2.2), these
components take on additional names as defined in this
Figure 1-20. Types of individual member
section.
reinforcement.
Diaphragm Structural Framing: Primary and
secondary framing members to which structural
Bracing for Individual Members. The buckling sheathing panels are attached to form a diaphragm
resistance of an individual framing member is often assembly.
increased by attaching a T-, L-, or scab reinforcement to
Structural Sheathing: Frame coverings that are
the side of the member. See figure 1-20.
selected in part for their ability to absorb and transfer
• T-Reinforcement: A member that is attached to a structural loads. Common structural sheathings include
structural framing member such that the cross-section plywood, oriented strand board, and corrugated (a.k.a.
of the two adjoined members forms a tee. See figure ribbed) steel.
1-20.
• Structural Sheathing Panel: An individual piece
• L-Reinforcement: A member that is attached to a of structural sheathing.
structural framing member such that the cross-section
Edge Fastener: A sheathing-to-framing connector that
of the two adjoined members forms an el. See figure
is located along the sides or ends of a structural
1-20.
sheathing panel.
• Scab Reinforcement: A member whose wide face
Field Fastener: A sheathing-to-framing connector that
is attached to the wide face of a structural framing is not located along the sides or ends of a structural
member. See figure 1-20. sheathing panel.
Compression-Edge Brace: A brace used to provide Seam (or Stitch) Fastener: An edge fastener that
lateral support to the compressive edge of a beam or connects two structural sheathing panels thereby adding
column. More commonly referred to as a flange brace in-plane shear continuity between the panels.
when used to support the compressive edge of an I-
shaped section. • Anchored Seam Fastener: A seam fastener that
penetrates the underlying structural framing a
Purlin Block: A member placed between purlins to
sufficient amount so as to significantly affect the
help transfer load from roof sheathing to roof framing, to
shear characteristics of the connection.
reduce purlin roll, and/or to eliminate bird perch points.
See figures 1-10 and 1-17. Shear Blocks: Short framing members used to help
transfer shear force into or out of the structural sheathing
Sub-Fascia: A structural member located under the
of a diaphragm. For roof diaphragms, properly
fascia or eave/fascia trim. In a building with overhangs,
connected purlin blocks function as shear blocks.
the edge purlins and fly rafters generally function as
subfasica. In a building without overhangs, the eave Diaphragm Chords: Diaphragm structural framing
strut and rake rafters generally function as sub-fascia. members that run perpendicular to the applied load, and
See figures 1-10 and 1-11. thus are subjected to axial forces when the load works to
bend the diaphragm.
Lookout: A short member in an eave overhang that
connects the sub-fascia and wall. Generally used to Drag Strut: A member, typically horizontal, that
support soffit. Unlike a rafter extension, a lookout is not transfers shear from a floor, roof or ceiling diaphragm to
used to structurally support purlins or eave sub-fascia. a shear wall.

Structural Ridge Cap: A component that covers the Footing: Foundation component at the base of a post,
ridge of a building and is capable of transferring shear pier or wall that provides resistance to vertical downward
force between diaphragms located on opposite sides of forces. When a footing is located below grade and
the ridge. properly attached to a post, pier or wall, it aids in the
resistance of lateral and vertical uplift forces. See figures
1-22 to 1-25.
Exterior girt Uplift Anchor: Any element mechanically attached to
Exterior wall an embedded post or pier to increase the uplift resistance
cladding Post of the foundation. Common uplift anchors include
Flashing concrete footings, concrete collars, preservative-treated
Inset girt wood blocks, steel angles, and concrete backfill. See
Sheathing Slab-to-post figures 1-22 to 1-24.
connecting bracket
Brick veneer Collar: Foundation component attached below grade to
Base plate an embedded post or pier, and that moves with it to resist
Slab-on- lateral and vertical loads. See figure 1-23.
grade
Grade beam foundation
Grade Beam: A corrosion and decay resistant beam
located on the soil surface. Also a long, thickened, and
more heavily-reinforced portion of a slab-on-grade
Figure 1-21. Slab-on-grade foundation. foundation. See figure 1-21.
Slab-on-grade
Grade girt
1.2.7 Foundations Types
Floor level
Grade line This section defines foundation types that are commonly
Ground used to support post-frame building systems.
surface
Post Preservative-treated
Post Foundation: A foundation consisting of an
embedment wood post embedded post and all attached below-grade elements,
depth which may include a footing, uplift resistance system,
Foundation and collar. See figures 1-22 and 1-23.
depth Uplift anchor
(preservative-treated Pier Foundation: A foundation consisting of an
wood blocking) embedded pier and all attached below-grade elements,
Isolated footing which may include a footing, uplift resistance system,
and collar. See figure 1-24.
Figure 1-22. Post foundation featuring a preservative-
treated wood blocks for uplift anchorage. • Pier and Beam Foundation: A pier foundation
that supports a grade beam.
Slab-On-Grade Foundation: A reinforced concrete
1.2.6 Foundation Components slab that rests on the soil surface. Slab areas located
directly beneath structural columns or walls are generally
This section contains descriptions of foundation
thicker and more heavily reinforced. Long, thickened
components that are used to define foundation types in
Section 1.2.7. and reinforced portions are generally referred to as grade
beams. See figure 1-21.
Embedded Pier: A relatively short column embedded
Stem Wall Foundation: A foundation consisting of a
in the soil to provide support for an above-grade post,
continuous wall that may be placed on a continuous
beam, wall, or other structure. Piers include members of
footing. The base of the foundation is generally located
any material with assigned structural properties such as
below expected frost penetration depths. See figure 1-
solid or laminated wood, steel, or concrete. Embedded
25.
piers differ from embedded posts in that they seldom
extend above the lowest horizontal framing element in a
structure, and when they do, it is often nor more than a
foot. See figure 1-24.

Air infiltration/water barrier Vapor retarder in cold climates

Wall insulation Interior wall board
Interior girt
Exterior wall cladding
Concrete slab
Splash plank
Grade line
Edge and under slab insulation

Vapor
Preservative-treated wood post retarder
Steel reinforcing bar

inserted through post Uplift anchor
(holds anchor to post) (concrete collar cast-in-place
Isolated footing over footing and around post)
Figure 1-23. Post foundation featuring a cast-in-place concrete collar for

uplift anchorage and increased lateral resistance. Concrete collar need not
surround footing (as shown above) to be effective in resisting uplift.
Figure 1-24. Pier foundation featuring steel angles for uplift anchorage.

Figure 1-25. Stem wall foundation.
1.2.8 Dimensions Foundation Depth: Vertical distance from the grade

Grade Line (Grade Level): The line of intersection line to the bottom of the foundation. Typically the
between the building exterior and the finished ground vertical distance from the ground surface to the base of
surface and/or top of the pavement in contact with the the footing. (a.k.a., foundation embedment depth). See
building exterior. See figures 1-22 to 1-25. figures 1-22 to 1-25.
Floor Level: Elevation of the finished floor surface. In Post Embedment Depth: Vertical distance from the
the absence of a finished floor, the floor level is taken as grade line to the bottom of an embedded post. Equal to
the elevation of the bottom edge of the bottom girt. In the foundation depth when the post does not bear on a
buildings with stemwall foundations and no finished footing or other foundation element. See figure 1-22.
floor, floor level is taken as the elevation of the
Pier Embedment Depth: Vertical distance from the
unfinished floor. See figure 1-22.
grade line to the bottom of a pier. Equal to the
Eave Line: Line formed by the intersection of the plane foundation depth when the footing is part of the pier (i.e.,
formed by the top edge of the purlins and the plane the footing is cast integrally with the pier). See figure 1-
formed by the outside edge of the sidewall girts. 24.
Rake Line: Line formed by the intersection of the plane Clear Height: Vertical distance between the finished
formed by the top edge of the purlins and the plane floor and the lowest part of a truss, rafter, or girder.
formed by the outside edge of the endwall girts.
Post Height: The length of the non-embedded portion
Ridge Line: Line formed by the intersection of the of a post.
plane formed by the top edge of the purlins on one side
Eave Height: Vertical distance between the floor level
of the roof and the plane formed by the top edge of the and the eave line.
purlins on the opposite side of the roof. For a mono-
slope roof, the ridge line is the line formed by the Building Height: Vertical distance between the floor
intersection of the plane formed by the top edge of the level and the ridge line. (a.k.a., ridge height).
purlins and the plane formed by the outside edge of the
Building Bay: The area between adjacent post-frames.
girt in the tallest sidewall.

Frame Spacing: On-center horizontal spacing of Board-Foot (BF): A measure of lumber volume based
primary frames. Frame spacing may vary within a on nominal dimensions. To calculate the number of
building. (a.k.a., bay width). board-feet in a piece of lumber, multiply nominal width
in inches by nominal thickness in inches by length in feet
Clear Span: Horizontal distance from the face of one
and divide by 12.
support to the face of the opposite support.
Butt Joint: The interface at which the ends of two
Building Width: Horizontal distance between the
members meet in a square cut joint.
outside face of the girts in one sidewall and the outside
face of the girts in the opposite sidewall. Camber: A predetermined curvature designed into a
structural member to offset the anticipated deflection
Building Length: Horizontal distance between the
when loads are applied.
outside face of the girts in one endwall and the outside
face of the girts in the opposite endwall. Check: Separation of the wood that usually extends
across growth rings (i.e., a split perpendicular-to-growth
Eave Overhang Distance: Horizontal distance from
rings). Commonly results from stresses that build up in
the eave line to the outside of the subfacia.
wood during seasoning.
Rake Overhang Distance: Horizontal distance from
Cladding: The exterior and interior coverings fastened
the rake line to the outside of the fly rafter.
to framing.
Girt Spacing: On-center vertical spacing of girts.
Components and Cladding: Elements of the
Purlin Spacing: On-center spacing of purlins. building envelope that do not qualify as part of the main
wind-force resisting system as defined in ASCE/SEI 7.
In post-frame buildings, this generally includes
1.3 General Building Terminology individual purlins and girts, and cladding.
The following terms and abbreviations are not specific to Diaphragm Action: The transfer of load by a
post-frame buildings, and thus are defined outside of diaphragm.
ASABE S618 Post-Frame Building System
Nomenclature. Diaphragm Design: Design of roof and ceiling
diaphragm(s), wall diaphragms (shearwalls), primary and
AF&PA: American Forest & Paper Association secondary framing members, component connections,
(formerly National Forest Products Association). and foundation anchorages for the purpose of
transferring lateral (e.g., wind) loads to the foundation
AITC: American Institute of Timber Construction.
structure via diaphragm action.
ALSC: American Lumber Standard Committee.
Dimension Lumber: Wood members from two (2)
ANSI: American National Standards Institute nominal inches to but not including five (5) nominal
inches in thickness, and 2 or more nominal inches in
APA: The Engineered Wood Association (formerly the
width.
American Plywood Association)
Eave: The part of a roof that projects over the sidewalls.
ASABE: The American Society of Agricultural and
In the absence of an overhang, the eave is the line along
Biological Engineers.
the sidewall formed by the intersection of the wall and
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers. roof planes.
ASD: Allowable Stress Design Fascia: Flat surface (or covering) located at the outer
end of a roof overhang or cantilever end.
AWC: American Wood Council. The wood products
division of the American Forest & Paper Association Flashing: Sheet metal or plastic components used at
(AF&PA). major breaks and/or openings in walls and roofs to insure
weather-tightness in a structure.
AWPB: American Wood Preservers Bureau.
Gable: Triangular portion of the endwall of a building
Bearing Point: The point at which a component is directly under the sloping roof and above the eave line.
supported.
Gable Roof: Roof with one slope on each side. Each
Board: Wood member less than two (2) nominal inches slope is of equal pitch.
in thickness and one (1) or more nominal inches in
width.

Gambrel Roof: Roof with two slopes on each side. wind-force resisting systems in post-frame buildings
The pitch of the lower slope is greater than that of the include the individual post-frames, diaphragms and
upper slope. shearwalls.
Hip Roof: Roof which rises by inclined planes from all Manufactured Component: A component that is
four sides of a building. assembled in a manufacturing facility. The wood trusses
and laminated columns used in post-frame buildings are
IBC: International Building Code.
generally manufactured components.
ICC: International Code Council.
MBMA: Metal Building Manufacturers Association.
Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL): A structural
NDS: ANSI/AWC NDS-2012 ASD/LRFD National
composite lumber (SCL) assembly comprised of wood
strands bonded with resins under heat and pressure. Design Specification for Wood Construction. American
Strand fibers are primarily oriented along the length of Wood Council, Leesburg, VA www.awc.org
the member. The least dimension of the strands shall not Metal Cladding: Metal exterior and interior coverings,
exceed 0.10 in. (2.54 mm) and the average length shall usually cold-formed aluminum or steel sheet, fastened to
be a minimum of 150 times the least dimension. the structural framing.
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL): A structural NFBA: National Frame Building Association.
composite lumber (SCL) assembly manufactured by
gluing together wood veneer sheets. Each veneer is NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.
oriented with its wood fibers parallel to the length of the Nominal Size: The named size of a member, usually
member. Individual veneer thickness does not exceed different than its actual size (as with lumber).
0.25 inches.
Oriented Strand Board (OSB): Structural wood
Loads: Forces or other actions that arise on structural panels manufactured from reconstituted, mechanically
systems from the weight of all permanent construction, oriented wood strands bonded with resins under heat and
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, pressure.
differential settlement, and restrained dimensional
changes. Oriented Strand Lumber (OSL): A structural
composite lumber (SCL) assembly comprised of wood
• Dead Loads: Forces induced by the gravitational strands bonded with resins under heat and pressure.
attraction between the earth and the mass of the Strand fibers are primarily oriented along the length of
building components. the member. The least dimension of the strands shall not
exceed 0.10 in. (2.54 mm) and the average length shall
• Live Loads: Loads resulting from the use and
be a minimum of 75 times the least dimension.
occupancy of a building.
OSB: See Oriented Strand Board.
• Seismic Load: Forces induced in a structure due to
the horizontal acceleration and deacceleration of the Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL): Structural composite
building foundation during an earthquake. lumber (SCL) manufactured by cutting 1/8-1/10 inch
thick wood veneers into narrow wood strands, and then
• Snow Load: Forces induced by the gravitation gluing and pressing the strands together. Individual
attraction between the earth and any snow that strands are up to 8 feet in length. Prior to pressing,
accumulates on the building. strands are oriented so that they are parallel to the length
• Wind Loads: Loads caused by the wind blowing of the member.
from any direction. Pennyweight: A measure of nail length, abbreviated
Lumber Grade: The classification of lumber in regard by the letter d.
to strength and utility in accordance with the grading Plywood: A wood panel comprised of wood veneers.
rules of an approved (ALSC accredited) lumber grading The grain orientation of adjacent veneers are typically 90
agency. degrees to each other.
LRFD: Load and Resistance Factor Design Pressure Preservative Treated (PPT) Wood:
LVL: see Laminated Veneer Lumber. Wood pressure-impregnated with an approved
preservative chemical under approved treatment and
Main Wind-Force Resisting System: An quality control procedures.
assemblage of structural elements assigned to provide
support and stability for the overall structure. Main PSL: See Parallel Strand Lumber.

Rake: The part of a roof that projects over the endwalls.

In the absence of an overhang, the rake is the line along
the endwall formed by the intersection of the wall and
Bow
roof planes.
Ridge: Highest point on the roof of a building which
describes a horizontal line running the length of the
building.
Ring Shank Nail: See threaded nail. Crook
Roof Overhang: Roof extension beyond the

Figure 1-26. Lumber warping terminology: bow
endwall/sidewall of a building. versus crook as viewed from end of wood member.
Roof Slope: The angle that a roof surface makes with
the horizontal. Usually expressed in units of vertical rise
to 12 units of horizontal run. Warp: Any variation from a true plane surface. Warp
includes bow, crook, cup, and twist, or any combination
Self-Drilling Screw: A screw fastener that combines thereof.
the functions of drilling and tapping (thread forming).
Generally used when one or more of the components to • Bow: Deviation, in a direction perpendicular to the
be fastened is metal with a thickness greater than 0.03 wide face, from a straight line drawn between the
inches ends of a piece of lumber. See figure 1-26.
Self-Piercing Screw: A self-tapping (thread forming) • Crook: Deviation, in a direction perpendicular to the
screw fastener that does not require a pre-drilled hole. narrow edge, from a straight line drawn between the
Differs from a self-drilling screw in that no material is ends of a piece of lumber. See figure 1-26.
removed during screw installation. Used to connect
light-gage metal, wood, gypsum wallboard and other • Cup: Deviation, in the wide face of a piece of
"soft" materials. lumber, from a straight line drawn from edge to edge
of the piece.
SFPA: Southern Forest Products Association
• Twist: A curl or spiral of a piece of lumber along its
Shake: Separation of annual growth rings in wood length. Measured by laying lumber on a flat surface
(splitting parallel-to-growth rings). Usually considered to such that three corners contact the surface. The
have occurred in the standing tree or during felling. amount of twist is equal to the distance between the
SIP: Structural Insulated Panel. flat surface and the corner not contacting the surface.
Siphon Break: A small groove to arrest the capillary WCLIB: West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau
action of two adjacent surfaces. WTCA: Wood Truss Council of America.
Soffit: The underside covering of roof overhangs. WWPA: Western Wood Products Association.
SPIB: Southern Pine Inspection Bureau.
1.3.1 Heavy Timber Construction
Structural Composite Lumber (SCL):
Reconstituted wood products comprised of several Post-frame buildings are frequently and incorrectly
laminations or wood strands held together with an referred to as post and beam buildings or as timber frame
adhesive, with fibers primarily oriented along the length buildings. Much of the confusion between the framing
of the member. Examples include LVL and PSL. systems occurs because they are all generally designed
around two-dimensional (2-D) frames. In post-frame
Threaded Nail: A type of nail with either annual or buildings these 2-D frames are referred to as primary
helical threads in the shank. Threaded nails generally are frames, post-frames or main frames. In post and beam
made from hardened steel and have smaller diameters buildings and timber frame buildings they are commonly
than common nails of similar length. referred to as bents. The key to understanding the
Timber: Wood members five or more nominal inches in difference between the three building systems is to focus
the least dimension. on these 2-D frames. If the main member(s) connecting
the posts within a 2-D frame fall into the timber category
TPI: Truss Plate Institute. (timbers are defined as members larger than 5 nominal
Wane: Bark, or lack of wood from any cause, on the inches in the least dimension), the building would be
edge or corner of a piece. classified as a post and beam building or a timber frame
building.

According to the Timber Frame Business Council or 1-29 was erected on the site in 2011. Appearing behind
TFBC (http://timberframe.org/faq.html), a timber framed the barrack in figures 1-28 and 1-29 is a replicate section
building is a specialized version of post and beam of the palisade which was constructed by embedding
building that utilizes wood joinery such as mortise and wood poles (i.e., pales) alongside each other.
tenon, held in place with wooden pegs as shown in figure
1-27. According to this definition, it is not proper to
refer to a post and beam building as a timber-frame
building when timbers are connected with special metal
fasteners, metal plates and other metal connectors.
Figure 1-28. Frame of pole building barrack erected in

2011 in an effort to duplicate construction methods
used during the colonization of Jamestown. Located
behind the replicate barrack is a replicate palisade.
Figure 1-27. Timber-frame building designed by

Steven Knox and built by Connolly & Company,
Edgecomb, Maine. Image from
http://stknox.com/images/StudioBarnFrame.JPG.
1.4 History
A condensed history of the post-frame building system
follows. Early history is based on an accounting
provided by James T. Knight (1989) who served as
executive director of the National Frame Building
Association (NFBA) for nearly three decades.
1.4.1 Ancient History
The concept of pole-type structures is not new.
Figure 1-29. Close-up of the barrack shown in figure
Archeological evidence exists in abundance that pole
1-28. Embedded poles support a girder which in turn
buildings have been used for human housing for supports rafters. Note the similarities between this
thousands of years in many areas of the world. Although construction and that shown in figure 1-3.
ancient pole buildings have long since disappeared from
the landscape, their size and original location are easily The most significant of the pole buildings located in
determined by the variations in soil color (i.e. soil James Fort was the church erected in 1608. Although
staining) that occurs when embedded wood poles decay this was the second church built at the site (the first burnt
inside the surrounding soil. down soon after construction), it is considered the first
1.4.2 Pole Buildings at Jamestown, VA major Protestant church building in North America. It is
famous for housing the wedding of Pocahontas and
The very first buildings constructed by English settlers in tobacco planter John Rolfe during the spring of 1614.
North America were pole buildings constructed inside The exact location of the church was discovered in 2010
the James Fort palisade (i.e. fort wall) at Jamestown, VA. by archeologists who uncovered its postholes (Kelso,
These buildings were erected within a few weeks of the 2011). Overall building size was found to exactly match
settlers May 13, 1607 arrival on James Island. In an the 24 x 60 foot size recorded in 1610 by William
effort to duplicate methods used in construction of these Strachey who was the secretary of the colony. Postholes
buildings, the barrack’s frame shown in Figures 1-28 and

were located exactly 12-foot on center. Their locations 1.4.4 Bernon Perkins
are now permanently marked at the site with stub posts
(figure 1-30). Bernon George Perkins was hired by DAS as a farm
manager in the mid-1930s and began using creosote
treated poles instead of the more scarce cedar poles.
Within a relatively short period of time, preservative
treated poles became the mainstay of this new building
system. In a textbook titled Farm Buildings that was
published in 1941, author John C. Wooley introduces
“pole-frame” as the simplest type of barn frame. Wooley
states that “in many of the newer structures using this
type of frame, treated poles are being used, and a footing
is provided for each pole.” Contrary to this statement by
Wooley, the use of footings was actually relatively rare.
Perkins is attributed with two other developments of the
modern post-frame building system. He was the first to
Figure 1-30. Stub posts mark the location of the place 2- by 4-inch members on-edge as purlins, and he
fourteen poles that supported the 1608 church was the first to overlap purlins. By installing purlins-on-
located inside James Fort. A statue of Captain John edge, Perkins was able to increase both rafter and purlin
Smith and the James River appear to the left.
spacing. Overlapping of purlins led to more rapid
Walls of the Jamestown pole buildings were finished by construction and an improved purlin-to-rafter
attaching vertical wood slats to girts (see figure 1-29) connection. In 1949, Perkins applied for a patent on a
and then packing clay around the wood poles, girts and pole-frame building designed for storing and drying hay,
vertical slats. The clay surface was then waterproofed grain and other commodities. The patent was granted in
with a mixture of lime and animal fat. Roofs were June, 1953 (Patent No. 2,641,988). Figure 1 from this
thatched with marsh grass harvested from surrounding patent is reproduced in figure 1-31 and shows the lapped,
swamps. 2- by 4-inch on-edge purlins characteristic of Perkins’
buildings.
It is clear that the English settlers used pole buildings for
the same basic reasons we use post-frame buildings
today – they can be quickly erected, and they make
efficient use of readily-available materials.
Use of pole buildings in America continued throughout
the colonization of the country. Norum (1967) reports
use of pole buildings on farms in the 19th century.
1.4.3 D. Howard Doane
The modern post-frame structure can trace it roots to D.
Howard Doane, founder of Doane Agricultural Service
(DAS). Doane had an unwavering vision of a more
efficient, productive agriculture, and he worked to
improve profitability in all aspects of the farm Figure 1-31. Figure 1 from U.S. Patent No. 2,641,988
enterprises that DAS helped manage. Doane’s drive led granted in June, 1953.
him to explore options to the heavy timber framed
buildings that were the mainstay of production Although DAS was the assignee on Perkins’ patent, it
agricultural. In the early 1930’s, he erected buildings had no interest in protecting the patent from infringement
utilizing embedded red cedar poles as their primary by others. In fact, D. Howard Doane had Perkins and
supports. The poles supported girders upon which rafters other employees actively encourage builders and farmers
were placed on two-foots centers. Purlins consisted of to accept and utilize their ideas. Perkins began a
one-inch thick boards that were laid-flat and spaced 12 to “builders program” in the early 1950’s and traveled
18 inches apart. This frame was covered with corrugated around the country with Tom Locke, a DAS engineer,
galvanized steel. sharing plans with builders involved in and/or interested

in pole-frame building construction. The program was began to carve out a niche in the commercial building
dissolved in 1954. market.
1.4.5 Truss Use 1.4.9 NFBA Formation
A landmark moment for the industry came in 1969 when
The 1950’s saw increased use of trusses in farm
the State of Indiana looked to adopt building code
buildings. By the late 1950’s, truss use in pole-frame
provisions requiring “continuous concrete foundations”
buildings became the rule rather than the exception.
for all “wood frame commercial buildings”. Because of
Many trusses were fabricated with the use of ½-inch
the negative impact this would have on post-frame
thick plywood gussets held in place with glue and nails.
building, Freemon D. Borkholder organized a meeting
Fabrication of such trusses was quite labor intensive
which was attended by approximately twenty builders. It
because of the time required to hand drive numerous
was during this 1969 meeting that the decision was made
nails. Bolted trusses and trusses utilizing timber
to form an organization of post-frame builders and to call
connectors were also commonly used (trusses using split
it the National Frame Builders Association (NFBA). In
ring timber connectors were generally referred to as “bolt
2007 the word “Builders” was changed to “Building”
and ring” trusses). In the early 1960’s, buildings with
(i.e., NFBA became the National Frame Building
40-ft clearspans were commonly erected. By the early
Association) in recognition that the organization is made
1970’s, buildings with 60-ft clearspans were routinely
up of more than just active builders (i.e., it includes
built.
suppliers, designers, researchers, etc.).
1.4.6 Patterson Publication Use of the term “post frame” does not appear to have
In 1957 the American Wood Preservers Institute been coined during the 1969 Indiana meeting. In his
published a document written by Donald Patterson titled 1941 Farm Buildings textbook, author John C. Wooley
Pole Building Design. Written for use by engineers, uses the term “post frame” to refer to buildings with
Pole Building Design stressed engineering concepts that rough, hewed, sawed, or built-up posts placed at 10- or
were “somewhat unusual or unique in pole-type 12-ft intervals and placed on a wood sill or directly on a
buildings.” A major portion of the document was concrete foundation.
dedicated to methods for determining the depth of
1.4.10 Engineering Infusion
embedment of poles - methods based on research funded
by the Outdoor Advertising Association of America. As they expanded into commercial building markets in
the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, larger post-frame
1.4.7 Metal Plate Connected Trusses building companies began employing their own
The 1960’s ushered in the age of the metal plate registered professional engineers for in-house production
connected wood truss (MPCWT). Early MPCWTs of all plans, specifications and structural calculations
featured metal connector plates with much larger teeth required by code for commercial buildings. This
and lower tooth densities than today’s plates. Not until infusion of engineering into the post-frame building
the early 70s did most post-frame building companies industry impacted more than just commercial buildings,
begin transitioning from bolted trusses to MPCWTs. as it brought with it the science to safely build larger
agricultural structures. Although the importance of
1.4.8. Rectangular Posts properly engineering a building has never been in
The 1960’s also saw the pole-frame building industry dispute, few agricultural buildings were fully engineered
begin its transformation into the post-frame building prior to the 1970’s. This is because agricultural
industry as builders began to abandon poles in favor of buildings were (and still are) exempt from building codes
solid-sawn posts. In some cases the transition was from in virtually every jurisdiction in the United States.
buildings with round poles to buildings with all slabbed Although more engineering has been put into agricultural
poles, and then to buildings with slabbed poles in all buildings in the past half-century, it is important to
locations except the corners where rectangular posts realize that many agricultural structures are still
were used, and finally to buildings with all rectangular constructed with little or no engineering input.
posts. Although size-for-size solid-sawn posts typically 1.4.11 Concrete Footings
lacked the bending strength of the poles they replaced,
they enabled more rapid and accurate frame erection, as Concrete footings which were largely absent from pole-
well as the straight-forward installation of quality interior frame buildings erected prior to the 1960’s, became
wall finishes (something not easily accomplished with standard elements under embedded posts in the 1970’s.
tapered poles). Finished interiors had become more This can be attributed to significant increases in post
common place as (1) farmers began to utilize thermally- bearing pressures, and to commercial building
insulated post-frame buildings for shops, offices and engineering that routinely showed actual soil pressures
certain livestock housing facilities, and (2) the industry vastly exceeding allowable soil pressures when footings

were absent. Increases in post bearing pressure were ASAE EP484 requires strength and stiffness values for
directly attributable to increases in clearspan distances all load-resisting diaphragms and shearwalls in a
(i.e., axial post loads increase in direct proportion to the building. Consequently, numerous metal-clad wood-
clearspan distance between posts in a primary frame) and frame diaphragm panel tests have been conducted since
to decreases in post bearing area. In many cases, the the 1980's. Sources and a compilation of data from many
butt-end of tapered poles was often greater than the of these tests are provided in Chapter 8.
cross-sectional area of the rectangular posts that replaced
A major revision to ASAE EP484 was completed in
them.
1998. This revision included the simplified design
1.4.12 Penta and CCA Wood Treatments approach outlined by Bohnhoff (1992a) and also allowed
for more detailed diaphragm analyses including the
In the 1940’s, pentachlorophenol largely replaced Force Distribution Method developed by Anderson
creosote as the preferred preservative treatment for (1989) and computer program DAFI developed by
wood, especially for pole-frame building applications. Bohnhoff (1992).
Although creosote was a very effective treatment, the
resulting oily surface made it virtually impossible to seal 1.4.14 Mechanically-Laminated Posts
in its strong objectionable odors. Creosote-treated poles
In the early 1980’s, builders began switching from solid-
were also messy to handle, particularly in warm weather.
sawn posts to nail-laminated posts. This switch was
By the early 1980’s chromate copper arsenate (CCA) had
driven by the lack of stress-rated timber, decay issues
effectively supplanted pentachlorophenol in post-frame
with solid-sawn posts, and a need for posts that could
buildings. As a waterborne preservative, CCA was
withstand higher bending stresses. Decay problems
easier to stain, paint and seal. CCA was also considered
became more prevalent when builders switched from
to be less of a hazard to humans than penta-treated wood.
poles to sawn posts, primarily because of the difficulty of
In fact, in 1984, the EPA banned the use of
treating heartwood exposed by sawing operations.
pentachlorophenol for all indoor applications, except for
a few low exposure uses which included embedded poles In the mid-1980’s, builders began utilizing spliced, nail-
and posts used in agricultural applications. laminated posts – posts with preservative-treated wood
on one end and untreated wood on the other end.
1.4.13 Diaphragm Design Questions about the bending strength of various spliced
In the mid-1980’s, post-frame building engineers began post designs led David Bohnhoff to develop a special
discussing a procedure published in 1983 by Hoagland finite element modeling method for the posts (Bohnhoff
and Bundy for calculating the percentage of horizontal et al., 1989) and to conduct numerous tests on both
wind load transferred to shear walls by metal-clad roofs spliced and unspliced posts (Bohnhoff et al., 1991,
in post-frame buildings. This procedure, referred to as Williams et al., 1994, Bohnhoff et al., 1997). This
diaphragm design, was based on methods outlined for ultimately led Bohnhoff to draft ASAE EP599 Design
metal-clad steel-framed diaphragms by Bryan (1973), Requirements and Bending Properties for Mechanically
and featured an equation developed by Luttrell (1967) Laminated Columns which was approved by ASABE in
for extrapolating diaphragm test panel data for use in December 1996, and as an American National Standard
full-scale building design. The first research on metal- by ANSI the following February. In 2009, Bohnhoff
clad wood frame diaphragms can be traced to Hurst and chaired a major revision of the engineering practice
Mason who in 1961 published results of tests on two which included a name change to Design Requirements
separate (but similar) metal-clad pole buildings that and Bending Properties for Mechanically Laminated
showed that roof and endwall cladding contributed Wood Assemblies.
significantly to the overall rigidity of the structure. The
1.4.15 Foundation Design Standard
first metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm test panels were
tested over 15 years later by Hausmann and Esmay In the late 1980’s, Gerald Riskowski and William Friday
(1977) and White (1978). (1991a, 1991b) developed equations for calculating the
embedment depth of collared post foundations. These
The diaphragm design procedure published by Hoagland
equations became part of ASAE EP486 Shallow Post
and Bundy in 1983 was slightly modified by
Foundation Design which was developed under the
Gebremedhin and others (1986), and formed the basis for
direction of Friday and released by ASABE in March
ASAE EP484 Diaphragm Design of Metal-Clad, Post-
1991. Based on research by Neil Meador, the standard
Frame Rectangular Buildings. Work on the ASAE
was slightly revised in 1999 and approved as an
EP484 commenced in 1986 under the direction of
American National Standard by ANSI in October 2000.
Harvey Manbeck and was approved for publication in
In 2007, David Bohnhoff began working on a major
1989 (Manbeck, 1990).

revision to ASAE EP486. Approved in 2012, the 1.4.19 Glulam Posts

revision contains completely different methods for
calculating bearing, lateral, and uplift strengths of both There was a steady increase in glulam post use
pier and post foundations, and unlike previous versions, throughout the 1990’s, largely spurred by the launching
it contains safety factors for allowable stress design of several companies fully dedicated to glulam post
(ASD) and resistance factors for load and resistance production for post-frame buildings.
factor design (LRFD). Additionally, the revised EP 1.4.20 Laminated Veneer Lumber
contains several methods for obtaining soil properties
from on-site soil tests. The development and production of laminated veneer
lumber (LVL) in the 1980’s resulted in a significant
1.4.16 Screw Fasteners increase throughout the 1990’s of buildings with solid-
Prior to the 1980’s, metal wall and roof cladding was web primary frames featuring LVL rafters. Although
largely nail-fastened. By the late 1980’s, many post- solid-web primary frames typically cost more than open-
frame builders had made the switch from nails to self- web primary frames, they are preferred because of their
piercing and/or self-drilling screws. In some cases, the cleaner appearance, elimination of bird perch points, and
adoption of screws was tied to the early adoption of greater durability in corrosive environments (i.e.,
diaphragm design. While some companies still used environments that significantly shorten the life of metal
nails for metal cladding attachment in the 1990’s, such connector plates).
usage was pretty much curtailed by the turn of the 1.4.21 CCA Restrictions
century.
Effective December 31, 2003 the EPA restricted the use
1.4.17 ASAE EP558 Formation of chromate copper arsenate (CCA) treated wood in a
In 1998, provisions in ASAE EP484 covering diaphragm number of applications including all post-frame building
panel tests were removed and placed in a separate components except embedded posts. This resulted in a
publication titled ASAE EP558 Load Tests for Metal- switch to different waterborne copper-based treatments
Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragms. At the same time, (e.g., copper azole (CA), ammoniacal copper zinc
ASAE EP484 was modified to include additional arsenate (ACZA)) and greater use of plastic composite
analysis options, and in August 1998 it was approved by materials for splash plank, grade girts and base plates.
ANSI as an American National Standard. These products and further developments in wood
treatment, including micronized copper, are the primary
1.4.18 Construction Tolerances products used in the industry today.
In 1999, NFBA published the first of two post-frame 1.4.22 Precast Concrete Piers
construction tolerances documents. Like tolerance
documents developed by other organizations, the NFBA The turn of the century brought with it an increased
documents were developed to (1) establish standards of emphasis on sustainable building construction, that is,
professional conduct for members of the organization (2) more affordable and environmentally-friendly
enhance the professional reputation of the industry, (3) construction. One manner in which this is achieved is by
minimize costly litigation between owners and builders, increasing the functional life of buildings and building
and (4) maintain regulatory control within the profession. components. With respect to post-frame buildings, this
The first of these two documents, titled Accepted has stimulated interest in use of concrete piers
Practice for Post-Frame Building Construction: (Bohnhoff, 2006), especially a precast concrete pier
Framing Tolerances, includes recommended tolerances system developed and patented by Bob Meyer Jr. and
for the position/placement of footings, posts, trusses, marketed nationally under the tradename Perma-Column.
girders, girts, and purlins. This document was drafted by 1.4.23 Expansion of Screw Use
David Bohnhoff and based on research by Marshall
Begel (Bohnhoff and Begel, 2000). The second Advances in screw fasteners and associated installation
document, titled Accepted Practices for Post-Frame equipment continue to have a pronounced impact on
Building Construction: Metal Panel and Trim post-frame building design and construction.
Installation Tolerances, was released by NFBA in 2005 Specifically, self-drilling screws with a diameter near a
and covers recommended tolerances for metal panel quarter inch are now used by some builders to attach
positioning, metal trim positioning, fastener installation, trusses to posts and to connect other primary-framing
and surface and edge blemishes. This document was also components. Also, since the turn of the century, builders
drafted by Bohnhoff but based on research conducted by have begun to use deck screws to attach girts and other
David Cockrum (Bohnhoff and Cockrum, 2004). secondary framing members, and to install temporary
bracing.

1.5 Advantages relative cost of most post-frame buildings is attributable

to the use of less extensive foundations and to the fact
As noted in Section1.1.1, a post-frame building system is that wall sections between posts are non-load bearing. As
one of many types of framing/support systems. A further explained in Section 1.6.2, embedded post
designer who is choosing among various framing foundations commonly used in post-frame buildings
systems will assess how each framing system positively require less concrete, heavy equipment, labor, and
and/or negatively affects building Functionality, construction time than conventional perimeter
Affordability, Comfort, Aesthetics, Durability, foundations. Additionally, embedded post foundations
Environmental-friendliness, and Safety (i.e. building are better-suited for wintertime construction - times
FACADES). In each of these areas, a post-frame when frozen ground and cold temperatures increase labor
building system has unique advantages as described in and fabrication costs for other foundation types.
the following paragraphs.
1.5.3 Comfort
1.5.1 Functionality
Building comfort is largely dictated by thermal envelope
To provide a functional building, a designer must have design, HVAC systems, and natural lighting. Of these
the flexibility to easily and inexpensively (1) alter the three variables, the only one that is significantly affected
interior layout of a building without interference from by frame selection is thermal envelope design.
structural supports, (2) select an optimal clear height
and/or vary building clear height, (3) locate exterior One of the outstanding features of post-frame building
doors and windows of any size where they are needed, systems is that they allow for a plethora of thermal
and (4) apply any combination of horizontal and vertical envelope designs. This stems from the fact that the space
loads to roof, wall, floor and ceiling elements. between primary frames can be filled with virtually
anything. This includes thermal envelopes that rely on
Post-frame building systems provide the aforementioned more conventional insulations (fiberglass batts and
flexibility by commonly and economically providing blankets, rigid polystyrene boards, blown-in-blankets,
clearspan widths upward of 80 feet and eave heights and foam-in-place insulation products), and extends to
upward of 20 feet. The relatively large spacing between infill panels featuring bales of organic fiber, structural
primary frames enables the installation of large doors insulated panels (SIPs), adobe, cordwood, etc..
and windows at no additional framing cost to the
consumer. The ability to easily modify primary frame 1.5.4 Aesthetics
size and spacing enables designers to easily handle any Like most other framing systems, post-frame building
combination of horizontal and vertical loads. systems can be clad with virtually any material and thus
Indeed, it is the flexibility of the post-frame building can be designed to mirror the appearance of most any
system that has resulted in its use in a very broad range structure. Unfortunately, many individuals only see
of residential, agricultural, commercial and industrial post-frame buildings as simple, rectangular structures
applications. This includes buildings with fully open with an exterior covering of corrugated steel. This
walls, buildings that are completely sided, and buildings results from the simple fact that such buildings are very
with walls of solid glass or walls comprised entirely of inexpensive and thus the building of choice for numerous
overhead doors. This includes stilt buildings, slab-on- applications where cost is the overriding factor in design
grade buildings, buildings on stem walls, and buildings decisions. It comes as no surprise that many post-frame
with full basements. This includes single-story buildings go unrecognized as such by the general public
buildings, two-story buildings, structures with high-load simply because they do not feature corrugated steel
capacity lofts and mezzanines, and buildings with stored siding. These include numerous post-frame buildings
contents that exert high wall pressure. with wood siding, brick veneer, stone veneer, and stucco
(see figures 1-32 through 1-36).
1.5.2 Affordability
Building occupancy type typically dictates the type of
Significant savings can be obtained with post-frame interior finish. For residential and small business
construction in terms of materials, labor, construction applications, interior walls are typically sheathed with
time, equipment and building maintenance. This is gypsum wall board. For extra appeal, wood posts are
directly attributable to the fact that they are among the frequently left exposed (e.g., not covered with wall
most efficiently designed structures in the world; and it board). Additionally, exposed glued-laminated and
explains why post-frame buildings dominate markets solid-sawn timbers may be substituted for metal plate
where cost is the overriding factor in building selection. connected wood trusses (MPCWT).
When compared to other building systems, the low

Figure 1-32. Post-frame boys and girls club with steel

siding and brick veneer. An FBi Buildings project.
Figure 1-36. Commercial post-frame building clad in
stone and smooth metal panels. An FBi Buildings
project.
1.5.5 Durability
Durability is dictated by the degree to which degradation
of materials due to decay and corrosion is controlled, and
the degree to which load levels are maintained within the
design strengths of components and connections. The
former is managed by using materials that are compatible
with the environment(s) to which they are exposed; the
latter is controlled with proper structural engineering.
Durability has been a hallmark of post-frame buildings,
as is evidenced by the number of post-frame buildings
that are still in use years after exceeding their original
design life. This can be attributed to proper use of
preservative lumber treatments (or concrete where such
Figure 1-33. Wood-clad post-frame building treatments are not desired), corrosion resistant fasteners,
constructed for horse housing. and wood adhesives.
1.5.6 Environmental-Friendliness
The low cost of post-frame buildings is directly
attributable to its efficient use of materials, and hence its
very low embodied energy relative to structures of
similar size. Much of this is attributable to the reduced
use of concrete in foundations. To this end, as more
accurate and complete life cycle analysis/assessment
methods are developed and used in selection of building
systems, greater use of post-frame building systems is
expected.
Figure 1-34. Small commercial post-frame building Given the durability of post-frame buildings, it is not
sided with stucco and brick veneer. uncommon for them to exceed their functional design
life. For this reason, many older post-frame buildings
are now used for purposes other than which they were
initially designed.
In situations where post-frame buildings have outlived
their initial need, it may be advantageous to move or
reconfigure the structure. This is relatively easy to
accomplish with modern post-frame buildings, as they
are largely assembled using mechanical fasteners (i.e.,
bolts and screws) that can be quickly removed without
Figure 1-35. Residential post-frame building with damage to components. This ability to “recycle” a post-
brick veneer and fiber-cement board siding. frame building adds to their reputation as one of the
world’s most environmentally-friendly structures.

1.5.7 Safety
Outstanding structural performance of post-frame
buildings under adverse conditions such as hurricanes is
well-documented. Gurfinkel (1981) cites superior
performance of post-frame buildings over conventional
construction during hurricane Camille in 1969. Harmon
et. al (1992) reported that post-frame buildings
constructed according to engineered plans generally
withstood hurricane Hugo (wind gusts measured at 109
mph). Since post-frame buildings are relatively light
weight, seismic forces do not control the design unless
significant additional dead loads are applied to the
structure (Faherty and Williamson, 1989; Taylor, 1996).
1.6 Ideal Structural Applications Figure 1-37. The numerous, equally-spaced overhead
Different structural framing/support systems will have doors of mini-warehouses make them ideal for post-
different advantages and disadvantages depending upon frame.
the particular application. A post-frame building system
is no different than any other structural framing/support
system in this regard. In general, a post-frame building
system will have inherent advantages where it is
advantageous to have wood posts as main, load-bearing,
vertical framing elements. Following are thirteen such
applications highlighted by Bohnhoff (2008).
1.6.1 Buildings With Numerous and/or
Relatively Large Wall Openings
Windows and doors in a post-frame building that are
narrower than the post spacing typically do not require Figure 1-38. Post-frame suburban garage.
structural headers, since roof trusses/rafters in most post-
frame buildings bear directly on the posts. Elimination
of structural headers enables elimination of trimmer
studs (a.k.a. jack studs, shoulder studs) and other special
structural members required to support the headers.
Removing headers and their supports not only saves
money, but results in an enhanced thermal envelope
when framing members are replaced with thermal
insulation. Additionally, fewer framing members mean
fewer cracks for air infiltration. Figure 1-39. Post frame readily accommodates the
overhead doors required for this automobile repair
In general, any building with large, regularly-spaced business in Lafayette, Indiana. An FBi Buildings
door and window openings is an ideal candidate for post- project.
frame. Mini-warehouses and service garages typically
have several equally-spaced and equally-sized overhead
doors making them ideal candidates for post-frame
(figures 1-37 through 1-39). In these buildings, posts are
often used to frame both sides of the doors. Post frame is
also ideal for retail stores with large glass facades (figure
1-40).
Figure 1-40. Large, equally spaced windows suit

post-frame.

1.6.2 Buildings Without Basements less need for costly heat and moisture protection systems,
and enhanced concrete surface finish, durability, and
Many buildings without basements are supported on strength properties. Second, less preplanning is required
cast-in-place crawlspace walls or frost walls that rest on for below slab installation of HVAC, plumbing and
continuous cast-in-place concrete footings. The electrical system components. In fact, no preplanning is
construction time and concrete cost associated with these required when the interior concrete slab is placed after
continuous concrete foundation walls and footings is HVAC, plumbing and electrical system installations have
significantly greater than that associated with a post- been completed. With respect to utilities, it is also
frame building that utilizes embedded posts or a post-on- important that insulation must be placed under a slab that
concrete pier system as its foundation system (figure 1- contains a radiant heating system, and placement of this
41). insulation requires a very level, properly compacted base
The material and labor savings associated with post/pier – something more easily achieved and maintained in a
foundation systems makes them the most protected environment.
environmentally-friendly foundation system in common Some builders may opt to place posts on the thickened
use today. Additionally, embedded post and precast pier edge (i.e., grade beam) of a concrete slab. Such systems
foundations can be easily removed and reused – a feature generally require more total concrete than systems with
which adds to their status as a very environmentally- concrete pier foundations since the extra concrete
friendly foundation system. required for the grade beams usually exceeds that
required to fabricate concrete piers.
1.6.3 Buildings with Tall Exterior Walls
Mechanically- and glue-laminated posts are used in the
vast majority of today’s post-frame buildings. These
posts enable the construction of buildings with relatively
large floor-to-ceiling heights at prices much less than
they could be fabricated with a comparable wood stud
wall.
Laminated posts can be fabricated to any length by
splicing shorter pieces of wood together. Laminated
posts are also straight and inherently more stable because
of the laminating process. The only way to get a tall,
relatively straight wall with wood studs is to use more
expensive, engineered lumber products (e.g., laminated
strand lumber, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand
lumber).
The increased bending moments associated with taller
walls may be handled by using higher grade lumber or
with larger vertical wall framing elements. Another
option is to reduce the spacing of the framing elements
so that each element is subjected to less load. These
Figure 1-41. Preservative-treated, mechanically- options are easy to accommodate into post-frame
laminated embedded post (left) and mechanically- building design, which is one more reason why they get
laminated post attached to a precast concrete pier the nod over other framing systems in tall wall
(right). applications such as that shown in figure 1-42.
Most buildings without basements feature concrete slab- The cost advantage that post-frame buildings hold over
on-grade floors. More frequently today, these slabs low-rise steel frame buildings generally starts to
contain radiant heating systems. When post/pier disappear once minimum floor-to-ceiling heights move
foundation systems are used, the interior concrete slab beyond 20 feet. Below these heights, post-frame holds
can be placed after the building shell has been erected. thermal insulation advantages, if not cost advantages,
This has two major advantages. First, concrete is much over steel frame structures. This has made post-frame
more protected during its placement from wind, very popular for storage facilities such as the airplane
precipitation in all forms, and temperature extremes. This hanger in figure 1-43.
can translate into fewer unexpected scheduling delays,

Figure 1-44. This building is typical of many dairy

freestall barns. The greater width of these buildings
results in (1) tall gable endwalls requiring substantial
framing, and (2) the need for interior support posts.
1.6.4 Bulk Storage Buildings

Bulk storage refers to the storage of a relatively large
Figure 1-42. Post-frame concrete batch plant with a quantity of a material or commodity such as cement,
45 ft ceiling height, accomplished in part by bracing
sand, salt (figure 1-45), fertilizer, fruit, vegetable, seed,
wood columns back to the main structure of the
concrete plant equipment. feed, cotton, straw, and aggregate. If a bulk storage
building wall is used to contain the stored material, that
wall must be designed to resist the resulting horizontal
pressure which is directly dependent on the height of the
stored material. Even for stored material heights of only
a few feet, this pressure will be several times greater than
the environmental design pressure applied to exterior
walls by even the highest of winds.
As noted in the previous section, high wall forces are
easily accommodated in post-frame building design by
altering post size and/or spacing. Post spacing is
generally dictated by the spanning capability of the
structural material used to contain the bulk material.
Figure 1-43. The ability to construct inexpensive
buildings with relatively high eave heights makes
post-frame ideal for many machinery storage
buildings including this airplane hanger.
Required length of vertical wall framing elements are
often significantly different in various locations within a
building. Where such length variations occur, structural
requirements for the longer elements generally control
framing/support system selection. Significant wall
framing length variations most commonly occur in the
endwall framing of wide buildings with sloped ceilings
(the dairy freestall barn in figure 1-44 is one such Figure 1-45. High wall pressures and resistance of
example). Not surprisingly, the endwalls in many of wood to corrosion make post-frame the perfect
application for salt storage facilities.
these buildings are post-frame.

1.6.5 Buildings with Open Walls

Buildings whose only purpose is to provide protection
from precipitation and/or solar radiation are generally
fabricated with one or more open sides. This would
include many commodity (e.g. fertilizer, lumber, feed)
storage buildings, animal shelters, and park and other
recreational shelters (see figures 1-46 to 1-49). Open
sides facilitate quick building access, which can translate
into significant cost savings when handling stored Figure 1-47. Heifer growing facility with open
sidewalls.
materials.
Unless a unique structural support system has been
employed, expect the roof above an open wall to be
supported by posts with an on-center spacing of 8 or
more feet. Since these posts are seldom laterally
supported between their base and crown, they must be
designed to resist buckling equally in all horizontal
directions. For this reason they tend to be round poles,
square solid-sawn timbers, or square glulam or parallel-
strand lumber members. Nail-laminated posts will
typically require the addition of face plates to obtain
approximately equal bending strength in all horizontal
directions. Figure 1-48. Open front equipment storage building.
Wood posts in open-front buildings are often

preservative-treated because of their direct exposure to
“the elements.” However, in situations where wood
posts are supported on concrete piers, or walls are fairly
well protected from precipitation with a roof overhang,
preservative treatment may be unnecessary.
Figure 1-49. Hay storage facility with all-around

access by. Post spacing on back endwall twice that
on front endwall to accommodate machinery access.
1.6.6 Buildings Requiring Interior Posts

When a building has interior columns, it is advantageous
to use a post-frame building system for two reasons.
First, it increases the likelihood that all building support
elements will be on similar footings. This speeds
construction and minimizes the likelihood of differential
settlement. Second, interior posts may be more
effectively incorporated into the framing system since
they can be aligned with, and then connected via rafters
or header beams to exterior posts to form rugged primary
building frames (see figures 1-5 through 1-9).
Interior posts are used in place of interior load-bearing
walls, primary because they provide for a more open
Figure 1-46. The desire for open sidewalls makes the floor plan. Money may also be saved by switching from
post-frame building system a popular choice for park bearing walls to posts, since posts utilize isolated
and other recreational shelters. footings which require less concrete than the continuous
footings used to support bearing walls.

Interior posts are either used to support roofs in wide

buildings (figure 1-44) or mezzanines (figure 1-50). In
practice, wood-framed roofs that clearspan more than 90
feet and that are subjected to heavy snow loads will
generally not be economically competitive with steel
roof framing unless interior support is provided.
Figure 1-50. Supporting mezzanines with posts

instead of walls provide for more open floor plans.
Figure 1-52. Commercial building (top) and milking
Interior posts are seldom laterally supported between center (bottom) with clerestories.
their base and crown, and thus are designed similarly to
posts in open exterior walls. In many cases, the interior posts not only support the
walls and roofs of the clerestory, but they also support a
1.6.6.1 Buildings with Clerestories second floor level (i.e., a mezzanine or loft) as shown in
figure 1-53. In livestock housing facilities, this second
A clerestory (a.k.a. clearstory) is a fenestrated floor is commonly used for hay storage.
(windowed) wall that rises above a roofline (figures 1-51
and 1-52). Because clerestories are used to brighten a
building's interior, it is advantageous to support a
clerestory wall (and the above roof) with interior posts
(and not solid walls).
Clerestories are commonly located above sloping roofs
such that the height of the clerestory plus the height of
the adjacent sloping roof is roughly equivalent to a single
story. Roof slopes associated with clerestories are the
same roof slopes common to the typical post-frame
building. This combined with the fact that clerestories Figure 1-53. Primary frame of a building with
rely heavily on interior posts explains why buildings clerestory.
with clerestories are commonly post-framed.
Figure 1-51. A clerestory is a common feature on many equestrian facilities.

1.6.7 Buildings with Large, Clearspan Wood notched to form a truss bearing surface. The truss rests
Trusses With On-Center Spacing 4 Feet or on the notches and is bolted into place. A special
Greater plate/bracket like that shown in figure 1-54 may be
added to increase connection load transfer capabilities.
Component connections are critical to the structural With mechanically-laminated posts, the truss may rest on
integrity of a framing system. In buildings with large, a shortened outer-ply or on a shortened inner-ply. The
clearspan wood trusses, the most critical connections are latter scenario, which is shown in figure 1-55, places the
those between the truss and its supports. In addition to bolts in double shear and is a very effective connection.
gravity-induced forces (a.k.a. bearing loads), these
connections must resist shear forces acting perpendicular 1.6.8 Buildings Requiring a More Open
to the plane of the truss and uplift forces due to wind. Structural Frame to Accommodate Non-
Depending upon overall building design, the connections
Structural “Infill” Panels/Materials
may also be required to transfer bending moment.
Post-frame is the ideal structural support system for
straw bale walls (figure 1-56), cordwood or stackwood
walls (figure 1-57, light-clay coated organic fiber walls
and even earthen walls. Given that straw, cordwood,
clay-coated organic fibers and earth are all considered
very environmentally-friendly materials, expect the
number of post-frame buildings that are constructed with
in-fill walls of these materials to grow.
Figure 1-54. Truss resting on outer ply of a laminated

post. Steel L-bracket placed on outer face of truss to
help reinforce post-to-truss connection.
Figure 1-56. Non-structural straw bale walls prior to

plastering. Image from the American Society of
Agricultural and Biological Engineers. Used with
permission.
Figure 1-55. When truss is sandwiched between outer

plies of a mechlam post, bolts are placed in double-
shear for a very effective connection.
Wood posts enable the fabrication of strong, direct, yet
inexpensive connections between large trusses and walls. Figure 1-57. Cordwood (a.k.a. stackwood) infill walls.
Exact details for post-to-truss connections vary from
designer to designer, and may be influenced by post type. For frame openness, the post-frame building system is
Solid-sawn timber and glulam posts are generally often a more structurally efficient version of a timber-

frame building system. In short, any wall cladding or

infill material that has been utilized on or in a timber-
frame building may be used on or in a post-frame
building. This includes application of structural
insulated panels (SIP) to wall and roof surfaces.
1.6.9 Stilt Buildings
Stilt buildings are one of the least expensive options
when building in floodplains, over very poor soils or
water, on very steep terrain, and in regions of high snow Figure 1-60. Sound engineering and construction of
fall (see figures 1-58 to 1-62). this post-frame stilt building on Dauphin Island,
Alabama saved it from meeting the same fate as the
Stilt buildings fall into two categories: those with stilts one deposited in its front yard by Hurricane Katrina.
that only support sill plates and floor headers, and those FEMA photo.
with stilts that connect to both roof and floor framing.
The latter are essentially post-frame buildings with
wood-framed floors. Exactly how a post-frame stilt
building would be detailed depends largely on desired
floor, wall and ceiling finishes as they control the
spacing of structural frame components.
Figure 1-61. Stilt Houses in the Amazon Basin from

http://gallery.nen.gov.uk/asset75336_1615-.html
Figure 1-58. Deer stand on stilts in Randall,

Minnesota.
Figure 1-62. Stilt building on Assateague Island

Figure 1-59. Cabin on stilts in the Missouri Ozarks National Seashore.
from http://www.regionslandcompany.com/

1.6.10 Towers and Buildings with Towers

Towers are a natural fit for post frame. When post-frame Multi-story towers are becoming popular additions to
systems are properly connected and anchored, very commercial buildings. In addition to adding flare to a
strong and relatively inexpensive three-dimensional building, they frequently serve as stairwells, sources of
tower frames may be built, as evidenced by the many natural light, clock towers and observatories. Figure 1-65
pole- and post-supported forest fire lookout towers built shows wood-framed towers and buildings with attached
in North America during the early 1900’s (see figure 1- towers.
63).
Figure 1-63. Forest fire lookout towers are great

examples of how post-frame construction can be
used to frame towers. Shown here is the Granite
Mountain Lookout, Alpine Lakes Wilderness Area,
Washington.
Figure 1-64. Lookout for observing nature, hunting

and outdoor recreation. Stands 30 ft. from ground to
floor, and 41 ft. to the peak of the roof. The building
features 44-ft. long foundation-grade treated four-ply
laminated columns on 4 ft. deep embedded footings. Figure 1-65. Tower applications are ideal for post-
frame. An FBi Buildings project.

1.6.11 Buildings with Post-Supported

Porches, Balconies, and Roof Overhangs
The spacing of posts used to support a building’s porch,
balcony, and/or roof overhang is generally in the 6 to 10
foot range regardless of the building’s structural
framing/support system. Given that this spacing is
typical of the post spacing in most post-frame buildings,
there are benefits to using a post-frame building system
anytime a building features a relatively long post-
supported porch, roof overhang or balcony. First, it
increases the likelihood that all building support
elements will be on similar footings. This speeds
construction and minimizes the likelihood of differential
settlement. Second, posts used to support a porch, roof Figure 1-67. Post-frame storage/workshop with side
overhang or balcony may be aligned with rafters and porch.
then connected via the rafters to posts in the exterior wall
to form a more efficient structural frame. See figures 1-
66 to1-73.
Figure 1-66. Post-frame convenience store for Byrne Figure 1-68. Post-frame horse barn with post-
Dairy in Galeville, NY. The storefront features a supported roof overhang.
porch and above balcony. A porch formed by a roof
overhang extends along the side of the structure.
Figure 1-69. Post-frame horse barn with arcade.

Figure 1-72. Wrap-around porches on a park shelter

(top), institutional building (middle) and equestrian
facility (bottom).
Figure 1-70. Three views of a post-frame garage with

side porch and covered end entrance.
Figure 1-73. Suburban garage with a side porch.
Figure 1-71. Post-frame motel with wrap-around

balcony.

1.6.12 Buildings with Bracket-Supported frame. In situations where the overhang is a roof
Overhangs overhang, the wall support bracket attaches the end of
the truss to the post, thus functioning much like an
Roof overhangs and eyebrow overhangs are commonly exterior knee brace.
added to buildings to improve building aesthetics and
durability. They improve durability by protecting door
and window openings and siding from precipitation.
They also keep snow slides away from the building and
limit intrusion of direct solar radiation during warm
periods.
As the distance that an overhang extends from the
building wall increases, it is more likely the overhang
will be supported by a post (figure 1-68) or wall support
bracket (figures 1-74 to 1-76). Whether post supports or
wall support brackets are used is largely dependent on
overhang height. Normally, post supports are used for
lower overhangs because of headroom clearance issues
when wall support brackets are used.
With higher overhangs, wall support brackets generally
look better than posts and are normally less expensive
than post supports because of the added foundation and
header beams required with post supports.
Figure 1-75. Wall support brackets used to support a

roof overhang.
Figure 1-76. Tall walls, large regularly-spaced

windows and wall brackets make buildings similar to
this good candidates for post-frame.
Figure 1-74. Wall support brackets used to support 1.6.13 Buildings with Corrosive Contents
an eyebrow overhang.
With few exceptions, metals are unstable and will
Wall support brackets are the ideal overhang support corrode in ordinary aqueous environments. The rate of
system for post-frame buildings in which truss and post this corrosion depends on the hydrogen-ion
spacing are equal. In such buildings, posts and trusses concentration (pH) of the solution, the specific nature
form a series of post-frames as previously described. and concentration of other ions in solution, temperature,
When wall support brackets are attached to the posts and and other factors. In general, the more humid an interior
framing of the overhang, they add rigidity to each post- building environment, the more likely and frequently

moisture will condense on metal surfaces within the Bohnhoff, D. R., Chiou, W.S., & Hernandez, R. (1997).
building, and the greater will be the rate of metal Load-sharing in nail-laminated assemblies subjected
corrosion. Also, the greater the concentration within a to bending loads. ASAE Paper No. 974090. ASAE,
building of acidic gases (e.g., hydrogen sulfide, sulfur St Joseph, MI.
oxides, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, hydrogen fluoride),
Bohnhoff, D. R., Moody, R. C., Verrill, S. P., & Shirek,
caustic gases (e.g., ammonia), and oxidizing gases (e.g.,
L. F. (1991). Bending properties of reinforced and
ozone, nitric acid), the greater will be the rate of metal
unreinforced spliced nail-laminated posts. Res. Pap.
corrosion within the structure.
FPL-RP-503. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Given the higher humidities in livestock housing Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory,
facilities, and ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gases Madison, WI.
associated with deposition and decomposition of animal
Bryan, E. R. (1973). The stressed skin design of steel
wastes, it is wise to limit direct exposure of metals in
buildings. Crosby Lockwood Staples, London.
such facilities. It is also wise to limit direct exposure of
metals in water treatment facilities where chorine is used, Bryan, E.R. & El-Dakhakhni,W.M. (1968). Shear
and in facilities were bulk fertilizer, salt (figure 1-45) flexibility and strength of corrugated decks. ASCE
and other corrosive materials are stored. This is Journal of the Structural Division, 14(ST11):2549-
accomplished by using wood-framed structures in which 2580.
mechanical connectors are hidden or specially coated to
reduce corrosion and thus enhance overall durability. Davies, J. M. (1977). Simplified diaphragm analysis.
Journal of the Structural Division, 103(ST11):2093-
1.7 References 2109.
Davies, J. M. & Bryan, E. R. (1982). Manual of stressed
1.7.1 Non-Normative References
skin diaphragm design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Anderson, G. A., Bundy, D. S., & Meador, N. F. (1989). New York, NY.
The force distribution method: Procedure and
Faherty, K. F. & Williamson, T.G. (1989). Wood
application to the analysis of buildings with
engineering and construction handbook. McGraw-
diaphragm action. Transactions of the ASAE,
Hill Publishing Company, New York, NY.
32(5):1791-1796.
Gebremedhin, K. G., Bahler, E. L., & Humphreys, S. R.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992a). Expanding diaphragm analysis
(1986). A modified approach to post-frame design
for post-frame buildings. Applied Engineering in
using diaphragm theory. Transactions of the ASAE,
Agriculture, 8(4):509-517.
29(5): 1364-1372.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992b). Estimating frame stiffness and
Gurfinkel, G. (1981). Wood engineering. (2nd Ed.).
eave loads for diaphragm analysis of post-frame
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
buildings. Transactions of the ASAE, 35(3):1043-
1054. Harmon, J. D., Grandle, G. R. & Barth, C.L. (1992).
Effects of hurricane Hugo on agricultural structures.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2006). Concrete piers: Making post-
Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 8(1):93-96.
frame buildings greener. Frame Building News,
18(1):57-63. Hausmann, C. T. & Esmay, M. L. (1977). The
diaphragm strength of pole buildings. Transactions
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2008). Twelve structural applications
of the ASAE, 20(1):114-116.
ideal for post-frame. Frame Building News,
20(3):34-43. Hoagland, R. C. & Bundy, D. S. (1983). Post-frame
design using diaphragm theory. Transactions of the
Bohnhoff, D. R. & Begel, M. E. (2000). Accuracy of
ASAE, 26(5):1499-1503.
post-frame building construction. Applied
Engineering in Agriculture, 16(1):83-88. Hurst, H. T. & Mason Jr., P. H. (1961). Rigidity of end
walls and cladding on pole buildings. Journal of the
Bohnhoff, D. R. & Cockrum, D. K. (2004). Quality
ASAE, 42(4):188-191.
assessment of light-gauge metal cladding and trim
installation. ASAE Paper No. 044113. ASAE, St Johnston, R. A. & Curtis, J. O. (1984). Experimental
Joseph, MI. verification of stress skin design of pole-frame
buildings. Transactions of the ASAE, 27(1):159-
Bohnhoff, D. R., S.M. Cramer, R. C. Moody, C. O.
164.
Cramer. 1989. Modeling Vertically, Mechanically
Laminated Lumber. Journal of Structural Kelso, W. (2011). James fort: lost and found. Colonial
Engineering, ASCE, 115(10):2661-2679. Williamsburg Journal (Journal of the Colonial
Williamsburg Foundation), 33(2)

Knight, J.T. (1989). A brief look back. Frame Building ASABE. (2010). ANSI/ASAE EP559.2 Design
Professional, 1(1):38-43. requirements and bending properties for
mechanically-laminated wood assemblies.
Luttrell, L. D. (1967). Strength and behavior of light-
gage steel shear diaphragms. Cornell Engineering ASABE. (2010). ANSI/ASABE S618: Post frame
Research Bulletin 67-1. Ithaca, NY. building system nomenclature.
Manbeck, H. B. (1990). Engineering practice for post- ASCE. (2010). ASCE/SEI 7-10: Minimum design loads
frame diaphragm design. Frame Building for buildings and other structures.
Professional, 1(5):5, 22-24.
AWC. (2012). ANSI/AWC NDS-2012: ASD/LRFD
Meador, N. F. (1996). Mathematical models for lateral National design specification for wood construction.
resistance of post foundations. Transactions of the
NFBA. (1999). Accepted practices for post-frame
ASAE, 40(1):191-201.
building construction: Framing tolerances. Version
Norum, W.A. (1967). Pole buildings go modern. Journal 1.
of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, No.ST2,
NFBA. (2005). Accepted practices for post-frame
Proc. Paper 5169, April, pp.47-56.
building construction: metal panel and trim
Riskowski, G. L. & Friday, W. H. (1991a). Design installation tolerances. Version 1.
equations for collared post foundations.
Transactions of the ASAE, 34(5):2141–2148. 1.8 Acknowledgements
Riskowski, G. L. & Friday, W. H. (1991b). Post
The following companies provided images for this
foundation design equations: Validation and
chapter:
sensitivity analysis. Transactions of the ASAE,
34(5):2149–2156. CB Structures, 202 Orlan Rd, New Holland, PA 17557.
http://www.cbstructuresinc.com/
Taylor, S.E. (1996). Earthquake considerations in post-
frame building design. Frame Building News Eversole Builders, 2495 Election House Road, Lancaster,
8(3):42-49. OH 43130. http://www.eversolebuilders.com/
Williams, G. D., Bohnhoff, D. R., and Moody, R. C. FBi Buildings, Inc., 3823 W 1800 S, Remington, IN
(1994). Bending properties of four-layer nail- 47977. http://www.fbibuildings.com/
laminated posts. Res. Pap. FPL-RP-528. U.S.D.A.
Fingerlakes Construction Company, 10269 Old Route 31
Forest Service. Forest Products Laboratory,
West, Clyde, NY 14433.
Madison, WI
http://www.fingerlakesconstruction.com/
White, R. N. (1978). Diaphragm action of aluminum-
Fuog Interbuild Inc., PO Box 237, Purcellville, VA
clad timber-framed buildings. ASAE Paper 78-
20134. http://www.fuoginterbuildinc.com
4501, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Hochstetler Buildings, Inc., 7927 Memorial Drive, Plain
1.7.2 Normative References City, OH 43064. http://www.hochstetler.net/
ASAE. (1989). ASAE EP484: Diaphragm design of Keystone Barn Supply, LLC "Keystone Barns", New
metal-clad, post-frame, rectangular buildings. Holland, Pennsylvania 17557,
ASAE. (1998). ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm design http://www.keystonebarns.com/
of metal-clad, wood-frame, rectangular buildings. Lester Building Systems, 1111 Second Avenue South,
ASAE. (1991). ASAE EP486: Shallow post foundation Lester Prairie, MN 55354.
design. http://www.lesterbuildings.com/
ASAE. (1999). ANSI/ASAE EP486.1: Shallow post Meyer Buildings, 444 W 1st Avenue, Dorchester, WI
foundation design. 54425. http://www.meyerbuildings.com/
ASABE. (2012). ANSI/ASAE EP486.2: Shallow post Morton Buildings, Inc., PO Box 399, Morton, IL 61550-
and pier foundation design. 0399. http://mortonbuildings.com/
ASAE. (1998). ASAE EP558: Load tests for metal-clad MPB Builders, Inc., 654 E. Oshkosh St., Ripon, WI
wood-frame diaphragms. 54971, http://mpbbuilders.com/
ASAE. (1997). ANSI/ASAE EP559 Design requirements Quality Structures, 167 HWY 59, Richmond, KS 66080.
and bending properties for mechanically laminated http://www.qualitystructures.com/
columns.

RAM General Contracting Inc., 592 Industrial Drive,

P.O. Box 660, Winsted, MN 55395.
http://ramgeneralcontracting.com/
Wick Buildings, LLC, 405 Walter Road, Mazomanie, WI
53560. http://www.wickbuildings.com/
Windler Building Solutions, 2549 Hogan RD, Pacific,
MO 63069. http://windlers.net/

.
CHAPTER 2 .
Building Regulations
Contents 2.1 Introduction

2.1 Introduction 2-1 Building regulations are those technical documents that
2.2 Standards 2-1 control or otherwise guide the design process. This
includes standards and an array of laws which are largely
2.3 Building Codes 2-2 based on standards. Laws related to buildings can be
2.4 International Building Code 2-4 largely categorized under active building codes, federal
2.5 Federal Codes 2-12 regulations that control construction, and local zoning
regulations.
2.6 NFBA Sponsored Fire Tests 2-12
2.7 Zoning Regulations 2-15 2.2 Standards
2.8 Codes and Farm Buildings 2-15
2.2.1 Introduction
2.9 Significant Design Documents 2-16
2.10 References 2-26 The true foundation of a building project consists of the
numerous documents dictating design and construction
methodology. These documents, which continually
evolve with time, are referred to as “standards” for no
other reason than they help standardize the entire
building process. Standardization significantly reduces
the amount of communication required to complete a
project, and this in turn reduces overall cost, and
improves overall structural integrity and construction site
safety.
Standards associated with the building process cover four
principle areas: construction materials, design and
engineering requirements, installation methods, and
testing practices. Standards relating to construction
materials generally address product quality
characteristics such as composition, dimensions and
uniformity. Design and engineering related standards
provide data and formulas for structural load
determination, criteria to assist in modeling and
structural analyses, and performance characteristics of
specific materials or products to aid in component sizing
and layout. Installation standards govern the installation
of specific products and systems. Testing standards
outline procedures for evaluating structural strength, fire
resistance and other performance criteria.
2.1.2 Standards Development
Unlike many other countries, standards development in
the United States is not government funded, and thus it is
the responsibility of manufacturers, designers and
fabricators within the U. S. to organize themselves into
associations and develop standards where and when it is
clear such standards will be mutually beneficial for their

Post-Frame Building Design Manual (September 2016)
firms. Not surprising, there are now hundreds of non- 2.2.5 ANSI
government organizations (NGOs) in the U.S. that write
and maintain standards. The only organization in the U.S. fully dedicated to
standards is the American National Standards Institute
Following is an alphabetic listing of NGOs credited with (ANSI) formed in 1916 by five major standard
one or more standards of significance to the design and developers (i.e., ASME, IEEE, ASCE, AIME, ASTM)
construction of buildings and other structures. Note that along with the U.S. Departments of War, Navy, and
the area(s) of coverage listed for a particular NGO may Commerce to “enhance the global competitiveness of
not be the only one(s) associated with that organization. U.S. business and the American quality of life by
promoting and facilitating voluntary consensus standards
 ACI: American Concrete Institute
and conformity assessment systems and promoting their
(http://www.concrete.org/) - structural design of
integrity.”
concrete
 AISC: American Institute of Steel Construction ANSI now accredits standard development organizations
(http://www.AISC.org/) - structural design of steel (SDOs) that voluntarily subscribe to and operate under
 APA: The Engineered Wood Association its requirements. These accredited organizations may
(http://www.apawood.org/) - specifications for submit standards for review and possible acceptance as
engineered lumber and wood-based panel products American National Standards (ANS). There are now
 ASABE: American Society of Agricultural and over 200 accredited SDOs (including all previously listed
Biological Engineers (http://www.asabe.org/) - post- NGOs) and over 10,000 American National Standards.
frame building design, live loads Once a standard has been accepted as an ANS, the
 ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers number of the standard will generally be prefaced with
(http://www.asce.org/) - structural loads the “ANSI” initialism. For example, ANSI/ASABE
 ASHRAE: American Society for Heating, EP559 identifies ASABE EP559 after its acceptance as
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers an ANS. Approval of a standard as an ANS increases its
(http://www.ashrae.org/) - heating, cooling, level of recognition, which can enhance the standard’s
insulating, ventilating adoption into model codes.
 ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers ANSI is also the sole U.S. representative and dues-
(http://www.asme.org/) - plumbing paying member of the International Organization for
 ASSE: American Society of Sanitary Engineering Standardization (known worldwide as the ISO) and thus
(http://www.asse-plumbing.org/) - plumbing organizes the promotion of American National Standards
 ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials at an international level. The benefits of this to the U.S.
(http://www.astm.org/) - testing and material economy are obvious.
specifications
 AWC: American Wood Council 2.3 Building Codes
(http://www.awc.org/) - wood design specifications
 AWPA: American Wood Protection Association 2.3.1 Purpose
(http://www.awpa.com/)
A building code is a legal document that helps ensure
 NFPA: National Fire Protection Association
public health and welfare by specifying a minimum level
(http://www.nfpa.org/) - most everything related to
of protection from physical injury, fire and natural
fire including sprinkler systems, alarms, electrical
environmental forces. Building codes also help
wiring and its protection, oil and gas burning
minimize factors that adversely affect indoor air quality
equipment and its piping and venting.
and overall sanitation.
 TPI: Truss Plate Institute (http://www.tpinst.org/) -
metal plate connected wood trusses 2.3.1.1 Protection from Physical Injury
 UL: Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Building codes reduce risk of physical injury in
(http://www.ul.com/) - electrical appliances,
numerous ways. For example, stair, handrail and
furnaces, fireplaces, water heaters, storage of
guardrail requirements help prevent dangerous falls, and
combustibles, chimneys, fire resistant construction,
headroom requirements limit head injuries. Accessibility
venting
requirements such as minimum width requirements for
2.2.4 Structural Design Specifications doors and hallways, and height requirements for
countertops, enable building occupants to more safely
Those standards that control structural design are move and work in space. Special floor finish
categorically referred to as structural design requirements help prevent slips. Safety glazing in glass
specifications. This includes, for example, the National doors and full-height windows prevent glass from
Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction shattering and cutting those who accidently strike them.
published by the American Wood Council.

Chapter 2. Building Regulations
2.3.1.2 Fire Protection 2.3.2 Model versus Active Codes

Codes include several provisions to protect building There are two categories of codes: model and active. A
occupants from injury or death by fire, and to minimize model code is any code that is written for general use. In
loss of property when a fire breaks out. These provisions other words, it is not written for use by a specific state,
can be categorized into four levels of fire protection. county, town, village, company or individual. An active
From top, or most important, to bottom these levels are: code is a code that has been adopted and is enforced by a
regulatory agency. It follows that acceptance of a model
1. Keep fire from starting. This is primarily done with
code is voluntary in a given jurisdiction until it is
electrical wiring and fuel burning requirements.
adopted through legislation, and enforced by a regulatory
2. Warn people and get them safely out of a structure agency in that jurisdiction, at which time it becomes an
or to a safe refuge once a fire starts. Warning is active code in that jurisdiction. Seldom does a regulatory
accomplished with smoke detector/alarm agency adopt and enforce a model code without first
requirements. Safe exiting results from requirements appending or otherwise modifying some of its
for strategically located and properly sized exits and provisions.
exit corridors, as well as from requirements for
Development, adoption, modification and enforcement of
systems that block circulation of smoke filled air.
building related-codes exist at all levels of government
Providing a safe means of escape or a safe refuge for
from local municipalities, to county and state
the occupants during a fire is accomplished with
governments. As a result, the content and administration
code provisions that: limit building height; ensure
of active building codes varies not only between states,
adequate location, size, number and visibility of
but frequently between municipalities within a state.
exits and stairways; and control the density and
Some states have established a hierarchy structure of
distribution of building occupants.
state, county and township/village/city building codes. In
3. Extinguish the fire before it spreads. This is most this situation, more localized governing areas can modify
effectively accomplished with the proper installation the state (or county) codes, provided the changes result
of automatic sprinklers. Where sprinklers are unable in more strict provisions. In the vast majority of states,
to completely extinguish a fire, they will generally building-related codes are adopted and enforced at the
help slow the fire, giving occupants more time to state level. This is most commonly done via adoption by
move to a safe location. reference of a series of major model codes into the
state’s administrative code. While the federal
4. Minimize property loss. This is accomplished by
government also adopts and enforces building codes, it
limiting the size of certain structures, protecting only does so for construction occurring on federal land.
adjoining property (e.g., establishing minimum
setback distances and requiring fire resistant 2.3.3 Incorporation of Standards
exteriors) and by limiting the progress and spread of
fire and smoke. The latter is accomplished, for Standards developed by non-governmental organizations
example, by eliminating combustible materials are a major part of many codes. A particular standard
within rooms and structural assemblies, limiting use may be directly embodied in a code (i.e., reprinted word-
of smoke and gas producing materials, protecting for-word) or it may be “adopted by reference” in which
structural members to prevent collapse from the case only the standard’s designation, title, and developer
effects of fire, enclosing vertical openings with fire- typically appear in the code. Whether by direct
resistive construction (firestopping and blocking), embodiment or adoption by reference, the inclusion of a
and subdividing the building into areas through the standard in an active code makes compliance with the
use of fire-resistive walls, floors and doors. standard mandatory in that jurisdiction.
2.3.1.3 Protection from the Environment 2.3.4 Prescriptive Versus Performance-

Based Code Requirements
Building codes provide a defense against our natural
environment in several ways. Perhaps most importantly, Prescriptive code requirements are those provisions
they specify the snow, wind, seismic and other forces within a code that spell out (i.e., prescribe) exactly how
that all code compliant buildings must withstand, and something must be constructed. For example, a
they specify the material design standards that must be prescriptive code requirement would be one that
used in structural design. Building codes also contain specified the size and grade of lumber for a specific
the thermal insulation requirements that protect application, or the type and thickness of gypsum
occupants from temperature extremes. Protection from wallboard in a particular room, or the diameter and exact
our natural environment also includes constructing location of bolts in a connection.
durable roof and wall exteriors that repel water and that A performance-based code requirement (a.k.a. a
limit insect insurgencies. performance specification) is a provision that establishes

the minimum performance level for a building material, In December 1994, the three model code agencies
component or system. Requiring that a building be (ICBO, BOCA and SBCCI) founded the International
designed to withstand a balanced roof snow load of 40 Code Council (ICC) with the purpose of developing a
pounds per square foot is a performance-based single set of comprehensive and coordinated model
requirement. construction codes for the United States. In less than six
years, the ICC completed their task with the publication
Engineers and architects have more latitude in design
of eleven International Codes (a.k.a. I-Codes).
where performance-based requirements control. They
can design anything they want as long as they meet the Beginning in 2003, the ICC has released a new version
performance-based requirement. This is obviously not of their codes every three years. In 2013, there were
the case with a prescriptive code requirement which fifteen I-Codes: the International Building Code, the
places specific restrictions on the material or equipment International Residential Code for One- and Two-Family
used and/or how it must be installed and/or tested. In Dwellings, the International Mechanical Code, the
general, residential building codes tend to have more International Plumbing Code, the International Fire
prescriptive requirements than codes dedicated to Code, the International Existing Building Code, the
commercial construction. International Wildland-Urban Interface Code, the
International Fuel Gas Code, the International Energy
2.3.5 History of Model Codes Conservation Code, the International Private Sewage
Understanding the history of major model building codes Disposal Code, the ICC Performance Code for Buildings
in the United States is important as many documents still and Facilities, the International Property Maintenance
refer to provisions that were established in model codes Code, the International Zoning Code, the International
that are no longer maintained. Green Construction Code, and the International
Swimming Pool and Spa Code.
The first major U.S. model building code was published
in 1905 by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. This The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is
group of fire insurance industry representatives another major developer of model building codes. For
developed the code primarily in response to devastating more than a century, NFPA has been developing and
fires that leveled large sections of Boston, New York, updating codes and standards concerning all areas of fire
Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco in the late 1800’s. safety. They are most widely known for the National
Electric Code or NEC (NFPA 70) which is the
In the early 1920’s, building inspectors began forming quintessential document in the U.S. when it comes to the
what eventually became three major regional model code installation of electric distribution and equipment wiring
groups, each developing and maintaining its own model within facilities. Currently, there are more than 300
building code. The International Congress of Building NFPA fire codes used throughout the world, and many of
Officials (ICBO) published the Uniform Building Code, these are active in virtually every jurisdiction in the U.S.
the Building Officials and Code Administrators In addition to the NEC, other well known NFPA codes
International (BOCA) produced the National Building include the Life Safety Code (NFPA 101), the Fire
Code, and the Southern Building Code Congress Prevention Code (NFPA 1), and the National Fuel Gas
International (SBCCI) published the Standard Building Code (NFPA 54).
Code. In general, most states west of the Mississippi
adopted the ICBO code, northeastern states the BOCA 2.4 International Building Code
code, and states in the southeast adopted the SBCCI
code. Wisconsin and New York were the only two states 2.4.1 Adoption
in the country not to adopt one of these three model The most significant model building code in the U.S. is
building codes, opting instead to write and maintain their the ICC International Building Code which is more
own building code. commonly known by its initialism IBC. The IBC has
In addition to their model building code, the ICBO, now been adopted in all 50 States, the District of
BOCA and SBCCI each offered other model codes. For Columbia, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the
example, SBCCI also produced the Standard Mechanical Northern Marianas Islands. Federal agencies including
Code, Standard Gas Code, and Standard Plumbing the Architect of the Capitol, General Services
Code. In many cases, these other model codes were Administration, National Park Service, Department of
developed in collaboration with outside organizations. State, U.S. Forest Service and the Veterans
For example, at one time, the International Association Administration also enforce the I-Codes. The
of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) and Department of Defense references the IBC for
ICBO jointly published the Uniform Mechanical Code. constructing military facilities, including those that house
U.S. troops, domestically and abroad.

2.4.2 General Contents used to evaluate the duration that a building element
contains a fire, retains its structural integrity, or exhibits
Included in the IBC are sections on occupancy and both properties during a prescribed fire test exposure.
construction type, allowable heights and areas, fire- ASTM E136 is used to determine material
resistant construction, fire protection systems, means of combustibility; more specifically; it is used to distinguish
egress, accessibility, interior finishes, interior between materials which do not act to aid combustion
environment; foundations, exterior wall and roof and those that add appreciable heat to an ambient fire.
construction; structural loads; and design with wood, ASTM E84 provides comparative measurements of
concrete, aluminum, steel, masonry, glass, gypsum surface flame spread and smoke density measurements
board, plaster, and plastic. Although the IBC also with that of select grade red oak and fiber-cement board
includes chapters on energy efficiency, electrical surfaces under a specific fire exposure condition.
systems, mechanical systems, plumbing systems, and
elevator and conveying systems, the material actually The IBC uses nine construction type categories. These
appearing in these chapters is extremely limited as these categories are given in Table 2-2 along with the
chapters adopt other major model codes by reference. minimum fire resistive ratings (in hours) for their
Coverage of structural design with wood, steel, concrete structural frames, exterior bearing walls, interior bearing
and other materials is also extremely limited as most of walls, floors and roofs as determined in accordance with
this material is also adopted by reference. ASTM E119. It is important to realize that there are
several factors that can change the requirements in Table
2.4.3 Occupancy and Construction Types 2-2 and the reader is referred to the IBC for these
For fire safety reasons, building codes limit the size of required adjustments.
virtually all buildings, with actual size based largely on The NC (non-combustible) designation that accompanies
what the building will have in it and what materials will some of the fire resistance ratings means that in addition
be used to construct the building. To account for to meeting the minimum hourly rating, the assembly
building contents, codes categorize buildings by must also be constructed of material determined to be
occupancy type. To account for the materials used in non-combustible in accordance with ASTM E136.
building construction, codes categorize buildings by Falling into this NC category would be such materials as
construction type. stone, concrete, masonry and steel.
The combination of occupancy and construction type With respect to construction, Type I is considered to be
governs allowable building height and area. If buildings both noncombustible and fire-resistive. Type II is also
with widely different fire hazards were treated equally, noncombustible, but has little to no fire-resistance. Type
regulations providing for fire protection of the more III is construction in which the exterior walls are of
hazardous group would impose a penalty on construction noncombustible materials and the interior building
of buildings housing the lesser hazard, thus needlessly elements can be of virtually any material (note here that
increasing building costs or reducing allowable sizes. fire-retardant-treated wood framing is permitted within
2.4.3.1 Occupancy Types exterior wall assemblies of a 2-hour rating or less). Type
IV is construction featuring exterior walls of
Table 2-1 contains the occupancy types as defined by the noncombustible materials and the interior building
IBC. There are 26 occupancy group designations in ten elements of heavy timber (HT). Timbers must be solid-
main categories. As should be evident from Table 2-1 sawn or glued laminated members (mechanically-
descriptions, buildings in the same group will have laminated assemblies are not allowed). Columns must
similar life-safety characteristics, combustible contents, not be less than 8 nominal inches in thickness, and floor
and fire hazards. In addition to building size, occupancy and roof framing must not be less than 6 inches in
type controls egress requirements. nominal thickness. Finally, Type V is construction in
which all elements can contain combustible materials.
2.4.3.2 Construction Types
Virtually all post-frame buildings would be classified as
Buildings are classified by construction type in Type V buildings.
accordance with the fire resistive characteristics of their
For each construction type there are two levels of fire
structural frames (columns, beams, girders, trusses, and
resistance rating requirements: A and B. Fire resistance
spandrels), bearing walls (i.e. walls that have imposed
rating requirements for level A are one full hour greater
loads on them), nonbearing walls, floors, and roofs.
than those for level B. For example, as listed in Table 2-
Fire resistance characteristics are determined via 2, the fire resistance rating requirements for elements of
standard laboratory tests. Main tests include ASTM a Type VA building are 1 hour whereas those for a Type
E119, ASTM E136 and ASTM E84. ASTM E119 is VB building are zero (0) hours.

Table 2-1. International Building Code (IBC) Occupancy Classifications

Group
Group Description
Designation
Assembly uses, usually with fixed seating, intended for the production and viewing of the
A-1
performing arts or motion pictures
A-2 Assembly uses intended for food and/or drink consumption
Assembly Assembly uses intended for worship, recreation, or amusement and other assembly uses not
A-3
classified elsewhere in Group A
A-4 Assembly uses intended for viewing of indoor sporting events and activities with spectator seating
A-5 Assembly uses intended for participation in or viewing outdoor activities
The use of a building or structure, or a portion thereof, for office, professional, or service-type
Business B
transactions, including storage of records and accounts.
The use of a building or structure, or a portion thereof, by six or more persons at any one time for
Educational E
educational purposes through the 12th grade and child care facilities.
F-1 Factory industrial uses which are not classified as Factory Industrial F-2 Low Hazard
Factory Factory industrial uses that involve the fabrication or manufacturing of noncombustible materials
F-2
which during finishing, packing, or processing do not involve a significant fire hazard
H-1 Buildings and structures containing materials that pose a detonation hazard
Buildings and structures containing materials that pose a deflagration hazard or a hazard from
H-2
accelerated burning
Buildings and structures containing materials that readily support combustion or that pose a
High Hazards H-3
physical hazard
H-4 Buildings and structures which contain materials that are health hazards
Semiconductor fabrication facilities and comparable research and development areas in which
H-5
hazardous production materials (HPM) are used.
Buildings, structures, or parts thereof housing more than 16 persons, on a 24-hour basis, who
because of age, mental disability, or other reasons, live in a supervised residential environment that
I-1
provides personal care services. The occupants are capable of responding to an emergency situation
without physical assistance from staff.
Buildings and structures used for medical, surgical, psychiatric, nursing, or custodial care on a 24-
I-2
hour basis for more than five persons who are not capable of self-preservation.
Institutional
Buildings and structures that are inhabited by more than five persons who are under restraint or
I-3 security. A I-3 facility is occupied by persons who are generally incapable of self-preservation due
to security measures not under the occupants' control.
Buildings and structures occupied by persons of any age who receive custodial care for less than 24
I-4 hours by individuals other than parents or guardians, relatives by blood, marriage, or adoption, and
in a place other than the home of the person cared for.
Buildings and structures or a portion thereof, for the display and sale of merchandise, and involves
Mercantile M
stocks of goods, wares or merchandise incidental to such purposes and accessible to the public.
Residential occupancies containing sleeping units where the occupants are primarily transient in
R-1
nature
Residential occupancies containing sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where the
R-2
occupants are primarily permanent in nature
Residential
Residential occupancies where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature and not classified as
R-3
Group R-1, R-2, R-4, or I
Buildings arranged for occupancy as residential care/assisted living facilities including more than
R-4
five but not more than 16 occupants, excluding staff.
S-1 Buildings occupied for storage uses that are not classified as Group S-2
Buildings used for the storage of noncombustible materials such as products on wood pallets or in
Storage
S-2 paper cartons with or without single thickness divisions; or in paper wrappings. Such products are
permitted to have a negligible amount of plastic trim, such as knobs, handles, or film wrapping.
Buildings and structures of an accessory character and miscellaneous structures not classified in any
Utility and
U specific occupancy shall be constructed, equipped and maintained to conform to the requirements of
Miscellaneous
this code commensurate with the fire and life hazard incidental to their occupancy.

Table 2-3. Fire-Resistance Rating

Table 2-2. Construction Types and
Requirements for Exterior Walls Based On
Associated Fire Resistance Rating
Fire Separation Distance (from IBC Table
Requirements (from IBC Table 601) a, b, c
602) a
Minimum fire resistance rating (hours) d
Occupancy
Groups
Exterior bearing wall Fire
Interior bearing wall

A, B, E,
Roof construction
Floor construction
Construction type
separation Construction F-1, M,

H F-2, I, R,
Structural frame
distance, X type S-1

S-2, U
(ft) b, c
Minimum fire resistance
rating (hours)
X<5 All 3 2 1
IA 3 2 1
IA NC-3 NC-3 NC-3 NC-2 NC-1.5 e 5 ≤ X < 10
Others 2 1 1
IB NC-2 NC-2 NC-2 NC-2 NC-1 e, f IA, IB 2 1 1
IIA NC-1 NC-1 NC-1 NC-1 NC-1 e, f 10 ≤ X < 30 IIB, VB 1 0 0
IIB NC-0 NC-0 NC-0 NC-0 NC-0 f Others 1 1 1
IIIA 1 NC-2 1 1 1 e, f X ≥ 30 All 0 0 0
IIIB 0 NC-2 0 0 0 a See the IBC for special requirements/exceptions.
b The distance measured from the building face to (1) the
IV HT g NC-2 1/HTg HT g HT g
closest interior lot line, (2) the centerline of a street, an alley
VA 1 1 1 1 1 e, f or public way, or (3) an imaginary property line between
VB 0 0 0 0 0 two buildings on the property.
c The fire-resistance rating of exterior walls with a fire
a Except for special cases, non-load bearing walls typically separation distance of 10 feet or less shall be rated for
have a zero (0) hr fire rating. exposure to fire from both sides. For X greater than 10 feet,
b Exterior walls (both load bearing and non-load bearing) the rated for exposure applies to fire from the inside only
must meet requirements of Table 2-3. (however, this takes a special non-symmetrical rated
c See the IBC for other specific requirements/exceptions. approved assembly).
d NC = Non Combustible. Note: with some minor exceptions,
any building element with a NC fire resistance rating 2.4.4 Building Height and Stories
requirement must be constructed of noncombustible
materials. The IBC defines building height as the vertical distance
e Except in Group F-1, H, M and S-1 occupancies, fire between the grade plane and the mid-height of the
protection of structural members shall not be required, highest roof (do not include overhangs when determining
including protection of roof framing and decking where roof mid-height). The grade plane is defined as the
every part of the roof construction is 20 feet or more above average elevation of the finished ground level. For
any floor immediately below. Fire-retardant-treated wood calculation purposes, the finished ground level is defined
members shall be allowed to be used for such unprotected as the ground elevation at a location six feet from the
members.
exterior wall except (1) wherever a property line is
f In all occupancies, heavy timber shall be allowed where a 1-
hour or less fire-resistance rating is required.
within six feet of the building, use the elevation of the
g HT = Heavy Timber as defined in IBC 602.4. property line, and (2) wherever the finished ground
surface slopes toward the building, use the elevation of
As noted in footnote “a” of Table 2-2, non-load bearing the location where the ground surface and wall intersect.
walls – both interior and exterior - typically have a zero Grade plane and finished ground level are graphically
(0) hour fire rating. Exceptions for interior walls are defined in figure 2-1.
generally related to occupancy (e.g., walls between The number of stories in a building is equal to the
sleeping units in the same R-1 building are required to number of stories with floors entirely above the grade
have a minimum 1 hr fire-resistance rating). For exterior plane plus the basement if the floor above the basement
walls (both load and non-load bearing), fire resistance is (1) greater than six feet above the grade plane, or (2)
ratings are often dictated by the fire separation distance greater than six feet above the finished ground level for
between adjacent buildings (see Table 2-3). more than 50% of the building perimeter, or (3) greater
than 12 feet above the finished ground level at any point.
Figure 2-2 illustrates the three conditions under which a
basement is counted as a story.

Roof midheight
sprinkler system. This increase does not apply to Type
IIB, III, IV and V buildings with Group I-2 occupancy.
Likewise it does not apply to any buildings with H-1,
H-2, H-3 or H-5 occupancy.
Building
Finished
height
ground
Roof structures not used for habitation or storage (e.g.
level towers, spires, steeples) can be unlimited in height if
6 ft fabricated from noncombustible materials. When such
Grade plane
roof structures are fabricated from combustible materials,
6 ft they cannot extend more than 20 ft above the allowable
Finished ground level
building height.
Roof midheight 2.4.5 Allowable Building Areas

h/2
h/2 Table 2-5 contains maximum allowable building areas as
Building specified in the IBC. Note that each part of a building
height Property included within “code complying fire walls” shall be
line
considered a separate building. The limitations in
Finished
ground Table 2-5 do not apply to buildings and structures that
Finished Grade plane
level house special industrial processes that require large areas
ground and unusual building heights to accommodate craneways
level 6 ft
or special machinery and equipment.
Figure 2-1. Graphical illustration of finished
ground level, grade plane, and building height. Values in Table 2-5 can be increased due to automatic
sprinkler system protection and “street“ frontage
according to the following formula:
3
1 Greater than 6 ft Aa = At (1 + Is /100 + If /100)

above the finished
Greater than 12 ground level for where:
ft above finished 50% or more of the
ground level at Floor above building perimeter Aa = Allowable area per floor, square feet.
any point basement At = Tabulated area per floor from Table 2-5,
square feet.
Grade plane Is = Area increase due to sprinkler protection,
percent.
= 200% where building is more than one story
Greater than 6 ft above the grade plane and protected
6 ft 2 above the grade 6 ft
throughout with an approved automatic
plane
sprinkler system.
Figure 2-2. Three conditions under which a
basement is counted as a building story. Note that = 300% where building is no more than one
only one of the three criteria needs to be met for a story above the grade plane and is protected
basement to be counted as a story. throughout with an approved automatic
sprinkler system.
The maximum height and maximum number of stories in If = Area increase due to frontage, percent. If is
a building is a function of the type of occupancy and type equal to zero if less than 25% of the building’s
of construction. Table 2-4 contains maximum allowable perimeter is a public way or accessible open
building heights as specified in the IBC. The limitations space having a minimum width of 20 feet.
in Table 2-4 do not apply to buildings and structures that = 100 (W/30 ft) [(F/P) – 0.25]
house special industrial processes that require large areas W = Minimum width of public way or accessible
and unusual building heights to accommodate craneways open space. W must be at least 20 feet and the
or special machinery and equipment. quantity W divided by 30 ft shall not exceed
1.0.
It is important to note that the allowable heights in Table P = Perimeter of entire building.
2-4 can be increased by 20 feet, and the maximum F = Building perimeter that fronts on a public way
number of stories by one story when the building is or accessible space having 20 feet open
protected throughout with an approved automatic minimum width.

Table 2-4. Maximum Allowable Heights (from IBC Table 503), UL = Unlimited a
Type of Construction
Use
Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V
Group
A B A B A B HT A B
Maximum Height, feet above grade
UL 160 65 55 65 55 65 50 40
Maximum Height, stories above grade
A-1 UL 5 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-2 UL 11 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-3 UL 11 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-4 UL 11 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-5 UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL
B UL 11 5 4 5 4 5 3 2
E UL 5 3 2 3 2 3 1 1
F-1 UL 11 4 2 3 2 3 1 1
F-2 UL 11 5 3 4 3 5 3 2
H-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 NP
H-2 UL 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
H-3 UL 6 4 2 4 2 4 2 1
H-4 UL 7 5 3 5 3 5 3 2
H-5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
I-1 UL 9 4 3 4 3 4 3 2
I-2 UL 4 2 1 1 NP 1 1 NP
I-3 UL 4 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
I-4 UL 5 3 2 3 2 3 1 1
M UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 1
R-1 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 2
R-2 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 2
R-3 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 3
R-4 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 2
S-1 UL 11 4 3 3 3 4 3 1
S-2 UL 11 5 4 4 4 5 4 2
Ub UL 5 4 2 3 2 4 2 1
Uc UL 12 4 2 4 2 4 3 2
a In almost all cases, the allowable height can be increased by 20 feet, and the maximum number of stories by one story when the
building is protected throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system.
b Non-agricultural Group U buildings.
c Group U Agricultural Buildings (from IBC Appendix C) which includes buildings with the following uses: livestock shelters or
buildings (including structures and milking barns), poultry buildings or shelters, barns, storage of equipment and machinery used
exclusively in agriculture, horticulture structures (including detached production greenhouses and crop protection shelters), sheds,
grain silos, stables
.
Based on preceding equations, the allowable floor area, buildings, can have unlimited floor area if they are (1)
Aa, of a sprinklered building with a tabulated floor area, one-story in height, and (2) surrounded and adjoined by
At, of 26,000 ft2 and a 25 ft wide public way and/or public ways or yards not less than 60 feet in width.
accessible open space along three-quarters of the Group U agricultural buildings and groups B, F, M and S
building’s perimeter is 88,833 ft2 (note: Is = 200 and If = buildings, can have unlimited floor area if they are (1)
41.67). protected throughout with an automatic sprinkler, (2) no
The last line in Table 2-5 gives allowable floor areas for more than two stories in height, and (3) surrounded and
Group U agricultural buildings. These tabulated floor adjoined by public ways or yards not less than 60 feet in
areas are from Appendix C of the IBC. width.
Group U agricultural buildings and groups F-2 and S-2 A mezzanine that is less than one-third of the floor area,

Table 2-5. Maximum Allowable Building Area (from IBC Table 503)
Type of Construction
Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V
Use Group
A B A B A B HT A B
Maximum Allowable Building Area, Thousand of Square Feet per Story (UL = Unlimited)
A-1 UL UL 15.5 8.5 14 8.5 15 11.5 5.5
A-2 UL UL 15.5 9.5 14 9.5 15 11.5 6
A-3 UL UL 15.5 9.5 14 9.5 15 11.5 6
A-4 UL UL 15.5 9.5 14 9.5 15 11.5 6
A-5 UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL
B UL UL 37.5 23 28.5 19 36 18 9
E UL UL 26.5 14.5 23.5 14.5 25.5 18.5 9.5
F-1 UL UL 25 15.5 19 12 33.5 14 8.5
F-2 UL UL 37.5 23 28.5 18 50.5 21 13
H-1 21 16.5 11 7 9.5 7 10.5 7.5 NP
H-2 21 16.5 11 7 9.5 7 10.5 7.5 3
H-3 UL 60 26.5 14 17.5 13 25.5 10 5
H-4 UL UL 37.5 17.5 28.5 17.5 36 18 6.5
H-5 UL UL 37.5 23 28.5 19 36 18 9
I-1 UL 55 19 10 16.5 10 18 10.5 4.5
I-2 UL UL 15 11 12 NP 12 9.5 NP
I-3 UL UL 15 10 10.5 7.5 12 7.5 5
I-4 UL 60.5 26.5 13 23.5 13 25.5 18.5 9
M UL UL 21.5 12.5 18.5 12.5 20.5 14 9
R-1 UL UL 24 16 24 16 20.5 12 7
R-2 UL UL 24 16 24 16 20.5 12 7
R-3 UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL
R-4 UL UL 24 16 24 16 20.5 12 7
S-1 UL 48 26 17.5 26 17.5 25.5 14 9
S-2 UL 79 39 26 39 26 38.5 21 13.5
Ua UL 35.5 19 8.5 14 8.5 18 9 5.5
Ub UL 60 27.1 18 27.1 18 27.1 21.1 12
a Non-agricultural Group U buildings.
b Group U Agricultural Buildings (from IBC Appendix C) which includes buildings with the following uses: livestock shelters or
buildings (including structures and milking barns), poultry buildings or shelters, barns, storage of equipment and machinery used
exclusively in agriculture, horticulture structures (including detached production greenhouses and crop protection shelters), sheds,
grain silos, stables.
or an equipment platform that is less than two thirds the resistance rating requirements in Table 2-6. Each
floor area of the room or space in which it is located, separated occupancy must comply with the building
does not contribute to the building area or number of height limitations for the type of construction used.
stories. Where a room contains both a mezzanine and an Additionally, in each story of such buildings, the sum of
equipment platform, the two raised floor levels can be the ratios of the actual building area of each separated
ignored in allowable area calculations as long as their occupancy divided by the allowable building area of
aggregate area is less than two-thirds the floor area of the each occupancy can not exceed 1.0. For a single-story
room or space in which they are located. Type VB building that has a total floor area of 10,000
square feet with 30% under a Group B occupancy and
2.4.6 Buildings with Mixed Occupancy the other 70% under a Group F-2 occupancy, this ratio
Many buildings are used for multiple purposes and thus would be an acceptable 0.87 if the allowable area for
have areas assigned to different occupancy groups. With Group B and Group F-2 are 9000 and 13,000 sq ft,
a few exceptions, different occupancies within the same respectively (i.e., 3000/9000 + 7000/13,000 = 0.87 <
building must be separated by fire barriers and/or 1.0).
horizontal assemblies in accordance with the fire-

Table 2-6. Required Separation of Occupancies (from IBC Table 508.4)

B,
I-1, F-2, F-1,
Occupancy
A, I-3, S-2d, M, H-3,
b
E I-4 I-2 R U S-1 H-1 H-2 H-4 H-5
Minimum fire resistance rating (in hours) for buildings NOT
equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system a
A, E N — — — — — — — — —
I-1, I-3, I-4 2 N — — — — — — — —
I-2 NP NP N — — — — — — —
Rb 2 NP NP N — — — — — —
F-2, S-2c, U 1 2 NP 2c N — — — — —
B, F-1, M, S-1 2 2 NP 2 2 N — — — —
H-1 NP NP NP NP NP NP NP — — —
H-2 4 NP NP NP 4 3 NP NP — —
H-3, H-4 3 NP NP NP 3 2 NP NP NP —
H-5 NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP
Minimum fire resistance rating (in hours) for buildings
equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system a
A, E N — — — — — — — — —
I-1, I-3, I-4 1 N — — — — — — — —
I-2 2 2 N — — — — — — —
Rb 1 1 2 N — — — — — —
F-2, S-2d, U N 1 2 1c N — — — — —
B, F-1, M, S-1 1 1 2 1 1 N — — — —
H-1 NP NP NP NP NP NP N — — —
H-2 3 3 3 3 3 2 NP N — —
H-3, H-4 2 2 2 2 2 1 NP 1 1e —
H-5 2 2 2 2 2 1 NP 1 1 N
a N = No separation requirement, NP = Not permitted.
b See IBC Section 420.
c The required separation from areas used only for private or pleasure vehicles shall be reduced by 1 hour but to not less than 1 hour.
d See IBC Section 406.3.4.
e Separation is not required between occupancies of the same classification.
Some mixed occupancy buildings consist of a main fire in which continuity is maintained.” It is important to
occupancy and several smaller ancillary occupancies. A note that a fire barrier is defined as a wall. Similar
separation between the main occupancy and ancillary functioning assemblies that are run in a horizontal
occupancies (i.e. accessory occupancies) is not needed if position are defined by the IBC as horizontal assemblies.
(1) the main occupancy covers more than 90% of the
A fire barrier is used for mixed use occupancy separation
building area of the story in which the accessory
in accordance with Table 2-6, and is also used to separate
occupancies are also located, and (2) none of the
a single use occupancy within a building into smaller fire
occupancies exceeds its allowable floor area.
areas (generally in an effort to eliminate the requirement
2.4.7 Fire Barriers, Walls and Partitions for sprinklers). Other common applications include
shaft/exit enclosures, and protection of horizontal exits
Fundamental to the fire code provisions of the IBC are and exit passageways.
definitions for fire barrier, fire wall and fire partition.
While these terms may seem equivalent, they are not. Table 2-7 contains fire-resistance rating for fire barriers
and horizontal assemblies. For fire barriers and/or
2.4.7.1 Fire Barrier horizontal assemblies separating fire areas of mixed
A fire barrier is defined as “a fire-resistance rated wall occupancies, the highest fire-resistance rating of the
assembly of materials designed to restrict the spread of involved occupancies shall apply.

2.4.7.3 Fire Partitions

Table 2-7. Fire-Resistance Rating
Requirements for Fire Barriers and A fire partition is defined as “a vertical assembly of
Horizontal Assemblies (from IBC Table materials designed to restrict the spread of fire in which
707.3.10) openings are protected.” A fire partition wall runs from
the foundation or floor/ceiling assembly below to the
Fire-Resistance Rating underside of the floor or roof sheathing, deck or slab
Occupancy Group
(hours) above, or to the fire-resistance rated floor-ceiling or roof/
H-1, H-2 4 ceiling assembly above.
F-1, H-3, S-1 3 Fire partition walls must have a minimum fire resistance
A, B, E, F-2, H-4, H-5, rating of 1 hour. They are required between dwelling
2
I, M, R, S-2 units in the same building and between sleeping units in
U 1 the same building. Corridor walls and walls separating
tenant spaces in covered and open mall buildings must
also meet fire partition wall requirements.
2.4.7.2 Fire Walls
A fire wall is defined as “a fire-resistance-rated wall 2.5 Federal Codes
having protected openings, which restricts the spread of
fire and extends continuously from the foundation to or Codes existing at a federal level are embodied in the
through the roof, with sufficient structural stability under Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) accessible at
fire conditions to allow collapse of construction on either http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/. The CFR is divided into
side without collapse of the wall.” 50 titles that represent broad areas subject to federal
regulation. Various federal departments and agencies are
Each portion of a building separated by one or more code
responsible for the development and enforcement of
compliant fire walls can be considered a separate
different CFR sections.
building. Thus fire walls are commonly used to separate
a building into two separate buildings where it would not Some CFR provisions have a very direct and/or major
be possible to meet maximum allowable area impact on structural design and construction. Chief
requirements as a single building. Additionally, a fire among these is the Occupational Safety and Health
wall can be used to separate a building into two separate Administration (OSHA) section containing safety and
buildings having two different construction types, or to health regulations for construction (CFR Title 29, Part
separate an un-sprinklered area of a building from a 1926). Other departments and agencies with code
sprinklered area, therefore, allowing for a fully provisions that influence structural design and
sprinklered building. construction include the U.S. Department of Commerce
(DOC), U.S Department of Energy (DOE), U.S.
Table 2-8 contains fire resistance requirements for fire
Department of Agriculture (USDA), U.S. Department of
walls. Where a fire wall also separates occupancies that
Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Environment
are required to be separated by a fire barrier, the most
Protection Agency (EPA), National Institute of Standards
restrictive of each separation applies.
and Technology (NIST), and National Institutes of
Table 2-8. Fire Wall Fire-Resistance Ratings Health (NIH).
(from IBC Table 706.4)
Fire-Resistance Rating 2.6 NFBA Sponsored Fire Tests
Group
(hours) 2.6.1 One-Hour Post-Frame Fire Wall
A, B, E, H-4, I, R-1, R-2, U 3a
In January of 1990, the National Frame Builders
F-1, H-3b, H-5, M, S-1 3 Association had Warnock Hersey International, Inc.,
H-1, H-2 4b conduct a one-hour fire endurance test on the exterior
F-2, S-2, R-3, R-4 2 wall shown in figure 2-3. The wall met all requirements
for a one-hour rating as prescribed in ASTM E-119-88.
a In Type II or V construction, walls shall be permitted to
The wall sustained an applied load of 10,400 lbf per
have a 2-hour fire-resistance rating.
b For Group H-1, H-2 or H-3 buildings, also see IBC Sections column throughout the test. Copies of the fire test report
415.6 and 415.7. can be obtained from the NFBA.

Attach metal cladding 12 in. o.c. with 1.5 in.
hex head screws with neoprene washers 29 gage steel cladding
Section A-A
B
Gold Bond 5/8 in. Fireshield G Type X, attached

Unexposed nominal 2- by
with 1-7/8 in. cement coated nails (0.0195 in.
4-inch girts 24 in. o.c.
shank, 1/4 head, 7 in. o.c.)
Nominal 2- by 4-inch
Fire side girts, girts, 24 in. o.c.
nominal 2- by 4- A A
inches 24 in. o.c.
10 ft
FIRE SIDE 4-1/16- by 5-1/4-inch
glue-laminated column
3- by 24- by 48-inch mineral

Nominal 2- by 2-inch blocking
wool, attach with 3 in. square
between girts (nailed to nominal
cap nails (3 per 48 in. width)
2- by 6-inch edge blocks)
Nail-laminated column fabricated from 3 nominal

2- by 6-inch No. 2 KD19 SP members
Nominal 2- by 4-inch blocking attached to column
B
Section B-B
1 ft 8 ft 1 ft
Figure 2-3. Construction details for exterior wall that obtained a one-hour fire-resistance rating during a January
1990 test conducted for the National Frame Builders Association by Warnock Hersey International, Inc. Details of the
test are available from NFBA upon request.
2.6.2 3½-Hour Post-Frame Fire-Wall point rise of 325 degrees) between the material on the
exposed surface (gypsum wallboard in this case) and the
In December, 2011 UL conducted a full-scale test for substrate being protected (underlying wood girts).
NFBA on the fire wall assembly shown in figure 2-4
(UL, 2012). The goal of the test was to obtain an 2.6.2.1 Advantages
assembly with a minimum fire-resistance bearing wall
Because post frame buildings are typically classified as
rating of three hours. The assembly obtained a 3.5 hr
Type V buildings, they have some of the lowest
bearing wall rating. Use of the term “bearing” in this
allowable areas (Table 2-5). While automatic fire-
instance means that under the ASTM E119 fire-
suppression systems (sprinklers) can be used to increase
resistance test conditions, the wall continued to support
allowable areas, they can be very costly and impractical,
its maximum design load for 3.5 hours without passage
especially in rural areas where access to the large
of flame or gases hot enough to ignite cotton waste, and
amounts of water required for a properly sized sprinkler
without the temperature on the unexposed surface (non
system can be financially prohibitive. In such cases it is
fire side) increasing more than 250 F.
often more practical to split a building into two separate
The assembly in figure 2-4 is designated as UL Design buildings via a fire wall. For all occupancies except F-2,
Number V304. In addition to the 3.5 h bearing wall S-2, R-3 and R-4, the IBC requires that such a fire wall
rating, the assembly was also assigned a 2 hr “finish have a minimum fire resistance rating of 3 hours (Table
rating”. The finish rating is the time required to obtain 2-8). Only H-1 and H-2 occupancies are required to
an average temperature rise of 250 degrees (or a single have a 4-hour fire resistance rated fire wall.

10d nails
6 in. o.c. staggered
1 Nail-laminated column detail

1
Two 16d nails

per side per 2
column
1. Wood Columns – Four-ply nail-laminated column constructed by

nailing two 2x6 studs together with 10d nails spaced 6 in. oc and
2
staggered. Columns spaced a max 96 in. oc and oriented so that the
Girt to Column Connection
2 in. side of each member is perpendicular to the horizontal girts.
2. Wood Girts - Nominal 2 in. by 4 in. girts are applied horizontally to
the face of the columns at 16 in. on center. The girts are applied with
two 16d nails per column. The joints are aligned on the vertical
center of the columns.
3. Wood Blocking - 2 in. by 6 in. blocking vertically-applied to column
face between each girt and fastened with four equally-spaced 16d
nails
4. Gypsum Wallboard (GWB) - Nominal 5/8 in. thick GWB applied
Four 16d
horizontally. Joints in adjacent layers are staggered a min. 16 in. and
nails in each
secured to the wood girts as follows: First layer fastened with 2 in.
intermediate long Type W coarse threaded screws spaced max 24 in. oc. along
block the horizontal edge and max 8 in. o.c. along the vertical edge to the
columns. Second layer fastened with 2-1/2 in. long Type W coarse
threaded screws spaced max 24 in. o.c. Third layer fastened with 3
in. Type W coarse threaded screws spaced max 24 in. o.c. The
3 Blocking to Column Connection
fourth layer fastened with 3-1/2 in. long Type W coarse threaded
screws spaced max 12 in. o.c. All screws are offset min. 6 in. from
adjacent layers.
1 2 4
Figure 2-4. Post-frame fire wall with 3.5-hour bearing wall fire resistance rating. UL Design Number V304 (UL, 2012).

Many post-frame buildings are constructed to house 2.8 Codes and Farm Buildings
occupancy groups S-1, M and F-l (Royer and Stauffer,
2012) – all of which require a minimum 3-hour fire wall. 2.8.1 Applicable Codes
Prior to the approval of UL Design No. V304, only non-
With few exceptions, model codes written for
wood assemblies constructed using concrete masonry
commercial buildings include verbiage for farm
units, or steel studs with Type X gypsum wallboard on
buildings. This includes the IBC which includes farm
both sides were available to designers who required a 3-
building under Group U occupancies.
hour wall.
Because the structural frame of UL Design V304 is 2.8.2 Exemptions
typical post-frame, post-frame builders no longer need to Although the IBC has been adopted in all 50 states, most
hire specialty trades people to build fire walls. This state and local governments have verbiage in their active
combined with the fact that the fire wall would likely codes that exempts “buildings used exclusively for
have a foundation identical to that of the rest of the farming purposes” from provisions of the IBC. It is
building facilitates more rapid and less expensive important to note that these same governments seldom
assembly. exempt farm buildings from other regulations such as the
provision of the National Electric Code.
2.7 Zoning Regulations The exemption of agricultural buildings from building
2.7.1 Purpose codes has existed since building codes were first
established. This is because the costly conflagrations in
Zoning laws are established to accomplish one or more the late 1800’s that drove development of building codes
community objectives or goals. These include lessening were unique to urban areas so there was no need to enact
traffic congestion; providing safety from fire, flooding, them in rural areas.
panic, or other dangers; promoting community health
standards; providing adequate lighting; preventing In modern times, the exemption of farm buildings has
pollution of streams, lakes, and air; preventing more to do with that fact that the loss of an agricultural
unregulated land fills or other disposal activities; and building seldom presents significant risk to human life.
lessoning the cost to the public of transportation, water Additionally, many agricultural buildings remain
distribution, sewage, school, park, and other public isolated, consequently, if they do start to burn, the fire is
services. relatively easy to contain, and thus loss is generally
limited to the building in which the fire started.
2.7.2 Typical Contents
Regardless of whether or not a particular agricultural
Most zoning regulations will: building is exempt from the local code, it should still be
 Specify height, size, and situation of buildings on fully engineered. As buildings increase in size, a point is
lots with reference to streets and property reached at which a fully-engineered structure will cost
boundaries. less than a non-engineered structure, or be much safer
 Regulate the percentage of a lot that may be than the non-engineered structure. This is because non-
occupied by a building. engineered buildings are often “over-designed” in as
 Specify the size of yards, courts, and other open many areas as they are “under-designed” in others
spaces. resulting in no net savings to the consumer who is trying
 Control the density of population by residency use in to avoid engineering costs.
relation to lot size. The obvious problem with purchasing any non-
 Regulate location and use of buildings, structures engineered structure is that they have a higher
and land for trade, industry, residence, or other probability of failure than their engineered counterparts.
purposes. This probability of failure increases as building size
 Divide municipalities into districts of such number, increases. This is because the total number of structural
shape, and area as may best be suited to carry out the elements in a building is directly related to the size of the
purposes of land-use planning. structure. With more structural elements in a building,
there is an increased probability that one component
2.7.3 Development and Enforcement within the structure may fail. While the failure of a
Zoning laws are developed by municipalities. They (and single component in a large building might seem minor,
building codes) are principally enforced by the granting it is not. Failure of a single member or connection in the
of building permits and inspection of construction work primary roof framing often triggers the collapse of the
in progress. Certificates of occupancy are issued when entire roof/ceiling assembly.
completed buildings satisfy all regulations.

2.9 Significant Design Documents A number of shorter documents have been included in
Table 2-9. In many cases, these documents contain in-
Table 2-9 contains the source and a description for depth information on a subject covered in less detail in
several documents related to post-frame building design. one of the more major publications appearing in the
The two primary documents in this compilation are the table. Most can be downloaded at no cost.
American Wood Councils’ (AWC) National Design
Specification® (NDS) for Wood Construction and the The Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material
American Society of Civil Engineers’ (ASCE) Minimum is an outstanding publication written by employees of the
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Much USDA Forest Products Laboratory. It is available for
of this post-frame building design manual is tied to free download and should be part of the library of any
methodology appearing in these two documents. individual associated with the use of wood in
construction.
In addition to the NDS, there are three other major
“design specifications” listed Table 2-9. These are the The American Society for Testing and Materials
ACI Building Code Requirements for Structural (ASTM) is the largest developer of standards in the
Concrete, the AISC Steel Construction Manual, and world. Virtually any material or product used in building
AISI’s North American Specification for the Design of construction is subject to requirements of one or more
Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members. None of these ASTM standards. Despite this fact, Table 2-9 does not
three design documents will be overviewed in this contain references to a single ASTM standard. This is
manual. They are listed here because one or more of because those ASTM standards are either embodied in,
them may be required to complete the design of a post- or referenced by, other documents listed in the table.
frame building depending on the inclusion of structural Note that it is not uncommon for ASTM standards to
concrete, hot-rolled steel sections, built-up steel sections, appear in a list of building specifications, especially
and/or cold-formed steel sections in the structure. when they govern material characteristics that influence
long-term, in-service durability.
Table 2-9. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
American Concrete Institute

38800 Country Club Drive, Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Phone: 248-848-3700; Fax: 248-848-3701; Website: http://www.concrete.org/
1. ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary
Concrete inspection; materials; durability requirements; concrete quality, mixing, and placing;
formwork; embedded pipes; construction joints; reinforcement details; analysis and design; strength
and serviceability; flexural and axial loads; shear and torsion; development and splices of
reinforcement; slab systems; walls; footings; precast concrete; composite flexural members;
prestressed concrete; shells and folded plate members; strength evaluation of existing structures;
provisions for seismic design; structural plain concrete; strut-and-tie modeling in Appendix A;
ACI
alternative design provisions in Appendix B; alternative load and strength reduction factors in
Appendix C; and anchoring to concrete in Appendix D.
2. ACI DCCM: Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
Fundamentals of freshly mixed and hardened concrete including sustainability; durability; materials for
making concrete, such as portland cements, supplementary cementing materials, aggregates, water,
admixtures, fibers, and reinforcement; procedures for mix proportioning, batching, mixing,
transporting, handling, placing, consolidating, finishing, and curing concrete.
3. ACI 360R-10 Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground
Planning, design, and detailing of slabs. Background information on design theories is followed by
discussion of the types of slabs, soil-support systems, loadings, and jointing. Design methods are given
for unreinforced concrete, reinforced concrete, shrinkage-compensating concrete, post-tensioned
concrete, fiber-reinforced concrete slabs-on-ground, and slabs-on-ground in refrigerated buildings,
followed by information on shrinkage and curling.

Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
American Institute of Steel Construction

One East Wacker Drive Suite 700, Chicago, IL 60601-1802
Phone: 312-670-2400; Fax: 312-670-5403; Website: http://www.aisc.org/
1. AISC Steel Construction Manual
AISC
Covers both ASD and LRFD for hot-rolled and built-up steel sections. Includes the following
chapters: dimensions and properties; general design considerations; design of flexural members; design
of compression members; design of tension members; design of members subject to combined loading;
design considerations for bolts; design considerations for welds; design of connecting elements; design
of simple shear connections; design of flexible moment connections; design of fully restrained moment
connections; design of bracing connections and truss connections; design of beam bearing plates,
column base plates, anchor rods, and column splices; design of hanger connections, bracket plates, and
crane-rail connections; specifications and codes; miscellaneous data and mathematical information;
index and general nomenclature.
American Iron and Steel Institute

25 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20001
Phone: 202-452-7100; Websites: http://www.steel.org and http://www.mysteelworks.org
AISI
1. North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
Covers LRFD and ASD for cold-formed steel members. Includes the following sections: general
provisions; elements; members; structural assemblies; connections and joints; tests for special cases;
and design of cold-formed steel structural members and connections for cyclic loading (fatigue).
Appendices A, B and C cover provision applicable to the United States, Canada, and Mexico,
respectively.
American Institute of Timber Construction

7012 S. Revere Parkway, Suite 140, Englewood, CO 80112
Phone: 303-792-9559; Fax: 303-792-0669; Website: http://aitc-glulam.org
1. AITC Timber Construction Manual
Definitive design and construction industry source for building with wood, both sawn lumber and
structural glued laminated timber.
2. AITC 104 Typical Construction Details
Includes detailed sketches and descriptive information for connections of glued laminated timber
members including: beams to masonry; cantilever beams; beam and purlin hangers; beam to columns;
AITC
column anchorage; arch anchorage; arch connections; truss connections; suspended loading
connections. Describes various connections that should be avoided and details the protection of glulam
from decay.
3. AITC 109 Standard for Preservative Treatment of Structural Glued Laminated Timber
The uses of preservative treatments for the protection of glued laminated timber to resist decay are
discussed. Topics discussed are design considerations, species of wood, types of preservative
treatment, requirements for retention, penetration, certification and marking, incising, treatment prior
to bonding, adhesives and bonding processes, fabrication and machining, care after treatment, field
treatment and exudation of natural wood resin.
4. AITC 112 Standard for Tongue-and-Groove Heavy Timber Roof Decking (free download)
This standard applies to solid sawn tongue-and-groove heavy timber decking. Its provisions are not
applicable to laminated timber decking. Discusses species, sizes and patterns, lengths, moisture
content, applications, specifications, weights of installed decking and allowable load tables for
nominal 2, 3 and 4 inch thickness decking.

construction.
AITC
5. ANSI/AITC A190.1 American National Standard, Structural Glued Laminated Timber
The primary reference standard for manufacturing and quality control requirements for glued
laminated timber. Topics addressed are lumber, adhesives, grading, end jointing, face laminating,
finishing, marking, qualification of manufacturers and process quality control. Recommended for all
manufacturers of glulam assemblies.
APA - The Engineered Wood Association

P.O. Box 11700, 7011 South 19th Street, Tacoma, WA 98466-5333
Phone: 253-565-6600; Fax: 253-565-7265; Website: http://www.apawood.org/
1. Form E30: APA Engineered Wood Construction Guide (free download)
Comprehensive guide to engineered wood construction systems for both residential and
commercial/industrial buildings. Includes much of the material contained in other APA documents.
Covers selection and specification of panels, glulam, I-Joist, and SCL. Also floor, wall and roof
construction details and building requirements and related panel systems.
2. Form C415 Glulam Floor Beams (free download)
Span tables for glulam floor beams in residential construction, tables for substituting glulam for steel
beams, and design details.
3. Form D485 Technical Note: Corrosion-Resistant Fasteners for Construction (free download)
Basic recommendations for fastener used in plywood siding and foundations, and fire-retardant-treated
plywood.
4. Form D510 Panel Design Specification (free download)
Design capacities (ASD) and design methods for wood structural panels manufactured under Voluntary
Product Standards PS1 (Form L870) and PS2 (Form S350), and APA Performance Standard PRP-108
(Form E445).
APA
5. Form D710 I-Joist Construction Details - Performance Rated I-Joists in Floor and Roof Framing (free
download)
Recommended construction details for I-joists in floor and roof applications. Also includes details for
cantilevers and web holes.
6. Form E445 Performance Standards and Qualification Policy for Structural-Use Panels (free
download)
7. APA PRP-108 - Describes requirements and test methods for APA Performance Rated Panels.
8. Form EWS T300 EWS Technical Note: Glulam Connection Details (free download)
Illustrations of correct and incorrect ways to make a connection involving glulam members.
9. Form EWS X440 Glulam Product Guide (free download)
Describes APA EWS trademarked glulam, addresses important design considerations, and includes a
specification guide.
10. Form EWS X720 PRI-400 Performance Standard for APA EWS I-Joists
Performance criteria, qualification requirements, and quality assurance information for APA
Performance Rated I-Joists.
11. Form EWS Y117 Glulam Design Specification (free download)
Glulam layup principles, allowable stresses, specification guidelines and design values
12. Form G310 Wind-Rated Roofs: Designing Commercial Roofs to Withstand Wind Uplift Forces (free
download)
Tested assembly details for roof systems with APA wood structural panels used as substrate that meet
classifications of FM Approvals or of Underwriters Laboratories.

construction.
13. Form H335 Technical Note: Wood Structural Panel Sheathing or Siding Used to Resist Combined
Shear & Uplift (free download)
Determination of the number and location of uplift fasteners that must be used in combination with
fasteners used to resist shear.
14. Form K325 Designing for Combined Shear and Wind Uplift (free download)
Introduces a straightforward solution for builders to meet building code requirements for structural
wall systems in high wind areas. The APA system for combined shear and wind uplift is a prescribed
three-step design process that builders can follow with minimal added engineering.
15. Form L350 Diaphragms and Shear Walls (free download)
Design and construction recommendations for engineered diaphragm systems in floor, shear wall, and
roof systems.
16. Form L870 Voluntary Product Standard, PS 1, Structural Plywood (free download)
Covers Voluntary Product Standard PS 1 - the national standard for producing, marketing, and
specifying plywood for construction and industrial uses.
17. Form Q225. Technical Note: Load-Span Tables for APA Structural-Use Panels (free download)
Uniform load design capacities for various span ratings, section properties and panel thicknesses
calculated using Panel Design Specification (Form D510)
18. Form S350 Performance Standard for Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels (free download)
Covers Voluntary Product Standard PS 2 and describes the requirements for producing and testing
wood-based structural-use panels.
19. Form S475 Glued Laminated Beam Design Tables (free download)
Glued laminated beam design tables provide recommended preliminary design loads for two of the
APA
most common glulam beam applications: roofs and floors. The tables include values for section
properties and capacities, and allowable loads for simple span and cantilevered beams.
20. Form SR-101 APA System Report: Design for Combined Shear and Uplift from Wind (free download)
Designs for utilizing wind uplift resistance capabilities from wood structural panels, in addition to
resisting lateral shear forces and wind pressure perpendicular to the wall.
21. Form T325 Data File: Roof Sheathing Fastening Schedules for Wind Uplift (free download)
Nailing schedules for wood structural panel roof sheathing for high wind areas.
22. Form TT-111 Technical Topics: Wood Moisture Content and the Importance of Drying in Wood
Building Systems (free download)
Guidance on how to avoid potential moisture problems that could lead to costly and hazardous
deterioration as well as health risks when using wood structural products with impermeable materials.
23. Form X305 Introduction to Lateral Design (free download)
Explains how to design wood-frame buildings to withstand the lateral loads typical of high wind and
seismic zones.
24. Form X505 Panel Handbook & Grade Glossary (free download)
Panel and construction terminology explained in easy-to-understand language.
25. Form Y391 Technical Note: Structural Adhesives for Plywood-Lumber Assemblies (free download)
Covers structural adhesives for strength and stiffness, and semi-structural adhesives for stiffness only.
26. Form Z416 Data File: Nailed Structural-Use Panel and Lumber Beams (free download)
Load-span tables and fabrication information for beams fabricated by nailing structural panels to
dimension lumber.
27. Form Z725 APA Performance Rated I-Joists (free download)
Includes information on span ratings, installation details, cantilever designs, architectural specifications
and engineering design properties for APA Performance Rated I-Joists

construction.
American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers

2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, MI 49085-9659
Phone: 269-429-0300; Fax: 269-429-3852; Website: http://www.asabe.org/
1. ANSI/ASABE S618 Post Frame Building System Nomenclature
Establishes uniformity in terms used in the design, construction, marketing and regulation of post
frame building systems.
2. ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm Design of Metal-Clad, Wood-Frame Rectangular Buildings
Analysis and design of single story, rectangular metal-clad wood-frame buildings using roof and
ceiling diaphragms, alone or in combination. The roof (and ceiling) diaphragms, endwalls,
intermediate shearwalls, and building frames are the main structural elements of a structural system
used to efficiently resist the design lateral (wind) loads.
3. ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Shallow Post and Pier Foundation Design
Design procedure for shallow post and pier foundations that resist moments and lateral and vertical
forces acting on them. The design procedure provides necessary definitions, material requirements,
and design equations for post and pier foundations.
4. ASAE EP558 Load Tests for Metal-Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragms
Test method for determination of the in-plane strength and stiffness of a metal-clad wood-frame
diaphragm assembly.
ASABE
5. ANSI/ASAE EP559.1 Design Requirements and Bending Properties for Mechanically-Laminated

Wood Assemblies
Guidelines for designing and calculating allowable bending properties of 3- and 4-layer mechanically
laminated wood assemblies subjected to uni-axial bending about their strong axis
6. ANSI/ASAE EP378.4 Floor and Suspended Loads on Agricultural Structures Due to Use
Recommended design loads resulting from livestock, suspended caged poultry, vehicles, and manure
stored on a floor.
7. ASAE EP393.3 Manure Storages
Recommendations for siting, design, and construction of both earthen and fabricated manure storage
units.
8. ANSI/ASAE EP433 Loads Exerted by Free-Flowing Grain on Bins
Methods of estimating the grain pressures within centrally loaded and unloaded bins used to store free-
flowing, agricultural whole grain.
9. ANSI/ASAE EP446.3 Loads Exerted by Irish Potatoes in Shallow Bulk Storage Structures
Guidelines for calculating loads on vertical and inclined walls, partitions, bin fronts, ducts, and
appurtenances that are to resist lateral pressure of potatoes stored in bins that are wider than deep and
not deeper than 5.5 m (18 ft)
10. ASAE EP538.2 Design Loads for Bunker (Horizontal) Silos
Design loads for the walls of bunker (horizontal) silos for storing whole plant silages. Does not
include hydrostatic pressures that may occur when the silage becomes saturated.
11. ANSI/ASAE EP545 Loads Exerted by Free-Flowing Grain on Shallow Storage Structures
Methods of estimating the grain pressures within shallow storage structures used to store free-flowing,
agricultural whole grains.
American Society of Civil Engineers

ASCE
1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191-4400

Phone: 800-548-2723; Website: http://www.asce.org/
1. ASCE/SEI 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
Means for determining dead, live, soil, flood, wind, snow, rain, atmospheric ice, and earthquake loads,
as well as their combinations.

construction.
American Wood Council

222 Catoctin Circle SE, Suite 201 Leesburg, VA 20175
Phone: (202) 463 2766, Fax: (202) 463-2791, Website: http://www.awc.org/
1. ANSI/AWC NDS-2012 National Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction with Commentary
The NDS is adopted in all model building codes in the U.S. and is used to design wood structures
worldwide. ANSI/AWC NDS-2012, was approved as an ANSI American National Standard on August
15, 2011. The 2012 NDS was developed by the American Wood Council's (AWC) Wood Design
Standards Committee and is referenced in the 2012 International Building Code.
2. NDS Supplement – Design Values for Wood Construction, 2012 Edition
Design provisions in the NDS are integral with design values in the NDS Supplement. As such, it is not
appropriate to mix design values and provisions from different editions of the NDS. For example, the
2001 NDS Supplement contains increased shear design values for sawn lumber to reflect changes in
ASTM D245 and provisions of the 2001 NDS were revised to address these increases.
3. Special Design Provisions for Wind and Seismic (SDPWS) Standard with Commentary (free view only
download)
The AWC SDPWS-08 covers materials, design and construction of wood members, fasteners, and
assemblies to resist wind and seismic forces. Engineered design of wood structures to resist wind or
seismic forces is either by allowable stress design (ASD); or load and resistance factor design (LRFD).
4. ASD/LRFD Manual for Engineered Wood Construction, 2012 Edition (free download)
The ASD/LRFD Manual contains design information for structural lumber, glued laminated timber,
structural-use panels, shear walls and diaphragms, poles and piles, I-joists, structural composite lumber
and over 40 details are included in the chapter on connections.
5. Structural Wood Design Solved Example Problems, 2005 Edition
AWC
Structural Wood Design Solved Example Problems is intended to aid instruction on structural design of
wood structures using both allowable stress design and load and resistance factor design. Forty example
problems allow direct side-by-side comparison of ASD and LRFD for wood structures.
6. ANSI / AF&PA PWF-2007 - Permanent Wood Foundation Design Specification
Structural design requirements for load-bearing wood-frame wall and floor systems designed for both
above and below-grade use as a foundation for light frame construction.
7. DA 1 - Application of Technical Report 12 for Lag Screw Connections (free download)
Example calculations of reference lateral design values for lag screws and wood screws that account for
the differences in applied moment and bearing resistance of the threaded and unthreaded portions of the
fastener
8. DA 4 - Post Frame Rink Shank Nails (free download)
Reference design values for post frame ring shank nails manufactured in accordance with ASTM
F1667. Tabulated values are calculated in accordance with the 2005 NDS yield limit equations.
9. DA 6 - Beam Design Formulas with Shear and Moment Diagrams (free download)
Shear and moment diagrams with accompanying formulas for design of beams under various static
loading conditions. Configurations include simple span, cantilever, and 2-span continuous beams.
10. DA 8 - Interior Shear Walls (free download)
This document describes how interior shear walls are designed to resist lateral loads
11. DCA 1 - Flame Spread Performance of Wood Products (free download)
Provides building code accepted flame spread ratings for various wood products and species which are
normally used as interior finishes for walls, ceilings, and floors in buildings.
12. DCA 2 - Design of Fire-Resistive Exposed Wood Members (free download)
Illustrates how exposed heavy timber and glued laminated columns and beams can be designed to meet
building code fire resistance requirements
13. DCA 3 - Fire Rated Wood Floor and Wall Assemblies (free download)
Describes how interior and exterior wood-frame walls and wood I-joist floors can be used to meet
building code requirements for fire resistive assemblies.

construction.
14. DCA 4 - CAM for Calculating and Demonstrating Assembly Fire Endurance (free download)
Describes a procedure to calculate the fire endurance rating of a wood-frame wall, roof, or floor/ceiling
assembly. The procedure is based on combining previously determined fire resistance time values of
each separate component of the assembly without the need for additional fire testing.
15. DCA 5 - Post-Frame Buildings (free download)
Provides guidance to post-frame building designers for meeting the requirements of the 2000
International Building Code and to confirm that a properly designed post-frame building is in fact code
compliant.
16. DCA 6 - Prescriptive Residential Deck Construction Guide (free download)
Includes guidance on provisions of the International Residential Code (IRC) pertaining to single level
residential wood deck construction. Provisions contained in this document that are not included in the
IRC are considered good practice recommendations.
17. TR 10 - Calculating the Fire Resistance of Exposed Wood Members (free download)
Provides information for adjusting section properties and allowable stresses to account for a reduced
AWC
member cross-section due to charring.

18. TR 12 - General Dowel Equations for Calculating Lateral Connection Values (free download)
Calculation of lateral values for single dowel type fastener connections using a generalized and expanded
form of the NDS yield limit equations. These general dowel equations apply to NDS connection
conditions, but also permit rational and consistent treatment of gaps and fastener moment resistance, and
consideration of various connection limit states
19. TR 14 - Designing for Lateral-Torsional Stability in Wood Members (free download)
Describes the basis of the current effective length approach used in the NDS and summarizes the
equivalent uniform moment factor approach; provides a comparison between the two approaches; and
proposes modification to NDS design provisions.
20. WCD 2 - Tongue and Groove Roof Decking (free download)
Contains everything needed to design and construct tongue and groove wood roof decking, including
span and load tables.
21. WCD 5 - Heavy Timber Construction (free download)
Defines minimum requirements for heavy timber construction, and provides illustrations of good
construction details
22. WCD 6 - Design of Wood Frame Structures for Permanence (free download)
Recommendations for control of moisture and protection against decay and insect infestations
American Wood Preservers Association

P.O. Box 361784, Birmingham, AL 35236-1784
AWPA
Phone: 205-733-4077; Fax: 205-733-4075; Website: http://www.awpa.com/

1. AWPA U1-10 Use Category System: User Specification for Treated Wood
Preservative treatment levels for wood as a function of end use (i.e., use category designation), wood
species and preservative treatment type.
2. AWPA T1-10 Use Category System: Processing and Treatment Standard
Governs preservative retention and penetration requirements, processing limitations, and quality control
and inspection requirements for treated wood.

construction.
Forest Products Laboratory

One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI 53726
FPL
Phone: 608-231-9200; Fax: 608-231-9592; Website: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/
1. Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material (free download)
Presents properties of wood and wood-based products of particular concern to the architect and
engineer. Includes discussion of designing with wood and wood-based products along with some
pertinent uses.
Gypsum Association
6525 Belcrest Road, Suite 480, Hyattsville, MD 20782
Phone: 301-277-8686; Fax: 301-277-8747; Website: http://www.gypsum.org/
GA
1. GA-530 Design Data -Gypsum Board

A complete collection of current Gypsum Association publications compiled into a handy 3-ring binder.
2. GA-600-09 Fire Resistance Design Manual
A compilation of tested gypsum-board designed fire-rated protection systems. Contains almost 400
systems that may be used for fire-rated walls and partitions, floor/ceiling systems, roof/ceiling systems,
and to protect columns, beams, and girders.
International Code Council

ICC
500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001

Phone: 888-422-7233; Fax: 202-783-2348; Website: http://www.iccsafe.org/
1. I-Codes
See Section 2.35
National Frame Building Association

8735 W Higgins Road, Chicago, IL 60631
Phone: 800-557-6957; Fax: 847-375-6495; Email: nfba@nfba.org; Website: http://www.nfba.org/
1. NFBA Post Frame Building Design Manual
Introduction to post-frame buildings and their design with chapters specifically dedicated to diaphragm
design, metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm properties, post properties, and post foundation design.
NFBA
2. NFBA - Accepted Practices for Post-Frame Building Construction: Metal Panel and Trim Installation
Tolerances
Controls and/or limits for the relative orientation and spacing of panel and trim, mechanical fastener
placement, and panel and trim surface blemishes for post-frame buildings. Provisions only apply to
installation of exterior metal panel and exterior metal trim with a nominal base metal thickness less than
0.05 inches (1.20 mm). Fastener criteria only apply to exposed (i.e. through-panel) fasteners.
3. NFBA - Accepted Practices for Post Frame Building Construction: Framing Tolerances
Recommended tolerances for construction of primary and secondary wood framing in post-frame
buildings.
4. Post-Frame Construction guide (free download)
Introduction to the advantages and structural components of post-frame building systems.

construction.
Natural Resources Conservation Service

National Design, Construction, and Soil Mechanics Center
501 W Felix Street, Bldg 23, Fort Worth, TX 76115
Phone: 817-509-3752, Fax: 817-509-3753, Website: www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/ndcsmc
NRCS
1. Conservation Practice Standard 313 – Water Storage Facilities (free download)

Location, size, foundation liquid tightness, structural loading and structural design requirements for for
facilities used to temporarily store wastes such as manure, wastewater, and contaminated runoff as part
of an agricultural waste management system.
2. Conservation Practice Standard 367 – Roofs and Covers (free download)
Material, design life, structural loads, and structural design requirements for rigid and semi-rigid roofs
and flexible covers used to protect facilities used for: water quality improvement; diversion of clean
water from barnyard, feedlot, and animal exercise areas; waste storage facilities; capture of biogas for
energy production; and air quality improvement and odor reduction.
National Fire Protection Association

1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169-7471
Phone: 617-770-3000; Fax: 617 770-0700; Website: http://www.nfpa.org/
1. NFPA 1 Fire Prevention Code
Includes, but is not limited to: building inspection; fire investigation; building plan review for life safety
and fire systems; fire and life safety education; design of existing means of egress; design, maintenance,
and testing of fire protection systems and equipment; fire access requirements; regulation of special
events; interior finish requirements; storage, use, processing and handling of flammable and combustible
gases, liquids, and solids and hazardous materials.
2. NFPA 13 Installation of Sprinklers
Minimum requirements for the design and installation of automatic fire sprinkler systems, along with
NFPA
acceptable sprinkler systems and components and design development alternatives.

3. NFPA 70 National Electrical Code
Installation requirements for electrical conductors, equipment, and raceways; signaling and
communications conductors, equipment, and raceways; and optical fiber cables and raceways.
4. NFPA 54 National Fuel Gas Code
Installation requirements for fuel gas piping systems, appliances, equipment, and related accessories.
5. NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
Application, installation, location, performance, inspection, testing, and maintenance of fire alarm
systems, supervising station alarm systems, public emergency alarm reporting systems, fire warning
equipment and emergency communications systems, and their components.
6. NFPA 101 Life Safety Code
Addresses those construction, protection, and occupancy features necessary to minimize danger to life
from the effects of fire, including smoke, heat, and toxic gases created during a fire. This includes
minimum criteria for the design of egress facilities so as to allow prompt escape of occupants from
buildings or, where desirable, into safe areas within buildings.
Southern Pine Inspection Bureau

4709 Scenic Highway, Pensacola, Fl 32504-9094
SPIB
Phone: 850-434-2611; Website: http://www.SPIB.org/

1. Standard Grading Rules for Southern Pine Lumber
Rules under which the production of Southern Pine is classified and sold
2. Standard Southern Pine Patterns (free download)
Standard patterns for panel, flooring, decking siding.

construction.
Southern Forest Products Association and Southern Pine Council

6600 Riverside Drive, Suite 212, Metaire, LA 70003
Phone: 504/443-4464, Website: http://www.southernpine.com/ or http://www.SFPA.org/
1. Southern Pine Use Guide (free download)
Complete grade descriptions, design values and sample specifications for a wide range of uses. Also
includes treated Southern Pine, storage, fire and sound data.
2. Maximum Spans for Southern Pine Joists and Rafters (free download)
48 tables providing a convenient reference of joist and rafter spans for specific grades of Southern Pine
visually and mechanically graded lumber
3. Raised Floor Design/Construction Guide (free download)
SFPA
Comprehensive guide to building a raised floor system including site prep, soil analysis, materials
specification, foundation options, span tables, design loads, moisture control and cost comparisons.
Includes 25 construction details.
4. Southern Pine Headers and Beams (free download)
Comprehensive series of size selection and allowable load tables for choosing the proper header or
beam in specific applications. Southern Pine glued laminated timber is included as well as single and
multiple-member Southern Pine lumber.
5. Pressure-Treated Southern Pine (free download)
A guide to specification of treated wood for various uses and exposures, supplemented with detailed
preservative tables by specific product or application. Details of approved industry standards, proper
grade and quality marks for treated lumber are included, plus guidance on suitable fasteners and
connectors.
6. Permanent Wood Foundation Design and Construction Guide (free download)
Design specifications and structural requirements for using PWF systems. Typical applications are
illustrated
Truss Plate Institute

218 North Lee Street, Suite 312, Alexandria, VA 22314
Phone: 703-683-1010; Fax: 866-501-4012; Website: http://www.tpinst.org/; E-mail:info@tpinst.org
1. ANSI/TPI 1-2007: National Design Standard for Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss Construction
Describes materials used in a truss, both lumber and steel, and design procedures for truss members and
joints. Also includes professional responsibilities, methods for evaluating metal connector plates, and
manufacturing quality assurance for trusses.
2. TPI/WTCA Building Component Safety Information (BCSI): Guide to Good Practice for Handling,
Installing, Restraining & Bracing of Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses (free download)
TPI
Information regarding the handling, installation, restraining and bracing of metal plate connected wood
trusses. Includes information on hoisting and placement of truss bundles, long span truss installation,
hip set assembly and bracing, design and installation of permanent restraint/bracing/reinforcement for
trusses and individual truss members, and toe-nailed connections for attaching trusses at bearing
locations.
3. DSB-89: Recommended Design Specification for Temporary Bracing of Metal Plate Connected Wood
Trusses
A specification developed primarily for technical audiences such as engineers and architects of record
and truss design engineers. The specification covers the determination of temporary bracing
requirements for symmetrical dual pitched triangular, mono pitched triangular, scissors, and 2x4/2x6
parallel chord metal plate connected wood trusses spaced four feet on center or less. Includes a
supplement with temporary bracing tables for use in lieu of specific design analysis for a particular
metal plate connected wood truss installation system.

construction.
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096
Phone: 847-412-0136; Website: http://www.ul.com/
UL
1. Fire Resistance Directory

Volume 1 covers hourly fire ratings for beams, columns, floors, roofs, walls and partitions. Volumes 2A
and 2B include fire rated systems; such as construction joints, through penetration fire stops, perimeter
(curtain walls) fire containment systems, electrical circuit protective systems, and fire resistive duct
assemblies. Volume 3 includes dampers, fire doors, hardware and frames, glass blocks and glazing
materials, and leakage rated door assemblies.
Western Wood Products Association

1500 SW First Ave., Suite 870, Portland, Oregon 97201
Phone: 503-224-3930; Fax: 503-224-3934; Email: info@wwpa.org; Website: http://www.wwpa.org/
WWPA
1. Western Lumber Product Use Manual

Comprehensive technical manual on WWPA products, featuring basic categories of lumber, grades,
sizes and species groups, base values and adjustment factors for dimension lumber, along with design
values for structural decking, MSR lumber, structural-glued products, posts & timbers. Also includes
end-use recommendations and specification guidelines, section properties, relative mechanical
properties, appearance lumber grades and sizes and industrial products.
2. Western Lumber Grading Rules
Grading rules for Douglas Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Hemlock-True Firs, Idaho White Pine, Incense
Cedar, Lodgepole Pine, Ponderosa Pine, Sugar Pine, Western Larch and Western Red Cedar. Includes
Base Design Values.
2.10 Additional References

ICC. (2012). International building code. International
Code Council, Washington, DC.
Royer, T.R. & Stauffer, A. (2012). A new post-frame fire
wall. Frame Building News, 24(2):58-61.
UL. (2012). Design No. V304, Design No. V304,
BXUV.V304 Fire resistance ratings - ANSI/UL 263.
Online certifications directory. Retrieved February
17, 2013.

.
CHAPTER 3 .
Structural Load and Deflection Criteria

3.1 Introduction
Contents Code compliant structures must be designed to safely
3.1 Introduction 3-1 carry loads calculated in accordance with the applicable
3.2 Load Standards 3-1 governing building code. When a structure is located in
3.3 Building Risk Categories 3-2 a jurisdiction where it is exempt from all governing
codes, it is still wise to engineer the building to withstand
3.4 Load Types 3-2
the minimum design loads that would be applicable to
3.5 Load Combinations 3-4 the structure if it was not code exempt.
3.6 Tributary Area 3-5
3.1.1 Load Variations
3.7 Load Representations 3-6
3.8 Dead Loads 3-8 Most structural loads exhibit some degree of random
behavior. For example, weather-related loads such as
3.9 Live Loads 3-9 snow, wind and rain fluctuate over time and locations.
3.10 Snow Loads 3-10 Extensive research has been conducted to characterize
3.11 Wind Loads 3-11 this load variation, and to refine procedures for
3.12 Seismic Loads 3-13 determining design loads within the context of the
intended building occupancy and use.
3.13 Deflection 3-13
3.14 References 3-14 3.1.2 Chapter Limitations
It is impractical to describe all load calculation
procedures in this chapter in detail because some are
quite complex, they change frequently, and at any given
time it is not uncommon for different active codes to
reference different versions of the same load standard.
For these reasons, general concepts and key references
related to structural loads and deflection criteria are
presented instead, with an emphasis on issues that apply
to post-frame buildings.
3.2 Load Standards

3.2.1 ANSI/ASCE 7 Standard
The National Bureau of Standards published a report
titled Minimum Live Load Allowable for Use in Design
of Buildings in 1924. The report was expanded and
published as ASA Standard A58.1-1945. This standard
has undergone several revisions to become the current
ASCE Standard ANSI/ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and Other Structures. At the time this
design manual was written, the most recent revision of
ASCE 7 was 2010 (ASCE, 2010). The ASCE 7 standard
is periodically revised and balloted through the ANSI
consensus approval process. Design professionals
should check the governing building code for the latest
adopted edition. For clarity of presentation, this manual
uses and will refer to ASCE 7-10.

ASCE 7 is the primary technical source used by model Category I represents buildings and structures with a low
codes (e.g., IBC, IRC) concerning dead, live, snow, hazard to human life in the event of failure and Category
wind, rain and seismic loads. In some cases, the model IV represents essential facilities.
codes attempt to distill the rigorous ASCE 7 procedures
A rational basis should be used to determine the risk
into a simpler, easy-to-use format.
category for structural design, which is primarily based
3.2.2 Metal Building Systems Manual on the number of persons whose lives would be
endangered or whose welfare would be affected in the
The Metal Building Systems Manual, published by the event of a failure. ANSI/ASCE 7 provides the plot in
Metal Building Manufacturers Association (2012), is figure 3-1 of the approximate relationship between the
recognized by model building codes as an excellent number of lives placed at risk by a failure and the Risk
technical resource document for calculating structural Category
loads on low-rise buildings (e.g. post-frame buildings). It
contains step-by-step examples for calculating wind,
snow and seismic design loads per ANSI/ASCE 7-2010
(as referenced in the 2012 IBC), along with information I II III IV
for designing roof drainage systems for metal buildings,
per the 2012 International Plumbing Code (IPC).
Tabulated in the manual is wind, snow, seismic and 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
rainfall design data for every U.S. county based on the Number of Persons at Risk
2012 IBC, ASCE 7-10, USGS and NOAA data. The
manual also contains procedures for calculation of loads Figure 3-1. ANSI/ ASCE 7 Risk Category as a
resulting from monorail, jib, underhung bridge, top- function of the number of lives placed at risk by a
running bridge, and single-leg gantry cranes. failure.
Additionally, the manual contains recommended drift 3.3.2 Multiple Use Buildings
and deflection criteria for the design of metal buildings
that use masonry, metal and other wall systems, as well When buildings or structures have multiple uses
as tolerances for manufacturing and erection. (occupancies), the independence of the structural systems
associated with the different uses must be examined. If
3.2.3 ASABE Standards the failure of a structural system in one use area will
A few ASABE engineering practices (EPs) have been impact the structural system in another use area, then the
developed to help engineers calculate loads specific to structural systems in both areas must be designed as if
agricultural structures. In general, these EPs cover live both areas house the highest usage group (the highest
loads not addressed by ANSI/ASCE 7. For a further usage group is the usage group associated with the
explanation of these live load EPs, see Section 3.9. highest applicable building category). For example if
one end of a structure is a large greenhouse – a usage
For a long time, ASABE maintained ASAE EP288 associated with a Category I building, and the other end
entitled Agricultural Building Snow and Wind Loads. In of the structure is used to store petrochemicals that are
the 1990’s, ASABE members voted to rewrite EP288 dangerous to the public if released – a usage associated
and adopt (by reference) the snow and wind load with a Category III building, the entire structure would
provisions of ANSI/ASCE 7. After this was done, it did have to be classified as a Category III building if the
not make much sense to maintain the standard and it was failure of the structural system in the greenhouse area
subsequently dropped. For this reason, any references to increases the probability of failure of the structural
ASAE EP288 should be replaced with ANSI/ASCE 7. system in the petrochemical storage area.
3.3 Building Risk Categories 3.4 Load Types

3.3.1 Single Occupancy Type Buildings 3.4.1 Notations and Definitions
For the purposes of applying flood, wind, snow, and The following symbols for different load types are from
earthquake provisions, ANSI/ASCE 7 classifies
ANSI/ASCE 7.
buildings and other structures into four different
categories based on the nature of occupancy. The D = Dead Load. Vertical loads due to the mass of
categories range from I to IV. As shown in Table 3-1, the components that comprise the structure.
This includes any permanently attached
equipment (e.g., lights, fans, water lines). Dead
loads exist even if the structure is not being
occupied or used.

Chapter 3. Structural Load and Deflection Criteria
Table 3-1. ANSI/ASCE 7 Risk Categories (from ANSI/ASCE 7-10 Table 1.5-1)
Category Use or Occupancy of Buildings and Structures Examples
 Buildings and other structures that represent a  Agricultural buildings
I low hazard to human life in the event of  Minor storage facilities
failure.  Certain temporary facilities
 All buildings and other structures except those  Residential buildings
II
listed in Categories I, III and IV  Most commercial and industrial buildings
 Buildings and other structures where more than ~300
 Buildings and other structures, the failure of
people congregate in one area
which could pose a substantial risk to human
 Buildings and other structures with day-care facilities
life.
with capacity greater than ~150
 Buildings and other structures, not included in
 Buildings and other structures with elementary or
Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a
secondary school facilities with capacity greater than
substantial economic impact and/or mass
~150
disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the
III  Buildings and other structures with a capacity greater
event of failure.
than ~500 for colleges or adult education facilities
 Buildings and other structures not included in
 Health care facilities with ~50 or more resident
Risk Category IV containing toxic or explosive
patients but not having surgery or emergency
substances where their quantity exceeds a
treatment facilities
threshold established by the authority having
 Jails and detention facilities
jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to
 Power generating station and other public utilities not
the public if released
included in Category IV
 Hospitals and other health care facilities having
 Buildings and other structures designated as
surgery or emergency treatment facilities
essential facilities.
 Fire, rescue and police stations and emergency vehicle
 Buildings and other structures, the failure of
garages
which could pose a substantial hazard to the
 Designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency
community.
shelters
 Buildings and other structures required to
 Communications centers and other facilities required
maintain the functionality of other Risk
for emergency response
IV Category IV structures.
 Power generating stations and other public utility
 Buildings and other structures containing
facilities required in an emergency
sufficient quantities of highly toxic substances
 Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers and
where their quantity exceeds a threshold
emergency aircraft hangars
quantity established by the authority having
 Water storage facilities and pump structures required
jurisdiction to be dangerous to the public if
to maintain water pressure for fire suppression
released and is sufficient to pose a threat to the
 Buildings and other structures having critical national
public if released.
defense functions
partitions and loads temporarily supported by

E = Earthquake Load. Combined effect of
the structure during maintenance.
horizontal and vertical earthquake induced
forces. Lr = Roof Live Load. Accounts for higher loads
during roof maintenance, and where roof is used
F = Fluid Load. Loads due to fluids with well-
as a walkway, gardens, assembly area, etc.
defined pressures and maximum heights. This
includes forces due to flooding. R = Rain Load. Accounts for (1) ponding (retention
of water due solely to the deflection of a
H = Loads due to lateral earth pressure, ground
relatively flat roof), (2) load of rainwater that
water pressure, or pressure of bulk materials.
will accumulate on a roof if the primary
L = Live Load. All static and dynamic loads, except drainage system for that portion is blocked, and
roof live loads, that are due to use and (3) uniform load caused by water that rises
occupancy of a structure. This includes loads above the inlet of the secondary drainage
due to movable objects (e.g., animals, stored system at its design flow.
products, unbolted equipment), movable

S = Snow Load. Vertical loads from the mass of 3.5.1 Basic Load Combinations for ASD
snow accumulating on a structure.
Where allowable stress design (ASD) is used,
T = Self-Straining Load. Forces arising from ANSI/ASCE 7 and the IBC require that structures (and
contraction or expansion resulting from portions thereof) be designed to resist the most critical
temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture effects from the following combinations of nominal
changes, creep in component materials, loads.
movement due to differential settlement, or
combinations thereof: 1. D
W= Wind Load. Forces due to wind. 2. D+L

3. D + (Lr or S or R)
3.4.2 Nominal Loads
4. D + 0.75 L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Nominal loads represent an engineer’s best estimate of
the actual loads to which a structure may be subjected. In 5. D + (0.6 W or 0.7 E)
the case of loads that are highly variant (e.g., snow,
wind, earthquake) nominal loads represent an engineers 6a. D + 0.75 L + 0.75(0.6 W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
best estimate of the actual maximum load (a.k.a. extreme 6b. D + 0.75 L + 0.75(0.7 E) + 0.75 S
load) that could be applied to the structure during its
design life. Nominal loads are also known as service 7. 0.6 D + 0.6 W
loads because they are the loads to which a structure may 8. 0.6 D + 0.7 E
be subjected while it is “in service” (i.e., being used).
Notes:
Loads calculated in accordance with ANSI/ASCE 7 and
the IBC are nominal loads. For allowable stress design a. In combinations (4) and (6) the companion load S
(ASD), nominal loads are used without adjustment shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load (pf) or
except when applied in combinations for which it is the sloped roof snow load (ps). Drifting and
unlikely that all loads will simultaneously act at their unbalanced snow loads, as primary loads, are
maximum design levels. covered by combination (3).
b. Where fluid loads F are present, they shall be
3.4.3 Factored Loads
included in combinations (1) through (6) and (8)
Nominal loads are multiplied by load factors to obtain with the same factor as that used for dead load D.
factored loads. Factored loads are used in load and
c. Where H is present, it shall be included with a load
resistance factor design (LRFD). Not surprisingly, in
factor of 1.0 if it adds to the primary variable load
LRFD jargon, loads which have not been factored (i.e.,
effect. Where H resists the primary load effect,
nominal loads) are frequently referred to as unfactored
include H with a load factor of 0.6 where the load is
loads.
permanent or with a load factor of zero (0) for all
Load factors introduce safety into design by accounting other conditions.
for: (1) uncertainty in the estimation of nominal loads,
(2) uncertainties and simplified assumptions in structural 3.5.2 Basic Load Combinations for LRFD
analysis, and (3) the improbability that more than one Where load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is used,
extreme load will occur simultaneously. ANSI/ASCE 7 and the IBC require that structures (and
portions thereof) be designed to resist the most critical
3.5 Load Combinations effects from the following combinations of factored
Different load types act simultaneously. The load loads.
combination that produces the highest force(s) in a 1. 1.4·D
component must be used in the design of that
component. This means, for example, if the combination 2. 1.2·D + 1.6·L + 0.5·(Lr or S or R)
of dead load plus live load produces the greatest forces in 3. 1.2·D + 1.6·(Lr or S or R) + (xL or 0.5·W)
a component -- even greater than does a combination that
includes three or more different load types (e.g., dead + 4. 1.2·D + 1.0·W + ·xL + 0.5·(Lr or S or R)
live + wind load) --it must be used in the design of the 5. 1.2·D + 1.0·E + ·xL + 0.2·S
component. It is very important to note that different
load combinations may govern the design of different 6. 0.9·D + 1.0·W
components in the same building/structure. 7. 0.9·D + 1.0·E

Notes: structure be capable of withstanding the effects of

extraordinary (i.e., low-probability) events such as fires,
a. x = 1.0 for garages, areas of public occupancy, and
explosions and vehicular impact.
values of L greater than 100 lbf/ft2. When L is less
than or equal to 100 lbf/ft2, set x equal to 0.5. Uncertainties in lateral forces from bulk materials (H)
are higher than those in fluids (F), particularly when
b. Where H is present, it shall be included with a load
dynamic effects are introduced as the bulk material is set
factor of 1.0 if it adds to the primary variable load
in motion by filling or emptying operations.
effect. Where H resists the primary load effect,
Accordingly, the LRFD load factor for such loads is set
include H with a load factor of 0.6 where the load is
equal to 1.6.
permanent or with a load factor of zero (0) for all
other conditions.
3.6 Tributary Area
c. In combinations (2), (4), and (5), the companion
load S shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load 3.6.1 Load Path
(pf) or the sloped roof snow load (ps). Drifting and
When a load is applied to a particular area of a structure,
unbalanced snow loads, as primary loads, are
any number of components may be involved in resisting
covered by combination (3).
it. If you track all components that are involved in
d. Where fluid loads F are present, they shall be resisting a particular load from its point of application to
included with the same load factor as dead load D in the building’s foundation, you have defined the load path
combinations (1) through (5) and (7) for that load. Load paths begin with a single building
element (i.e., the element to which the load is applied)
3.5.3 General Comments on Load and can expand to hundreds of building elements. To
Combinations accurately determine load paths in all but the simplest of
Most loads, other than dead loads, vary significantly with structures requires special structural analysis techniques.
time. When more than one variable load is considered, it 3.6.2 Tributary Area Definition
is extremely unlikely that they will all attain their
maximum values at the same time. Accordingly, some The first elements in most load paths are surfaces (i.e.,
reduction in the total of the combined loads is floors, walls, roofs, ceilings). Generally, each of these
appropriate. For the ASD load combinations, this surfaces is directly supported by several components.
reduction is accomplished through the 0.75 load Exactly how much load is transferred from a surface to
combination factor. Note that the 0.75 factor applies each of these supports depends on several factors, the
only to the variable loads, not to the dead loads. In the most critical being: (1) the relative stiffness of the
LRFD load combinations this reduction is accomplished supports, (2) the relative flexibility of the surface, and (3)
by using a 0.5 load factor (instead of the 1.6 load factor) the relative location of the supports. The total load that
on one of the variable loads. is carried by each support is some percentage of the load
applied to the entire surface. It follows, that the surface
Dead load is always present, thus it appears in every load can be divided up into areas such that the total load on a
combination. particular area is equivalent to the total load transferred
The last two ASD load combinations and the last two to a particular support. This particular area is defined as
LRFD load combinations apply when the structural the tributary area for that support. In other words, when
actions of horizontal and gravity forces counteract each an entire surface is loaded, each support supports a total
other (e.g., overturning of a structure). In such cases it is load equal to the load applied to its tributary area.
conservative to underestimate the dead load of the
3.6.3 Approximation
structure, which explains the 0.6 multiplier used on dead
load in the ASD combinations, and the relatively low A good first-order approximation of tributary areas (and
LRFD dead load factor of 0.9. hence support loads) for most applications is to draw a
dividing line half way between adjacent supports and
Wind events occur for a relatively short duration as do
assume everything on one side of the line is tributary to
earthquakes. The probability of these two different loads
the support on that side of the dividing line, and
producing high forces simultaneously is virtually non-
everything on the other side of the line is tributary to the
existent, and thus they never appear together in a load
other support as shown in figure 3-2. Note, if supports
combination.
are uniformly spaced a distance, S as shown in figure 3-
In addition to the preceding loads and load combinations, 2, the width of the tributary area for each interior support
the authority having jurisdiction may require a specific will also be equal to S.

S
Top View
Total load on tributary area is

equal to: S x L x w
Where: w = load per unit area
L
Load on support (per unit

length) is equal to total load on
tributary area divided by L,
which is equal to: S x w
S S S S S S
Front View
Figure 3-2. Approximate tributary area for uniformly spaced supports.
function of tributary area. With respect to the wind

30 40 50 40 30 20 pressure example in figure 3-3, this translates into
pressure of 50 lbf/ft2 for roof framing members with a
small tributary area and something less for framing
30 40 50 40 30 20 members and other roof supports that have a
measureable larger tributary area. In addition to wind,
20 30 50 30 20 20 many live loads are a function of tributary area.
20 30 40 30 20 20 3.7 Load Representations

20 20 30 30 20 20 Schematics in Table 3-2 show how various loads are
represented. Specifically, Table 3-2 shows load
Figure 3-3. Variable wind load distribution on a roof diagrams for forces applied to a projected horizontal
surface. In this case, any small block could have a plane (e.g. snow load), forces applied normal to a surface
design pressure of 50/unit area, whereas the entire (e.g., wind load), and a Y-directed load applied to a
area may seldom see an average greater than 30/unit
area.
member (e.g. dead load).
3.7.1 Horizontal Uniform Dead Load
3.6.4 Use in Applied Load Calculations Calculation
The probability of some loads acting at their maximum Some structural analysis programs require that the dead
value over an entire surface decreases as the size of the load associated with a sloping surface be represented as a
surface increases. For example, while it may be quite uniform load, wDL, acting on a horizontal plane as shown
likely for some portion of a roof to be subjected to a in figure 3-4. For a given horizontal distance, bH, a
wind pressure of 50 lbf/ft2, the probability of the entire sloping roof surface contains more material and is
roof being subjected to a wind pressure of 50 lbf/ft 2 will heavier than a flat one. Thus, wDL increases as roof slope
generally be much less (figure 3-3). In such situations, increases.
the applied load used in design will generally be a

Table 3-2. Load Representations

w
w w
L
L
  L

Load applied to a projected Y-directed load applied to

Load applied normal to surface
horizontal plane surface
Total load in Y direction L w cos  L w cos  Lw
Total load in X direction 0 L w sin  0
Example Load Type Snow Wind Dead
wDL bH. Numerically, this is equivalent to dividing wR by the

cosine of the roof slope. For example, for a roof at a
4:12 slope, with materials weighing 4 lbm for each
square foot of roof surface area, the equivalent load, wDL,
Roof assembly bH to apply to the horizontal plane would be:
with weight wR
wDL = (4 lbm/ft2)/(cos 18.4) = 4.21 lbm/ft2
per unit area
3.7.2 Components of Normal Loads
Rafter or truss  For some structural analyses (especially those involving
top chord
hand calculations) it is beneficial to break a uniformly
L distributed load acting normal to a sloping surface into
its horizontal and vertical components. This is a very
straight forward process as the magnitude of the
Figure 3-4. Roof dead load represented by an uniformly distributed load acting normal to a surface is
equivalent uniform load acting on a horizontal plane. equal in magnitude to the uniformly distributed load
applied to both the vertically- and horizontally-projected
Load wDL is obtained by multiplying the unit weight of planes as depicted in Table 3-3. A common mistake is to
the roof assembly, wR, by the slope length, L, and multiply the normal pressure by the sine and cosine of
dividing the resulting product by the horizontal length, the roof slope to obtain the two components.
Table 3-3. Components of a Uniform Distributed Load Acting Normal to a Sloping Surface
w
w
w
L 
= L 
+ L 
Load applied normal to Load applied to a projected Load applied to a projected

surface horizontal plane vertical plane
Total load in Y direction L w cos  L w cos  0
Total load in X direction L w sin  0 L w sin 

Table 3-4. Approximate Weights of Construction Materials (from Hoyle and Woeste, 1989)
Weight Weight
Material Material
(lb/ft2) (lb/ft2)
Ceilings Roofs (continued)

Acoustical fiber tile 1.0 Plywood (per inch thickness) 3.0
Gypsum board (see Walls) Roll roofing 1.0
Mechanical duct allowance 4.0 Shingles
Suspended steel channel system 2.0 Asphalt 2.0
Wood purlins (see Wood, Seasoned) Clay tile 9.0-14.0
Light gauge steel (see Roofs) Book tile, 2-in. 12.0
Book tile, 3-in 20.0
Floors Ludowici 10.0
Hardwood, 1-in. nominal 4.0 Roman 12.0
Plywood (see Roofs) Slate, ¼ in. 10.0
Linoleum, 1/4-in. 1.0 Wood 3.0
Vinyl tile, 1/8-in. 1.4
Walls
Roofs Wood paneling, 1-in. 2.5
Corrugated Aluminum Glass, plate, 1/4-in. 3.3
14 gauge 1.1 Gypsum board (per 1/8-in. thickness) 0.55
16 gauge 0.9 Masonry, per 4-in. thickness
18 gauge 0.7 Brick 38.0
20 gauge 0.6 Concrete block 20.0
Built-Up Cinder concrete block 20.0
3-ply 1.5 Stone 55.0
3-ply with gravel 5.5 Porcelain-enameled steel 3.0
5-ply 2.5 Stucco, 7/8-in. 10.0
5-ply with gravel 6.5 Windows, glass, frame, and sash 8.0
Corrugated Galvanized steel
16 gauge 2.9 Wood, Seasoned Density
18 gauge 2.4 (lb/ft3)3)
(lbm/ft
20 gauge 1.8 Cedar 32.0
22 gauge 1.5 Douglas-fir 34.0
24 gauge 1.3 Hemlock 31.0
26 gauge 1.0 Maple, red 37.0
29 gauge 0.8 Oak 45.0
Insulation, per inch thickness Poplar, yellow 29.0
Rigid fiberboard, wood base 1.5 Pine, lodgepole 29.0
Rigid fiberboard, mineral base 2.1 Pine, ponderosa 28.0
Expanded polystyrene 0.2 Pine, Southern 35.0
Fiberglass, rigid 1.5 Pine, white 27.0
Fiberglass, batt 0.1 Redwood 28.0
Lumber (see Wood, Seasoned) Spruce 29.0
3.8 Dead Loads are constant in magnitude and location throughout the
life of the building.
3.8.1 Definition
3.8.2 Weights of Construction Materials
Dead loads are the gravity loads due to the combined
weights of all permanent structural and nonstructural Tables C3-1 and C3-2 in ANSI/ASCE 7-10 contain
components of the building, such as sheathing, trusses, minimum design dead loads, and minimum densities for
purlins, girts and fixed service equipment. These loads design loads from materials, respectively. Table 3-4
contains approximate weights of materials commonly

used in post-frame construction as compiled by Hoyle 3.9.3 Non-Agricultural Related Live Loads
and Woeste (1989).
Non-agricultural related live loads are tabulated in Table
3.8.3 Special Considerations 4-1 of ANSI/ASCE 7-10. A handful of values extracted
from this table are compiled in Table 3-5. The values in
Design dead loads that exceed the weights of
this table are minimum values. It is generally wise to
construction materials and permanent fixtures are
select design values that are greater than the tabulated
permitted, except when checking building stability under
minimums.
wind loading. Using inflated design dead loads may lead
to conservative designs for gravity load conditions; Table 3-5 contains both uniform and concentrated loads.
however, it would not be a conservative assumption for Where both uniform and concentrated loads are given,
designing anchorage to counteract uplift, overturning and components must be designed to support the load that
sliding due to wind loads. In the cases of wind uplift and produces the greatest effect (i.e., stress and/or
overturning, the dead load used in design must not deflection). Unless otherwise specified, the indicated
exceed the actual dead load of the construction. concentrated load shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over an area 2.5 feet square and shall be
3.9 Live Loads located to produce the maximum load effect in the
structural members.
3.9.1 Definition The live loads given in Table 3-5 include allowances for
Live loads are loads imposed by the construction, normal impact conditions. Additional allowances are
maintenance, use and occupancy of the structure. Any generally required for unusual vibration and impact
loads that are or could be applied to an unoccupied forces. For the purpose of design, the weight of
structure (e.g. wind. snow, dead) are not live loads. machinery and moving loads shall be increased as
follows to allow for impact: (1) elevator machinery,
3.9.2 Agricultural Related Live Loads. 100%; (2) light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven, 20%;
The only structural load standards maintained by (3) reciprocating machinery or power-driven units, 50%;
ASABE are live load standards. These include: (4) hangers for floors or balconies, 33%.
 ASAE EP378 Floor and Suspended Loads on 3.9.4 Live Load Reductions
Agricultural Structures Due to Use. Recommended In some cases, reductions are allowed for uniform loads
design loads resulting from livestock, suspended to account for the low likelihood of the loads
caged poultry, vehicles and manure on a floor. simultaneously occurring over the entire tributary area of
 ASAE EP393 Manure Storages. Recommendations a component. For example, ANSI/ASCE 7-10 allows a
for the design, construction, and location of manure reduction in live loads in accordance with the following
storage units. Included are design loads for interior equation when the value of KLLAT is 400 ft2 or more:
and exterior walls, floors, footings and covers.
L = Lo [ 0.25 + (15 ft)/(KLLAT)0.5 ] (3-1)
 ANSI/ASAE EP433 Loads Exerted by Free-Flowing
Grains on Bins. Methods of estimating the grain Where:
pressures within centrally loaded and unloaded bins L = Reduced design live load per ft2 of area
used to store free-flowing, agricultural whole grain. supported by the member
 ASAE EP538 Design Loads for Bunker (Horizontal) Lo = Unreduced design live load per ft2 of area
Silos. Provides design loads for the walls of bunker supported by the member (from Table 3-5 or
(horizontal) silos for storing whole plant silages. ASCE Table 4-1)
Does not include hydrostatic pressure that may KLL = Live load element factor (from Table 3-6 or
occur when silage becomes saturated. ASCE Table 4-2)
 ANSI/ASAE EP545 Loads Exerted by Free-Flowing AT = Tributary area in ft2
Grain on Shallow Storage Structures. Presents With respect to application of equation 3-1:
methods for estimating grain pressures within
shallow storage structures used to store free-flowing  L shall not be less than 0.50Lo for members
agricultural whole grains. supporting one floor and L shall not be less than
0.40Lo for members supporting two or more floors.
Note that all standards adopted by ASABE prior to July
2005 (the month the society name changed from ASAE  Live loads that exceed 100 lbf/ft2 shall not be
to ASABE) retain their ASAE designation, even when reduced unless the loads are for members
revised. This is to avoid someone from confusing or supporting two or more floors in which case a 20%
misinterpreting a revision to an old standard as a reduction is allowed.
completely new and totally different ASABE document.

Table 3-5. Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads and Minimum Concentrated Live Loads
Uniform, Concentrated.
Occupancy or Use
lbf/ft2 lbf
Fire escapes 100
Manufacturing
Light 125 2000
Heavy 250 3000
Office Buildings (File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier
loads based on anticipated occupancy)
Lobbies and first floor corridors 100 2000
Offices 50 2000
Corridors above first floor 80 2000
Roofs
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs 20
Roofs used for roof gardens 100
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards, subject to trucking. Note: conc.
load acting on area of 20 in.2 250 8000
Stairs and exits
One- and two-family dwellings 40
All other 100
Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required for
anticipated storage)
Light 125
Heavy 250
Stores
Retail, first floor 100 1000
Retail, upper floors 75 1000
Wholesale, all floors 125 1000
Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit ways) 60
Yards and terraces, pedestrians 100
3.10 Snow Loads

3.10.1 Ground Snow Load, pg
Table 3-6. Live Load Element Factor, KLL, Roof snow loads in the United States are based on
Values from Table 4.2 of ANSI/ASCE 7-10 ground snow loads. ANSI/ASCE 7-10 presents ground
Element KLL snow load maps that correspond to a mean recurrence
interval of 50 years. These maps do not give snow load
Interior Columns 4 values for areas that are subject to extreme variations in
Exterior columns without cantilever slabs 4 snowfall, such as western mountain regions. In some
regions, the best and only reliable source for ground
Edge columns with cantilever slabs 3 snow loads is local climatic records.
Corner columns with cantilever slabs 2 3.10.2 Roof Snow Loads
Edge beams without cantilever slabs 2 Roof snow loads are influenced by a number of factors
besides ground snow load. These factors include roof
All other members not identified, including:
slope, temperature and coefficient of friction of the roof
one- and two-story slabs, cantilever beams, 1
surface, and wind exposure. Snow loads are also adjusted
edge beams with cantilever slabs
by an importance factor to account for risk to property
and people. The basic form of the snow load calculation
found in ASCE 7-10 is:

An open building is a structure having all walls at least
ps = 0.7 Ce Ct IS Cs pg (3-2)
80% open.
where:
A partially enclosed building is a structure in which (1)
ps = snow load on a sloped roof, the total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
0.7 = factor that relates ground snowpack to snow external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of
load on a flat roof for the contiguous United openings in the balance of the building envelope by more
States, than 10%, AND (2) the total area of openings in a wall
Ce = exposure factor, that receives the positive external pressure exceeds 4 ft2
Ct = thermal factor, or 1% of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and
IS = importance factor for snow loads, the percentage of openings in the balance of the building
Cs = roof slope factor, and envelope does not exceed 20%. If a building by
pg = ground snow load (50-yr mean recurrence). definition complies with both the “open” and “partially
enclosed” definitions, it shall be classified as an “open”
The exposure factor ranges from 0.7 to 1.2 and accounts
building.
for the effects of wind and is a function of roof exposure
and surrounding topography. The thermal factor ranges Proper classification of a building for wind loads is
from 0.85 to 1.3 and accounts for the likelihood of snow critical as partially enclosed buildings can be subjected
melting from the roof surface. The snow importance to significant variation in internal pressures. Where there
factor accounts for the building risk category as defined is doubt as to how effective a specific closure is under
in Section 3.3. Specifically, Is equals 0.8, 1.0, 1.1 and high wind load situations, two separate wind load
1.2 for Category I, II, III and IV buildings, respectively. analyses should be conducted, one with the area assumed
The roof slope factor varies from 0 to 1 and depends on closed, the other with the area treated as an opening. In
roof slope as well as the slipperiness and temperature of cases where it is likely that a door may be kept open
the roof surface. during a high wind, two separate wind load analyses
should be conducted, one with the door assumed open,
3.10.3 Special Considerations the other with the door assumed closed.
Several factors can cause snow and ice to accumulate 3.11.3 Design Wind Speed
unevenly on roofs. These factors must be considered in
design. Drifting snow is particularly an issue near the Design wind pressure calculations begin with selection
ridge of wide buildings, at changes in roof height, around of wind speed, V, from the ANSI/ASCE 7-10 maps.
roof projections, in valleys of multi-gable roofs, and in There are different maps for the four ANSI/ASCE 7-10
valleys formed by intersecting roof planes. Specific risk categories defined in Table 3-1. Maps for risk
recommendations and calculation procedures for these categories I and II are associated with mean recurrence
special considerations are given in ANSI/ASCE 7-10. intervals (MRI) of 300 and 700 years, respectively (have
Design examples are provided in the Metal Building annual probabilities of being exceeded of 0.00333 and
Systems Manual (MBMA, 2012). 0.00143, respectively). Wind speeds on ANSI/ASCE 7-
10 maps for Category III and IV structures have a mean
recurrence interval of 1700 years (annual probability of
3.11 Wind Loads being exceeded of 0.000588).
3.11.1 Controlling Factors Map values are 3-second gust speeds recorded 33 feet
Wind loading on structures is a complex phenomenon as (10 m) above the ground in an ANSI/ASCE 7-10
wind loads are influenced by wind speed, building Exposure C terrain. For the central U.S., the basic
orientation and geometry, surrounding structures and exposure C wind speed at 33 feet above the ground for
topography, and building openings. Category I and II structures is 105 and 115 mph,
respectively. For Category III and IV structures it is 120
3.11.2 Building Definitions for Wind Loads mph.
For determination of wind loads, buildings are broken 3.11.4 Effective Wind Velocity Pressure, qz.
into three different categories (i.e., enclosed, open, and
partially enclosed) based on the size and location of If a fluid with a velocity V is completely converted to a
building openings. A building opening is any area in the static pressure, the static pressure exerted by the fluid is
building envelope (wall, roof surfaces) that does not have equal to  V 2/(2g) where  is the density of the fluid and
a permanently attached means for effective closure. g is the gravitational constant. If  is taken as 0.0766
lbm/ft3 [the dry air mass density at 59 F and 29.92 inch
An enclosed building is a building that does not comply
Hg] and g is given as 32.17 ft∙lbm/(s2∙lbf) then:
with the requirements for open or partially enclosed
buildings. P = 0.00256∙V 2 (3-3)

Where P is the static pressure in lbf/ft2 and V is wind p= Design wind pressure
speed in miles per hour. qh= qz calculated at the mean roof height (see
figure 3-5)
To estimate the effective wind pressure, qz, acting at a
GCpf = External pressure coefficient for main wind-
particular height on a particular building due to wind
force resisting systems
velocity V, equation 3-3 is multiplied by (1) a velocity
GCpi = Internal pressure coefficient
pressure exposure coefficient Kz that adjusts the basic
= 0.00 for open buildings
wind speed values from the ANSI/ASCE 7-10 maps to
= +0.55 and -0.55 for partially enclosed
design heights other than 33 feet and exposures other
buildings
than C, (2) a wind directionality factor Kd that accounts
= +0.18 and -0.18 for enclosed buildings
for the reduced probability of maximum winds coming
GCp = External pressure coefficient for components
from any given direction and the reduced probability of
and cladding
the maximum pressure coefficient occurring for any
GCpo = Combined pressure coefficient for overhangs
given wind direction, and (3) a Kzt factor that accounts
for the effect of wind speed-up over nearby hills and ANSI/ASCE 7-10 contains figures, tables, and equations
escarpments. With these factors, equation 3-3 appears for determining pressure coefficients (i.e., GCpf, GCp,
as: GCpo). These coefficients are dependent on the tributary
area for the component being designed, and its location
qz = 0.00256∙Kz∙Kzt∙Kd ∙V 2 (3-4)
relative to the geometric discontinuities in the surfaces of
Where qz is in lbf/ft2 and V is in miles per hour. the building (i.e., its location relative to wall corners,
eave lines, the ridge, etc.). To account for the influence
3.11.5 Design Wind Pressure, p of location, building surfaces are broken into zones.
The design wind pressure applied to a surface depends Pressure coefficients within each of these zones are
on the calculation method. ANSI/ASCE 7-10 has three assumed constant.
different methods: (1) a directional procedure for The design wind pressure applied to a wall surface is the
buildings of all heights, (2) an envelope procedure for sum of the pressures applied to both sides of the surface
low rise buildings (buildings with a mean roof height h (i.e. external and internal pressures) as calculated
that is less than 60 feet and does not exceed the least according to equations 3-5 and 3-6, and shown in figure
horizontal dimension of the building), and (3) a wind 3-5.
tunnel procedure for any building or structure. The
envelope procedure is widely used in post-frame building External Pressure
qz = Effective Wind p = qh (GCpf) for MWFRS
design. Pressure p = qh (GCp) for C&C
Separate design wind pressures are calculated for
elements of the “main wind force resisting system” q z = qh
(MWFRS) and “components and cladding” (C&C). The
MWFRS is taken to include trusses, posts, girders,
shearwalls and diaphragms. Components and cladding
include members such as purlins, girts, curtain walls, h
sheathing, roofing and siding. Since wind pressures are Internal Pressure
z p = qh (GCpi)
higher on small areas due to localized gust effects,
design wind pressures are higher for components and
cladding.
For enclosed and partially enclosed low-rise building
systems, ANSI/ASCE 7-10 provides the following
equations for design wind pressure: Figure 3-5. Total pressure on a surface is sum of
external and internal pressures. For calculation
For elements of the main wind-force resisting system: purposes, pressures (both internal and external)
p = qh [(GCpf) – (GCpi)] (3-5) acting toward a surface are considered positive.
For components and cladding: 3.11.6 Minimum Wind Loads

p = qh [(GCp) – (GCpi)] (3-6) ANSI/ASCE 7-10 specifies minimum design wind loads
For overhangs: for both the MWFRS and C&C. It is not uncommon for
these minimum wind loadings to be used in the design of
p = qh (GCpo) (3-7) agricultural post-frame buildings that are exempt from
Where: building codes.

For the MWFRS, the ANSI/ASCE 7-10 minimum design 3.13 Deflection
wind load for an enclosed or partially enclosed building
is 16 lbf/ft2 multiplied by the wall area of the building 3.13.1 Code Application
and 8 lbf/ft2 multiplied by the roof area of the building
Post-frame building components must meet deflection
projected onto a vertical plane normal to the assumed
limits specified in the governing building code.
wind direction. For C&C, the minimum design wind
pressure is 16 lbf/ft2 acting in either direction normal to 3.13.2 Exception to Code Requirements
surfaces.
Girts supporting corrugated metal siding are typically not
subjected to deflection limitations unless their deflection
3.12 Seismic Loads compromises the integrity of an interior wall finish.
3.12.1 Cause Because of the inherent flexibility of corrugated metal
siding, girt deflections present no serviceability
Earthquakes produce lateral forces on buildings through problems, and consequently, girt size is generally only
the sudden movement of the building’s foundation. stress dependent.
Building response to seismic loading is a complex
phenomenon and there is considerable controversy as to 3.13.3 Time Dependent Deflection
how to translate knowledge gained through research into In certain situations, it may be necessary to limit
practical design codes and standards. deflection under long term loading. Published modulus
3.12.2 Lateral Force of elasticity, E, values for wood are intended for the
calculation of immediate deflection under load. Under
Basic concept of seismic load determination for low-rise sustained loading, wood members exhibit additional
buildings is to calculate an equivalent lateral force at the time-dependent deformation (i.e. creep). It is customary
ground line as follows: practice to increase calculated deflection from long-term
V = Cs W (3-8) loading by a factor of 1.5 for glued-laminated timber and
seasoned lumber, or 2 for unseasoned lumber (see
where: Appendix F, AWC, 2012). Thus, total deflection is equal
to the immediate deflection due to long-term loading
V = total lateral force, or shear, at the building
times the creep deflection factor, plus the deflection due
base
to the short-term or normal component of load. For
W = total dead load, plus other applicable loads
applications where deflection is critical, the published
specified in ANSI/ASCE 7-10. For most
value of E (which represents the average) may be
single-story post-frame buildings, the only
reduced as deemed appropriate by the designer. The size
other minimum applicable load is a portion
of the reduction depends on the coefficient of variation
(20% minimum) of the flat roof snow load.
of E. Typical values of E variability are available for
If the flat roof snow load is less than 30 psf,
different wood products (see Appendix F, AWC, 2012).
the applicable load to be included in W is
permitted to be taken as zero. 3.13.4 Shear Deflection
Cs = seismic response coefficient
= SDS /(R/Ic) Shear deflection is usually negligible in the design of
SDS = design spectral response acceleration steel beams; however, shear deflection can be significant
parameter in wood beams. Approximately 3.4 percent of the total
R = response modification factor beam deflection is due to shear for wood beams of usual
Ic = importance factor based on risk category span-to-depth proportions (i.e. 15:1 to 25:1). For this
(Table 3-1) reason, the published value of E in the Supplement to the
National Design Specification is 3.4 percent less than the
ANSI/ASCE 7-10 is the most complete source for true flexural value (AF&PA, 1993). This correction
determination of all of the proceeding variables. compensates for the omission of the shear term in
handbook beam deflection equations. For span-to-depth
3.12.3 Seismic and Post Frame
ratios over 25, the predicted deflection using the
Seismic loads rarely control post-frame building design published E value will exceed the actual deflection.
because of the relatively low building dead weight as Similarly, for span-to-depth ratios less than 15, predicted
compared with other types of construction (Taylor, 1996; deflections will be significantly less than actual. This
Faherty and Williamson, 1989). For post-frame could lead to unconservative designs (with respect to
buildings, lateral loads from wind usually are much serviceability) for post-frame members such as door
greater than those from seismic forces. headers. Practical information on the effects of shear
deformation on beam design is given in Appendix D of

Hoyle and Woeste (1989) for rectangular wood beams MBMA. (2012). Metal building systems manual. . Metal
and Triche (1990) for wood I-beams. Building Manufacturers Association (MBMA),
Cleveland, OH.
3.14 References
Taylor, S.E. (1996). Earthquake considerations in post-
3.14.1 Non-Normative References frame building design. Frame Building News,
8(3):42-49.
AF&PA. (1993). Commentary to the national design
specification for wood construction. American Triche, M.E. (1990). Shear deflection effect on I-joist
Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA), design. Wood Design Focus, 1(2).
Washington, D.C.
3.14.2 Normative References
Faherty, K.F. & Williamson, T.G. (1989). Wood
engineering and construction handbook. McGraw- ANSI/AWC ASD/LRFD NDS - National Design
Hill, New York, NY. Specification for Wood Construction.
Hoyle, R.J. & Woeste, F.E. (1989). Wood technology in ANSI/ASCE 7-10 Minimum design loads for buildings
the design of structures. Ames, IA: Iowa State and other structures.
University Press.

.
CHAPTER 4 .
Structural Design Overview

4.1 Introduction
Contents The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of post-
4.1 Introduction 4-1 frame building design from a structural perspective,
4.2 Broad Overview 4-1 beginning with a broad overview in Section 4.2,
4.3 Posts 4-2 followed by Sections 4.3 through 4.11 which look at
specific post-frame building components. These sections
4.4 Trusses 4-3
are followed by two sections which address the
4.5 Girders 4-5 durability of materials: Section 4.12 covers decay
4.6 Knee Braces 4-5 resistance of wood, and Section 4.13 covers
4.7 Roof Purlins 4-5 electrochemical corrosion resistance of metals. These
two sections have been included in this chapter because
4.8 Wall Girts 4-6
of the tremendous impact material durability has on
4.9 Large Doors 4-7 long-term structural integrity (and hence long-term
4.10 Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms 4-7 performance) of a building.
4.11 Shearwalls 4-7
4.2 Broad Overview
4.12 Decay Resistance of Wood 4-7
4.13 Electrochemical Corrosion Resistance 4.2.1 Primary Framing
of Metals 4-8 Primary framing is the main structural framing in a
4.14 References 4-11 building. In a post-frame building, this includes the
columns, trusses (or rafters), and any girders that transfer
load between trusses and columns. As defined
ANSI/ASABE S618 (see Section 1.2.2), each truss and
the post(s) to which it is attached form an individual
primary frame, also referred to as a post-frame or main
frame. Primary frames collect and transfer load from roof
purlins and wall girts (i.e. secondary framing) to the
foundation. In the context of wind loading in standards
and building codes, primary frames are an integral part
of the main wind-force resisting system (MWFRS).
Specific sections dedicated to primary framing include:
Section 4.3 Posts, Section 4.4 Trusses, Section 4.5
Girders, and Section 4.6 Knee Braces.
4.2.2 Secondary Framing
As defined in Section 1.2.4, secondary framing includes
any framing member used to transfer load between
cladding and primary framing members, and/or laterally
brace primary framing members. The secondary framing
members in a post-frame building include the girts,
purlins and any structural wood bracing such as
permanent truss bracing. Specific sections dedicated to
secondary framing include: Section 4.7 Roof Purlins,
Section 4.8 Wall Girts, and Section 4.9 Large Doors.

4.2.3 Diaphragms and Shearwalls be considered for a specific building design. For
example, maximum gravity load will govern truss-to-
When cladding is fastened to the wood frame of a post- post bearing and post foundation bearing; whereas wind
frame building, large shearwalls and roof and ceiling minus dead load will govern the truss-to-post connection
diaphragms are formed that can add considerable rigidity (for uplift).
to the building. In many post-frame buildings,
diaphragms and shearwalls are carefully designed and 4.3.3 Force Calculations
become an integral part of the main wind-force resisting
The diaphragm analysis method presented in Chapter 6 is
system. Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms are covered in
the most accurate method to determine design moments,
Section 4.10 and Shearwalls in Section 4.11.
and axial and shear forces in posts. Historically, some
4.2.4 Specific Details designers calculated the maximum post moment for
embedded posts by using the simple structural analog of
The post-frame building system is a special type of light a propped cantilever (i.e. fixed reaction at the post
wood-frame construction. Although model and active bottom and pin reaction at the top). The implicit
building codes extensively cover light wood-frame assumption of this analog is that the roof diaphragm and
construction, they seldom cover specific details of post- shearwalls are infinitely stiff. This model may be
frame building design. Specifically, they lack coverage adequate for buildings with extremely stiff roof
of post foundation design, metal-clad wood-frame diaphragms and for conservatively estimating shear
diaphragm design, and interaction between post-frames forces in the roof diaphragm; however, it may
and diaphragms. Hence, Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 focus on underestimate the maximum post moment for many post-
these topics in more detail. frame buildings. The analysis procedures described in
4.2.5 Limitations Chapter 6 are more reliable since they account for the
flexible behavior of roof diaphragms and shear walls.
The structural design of buildings involves making many
judgments, such as determining design loads, structural If posts are embedded, generally two bending moments
analogs and analyses, and selecting materials that can must be calculated - one slightly below the groundline
safely resist the calculated forces for the life of the and the other above ground. For posts attached to a
structure. New research or testing could justify a change concrete surface with a flexible connection, the post-to-
of design procedure for the industry or for an individual concrete surface connection is typically modeled as a pin
designer. To this end, it is important to note that the (leaving the post moment equal to zero at that point), and
considerations presented herein are not exhaustive, and thereby limiting maximum post bending moment
thus should never be considered or treated as exhaustive. calculations and checks to a single point.
The bending moment and shear forces in the post at
4.3 Posts groundline are frequently used in embedded post
4.3.1 General foundation design calculations.
The function of the wood post is to carry axial and 4.3.4 Combined Stress Analysis
bending loads to the foundation. Posts are embedded in Forces involved in post design subject the posts to
the ground or attached to either a conventional masonry combined stresses (bending and axial), and thus they
or concrete wall or a concrete slab-on-grade. Posts can must be checked for adequacy using the appropriate
be solid-sawn, structural composite lumber, interaction equation from the NDS. In theory, every post
mechanically-laminated, or glued-laminated. Any length increment must satisfy the interaction equation,
portion of a post that is embedded or exposed to weather but in practice, a minimum of two locations are checked:
must be pressure-treated with preservative chemicals to the point of maximum interaction near the ground level
resist decay and insect damage (see Section 4.12). (column stability factor, Cp, equal to 1.0) and the upper
4.3.2 Controlling Load Combinations section of the posts where the maximum moment occurs
in conjunction with column action (Cp<1.0).
The load combination that usually controls post design is
full dead plus 3/4 wind plus 3/4 snow for ASD (e.g., 4.3.5 Shear Stress
equation 6a in Section 3.5.1) and full dead plus full wind The shear stress due to lateral loading (wind or seismic)
plus one-half snow for LRFD (e.g., equation 4 in Section rarely controls post design, but should always be checked
3.5.2); however, local codes may stipulate different load as a matter of good practice. Other loads such as bulk
combinations. It is possible for any one of the loads from stored materials may influence final post
combinations to be critical; therefore, they all should design.

Chapter 4. Structural Design Overview
4.3.6 Deflection 4.4 Trusses

A post deflection limit is not normally specified for post- 4.4.1 General
frame buildings, but interior finishes may require it.
Refer to the deflection criteria in Chapter 3. Together with posts, wood trusses are primary structural
elements of post-frame buildings. Two excellent sources
4.3.7 Connections of technical information on trusses are the Truss Plate
Truss-to-post connections must be designed for bearing Institute (TPI) and the Wood Truss Council of America
as well as uplift. Connection design procedures are given (WTCA). Trusses must be properly designed, handled
in the NDS. Truss-to-post connections should be and installed. These responsibilities are shared by the
modeled as pins unless moment-carrying capacity can be building owner, contractor and designer, and the truss
justified. Direct end grain bearing is desirable and is designer and manufacturer. The importance of a clear
often achieved by notching the post to receive the truss understanding of responsibilities among these parties
(or in the case of a mechanically-laminated post, by cannot be overstated, and is covered in WTCA 1-1995
placing the truss on a shortened lamination). When Standard Responsibilities in the Design Process
designing the truss-to-post connection for uplift, it is Involving Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses and
important to accurately estimate the weights of ANSI/TPI 1-2007: National Design Standard for Metal
construction materials if any counteracting credit is to be Plate Connected Wood Truss Construction.
taken. 4.4.2 Design Loads
For surface-attached posts, the bottom connection needs The load combination that controls the design of most
to be checked for maximum shear and uplift forces. truss components in much of the U.S. is full snow plus
For embedded posts attached to collars or footings, the dead load. When applying ANSI/ASCE 7-10 loads
below-grade connections must be properly designed to combinations involving snow, note that different load
withstand gravity and uplift loads, and corrosion- combinations apply for balanced and unbalanced snow
resistant fasteners must be used (see Section 4.13). loadings (see notes following load combination
equations in Section 3.5).
4.3.8 Construction Alternatives
It is important to check all applicable load combinations
The posts in post-frame buildings can be solid sawn, because different load combinations may control the
mechanically-laminated, glued-laminated or wood design of different truss elements. For example, a wind
composite. Allowable design stresses are published in load combination may cause stress reversal in some truss
the NDS or are available from the manufacturers. elements as discussed in Section 4.4.5.
Treated wood (Section 4.12) is used for the embedded
part of the post, but no treatment is required on the parts Truss manufacturers commonly express allowable truss
that are not in contact with the ground and are protected design loads with a series of four or a series of three
by the building envelope. hyphenated numbers (e.g., 20-4-0-1 or 20-4-1). If there
are four numbers, the first number is the sum of the
4.3.9 Foundation allowable "non-dead" loads on the top chord, the second
Post-frame building foundations include embedded post is the allowable dead load on the top chord, the third is
and pier foundations as well as conventional concrete the sum of the allowable "non-dead" loads on the bottom
frost wall, concrete basement walls, and slab-on-grade chord, and the fourth is the allowable dead load on the
foundations. bottom chord. Frequently, a truss is designed without
placing non-dead loads on the bottom chord. In such
Embedded post foundations must be designed to resist cases, it is common to only use the three number
lateral forces induced by wind and seismic loads, as well designation as shown in the above example. Unless
as wind uplift, and gravity loads. Post and pier otherwise specified, it is assumed that the loads are
foundation design is an important aspect of post-frame expressed in lbf per square foot (psf). To this end, it is
building design that is not well known in the structural imperative that the designated truss design loading be
engineering design community, and therefore Chapter 6 accompanied by the truss spacing, since it is the product
is dedicated to this subject. If a concrete slab is used of the allowable load in psf and the spacing in feet that
along with an embedded post/pier foundation system, it dictates the allowable load that can be applied to a lineal
only need be designed for interior loads since exterior foot of the truss.
building loads are transferred directly to the ground
through the posts. When reviewing truss design specifications, be aware
that truss manufacturers commonly categorize loads as

either dead or live, in which case, they consider snow between the two units was not. Many different methods
and wind loads to be types of live loads. This runs and hardware have been used to design the connection,
counter to the ANSI/ASCE 7-10 definition of a live load. such as bolts, nails, truss anchors, and combinations of
Because loads like wind and snow are associated with the same. Unless otherwise governed by a specific code,
different ASD load duration factors and different LRFD the design of this connection should meet NDS
time effect factors, it is important that a designer know requirements.
what portion of an allowable top chord "live" load is due
to snow, what portion is due to wind, what portion is due 4.4.5 Stress Reversal
to roof live loading, etc. The trusses used in post-frame buildings are typically
long span and, consequently, have long webs. When the
4.4.3 Design
truss becomes part of a post-frame building, it is
This design manual does not present specifics of roof possible, under certain loading conditions, for a tension
truss design. Metal-plate-connected wood trusses in the web in the truss design to become a compression web.
United States are designed according to the provisions of
Stress reversal can also occur in truss chords due to a
ANSI/TPI 1-2007. Other designs are based on
wind uplift loading combined with dead load. This load
proprietary test information, along with design criteria
case may not frequently control the size of the truss
from the NDS.
chord lumber, but it makes compression in the bottom
Section 6.1.1.2 of ANSI/TPI 1-2007 requires that an chord possible. This situation is one reason that lateral
accepted structural analysis method for analyzing bracing of the bottom chord is required (SBCA/TPI,
statically indeterminate structures, such as the matrix 2013).
stiffness method, be used to determine the design
moments and axial forces for each truss member. Section 4.4.6 Temporary Bracing
6.1.1.1 of ANSI/TPI 1-2007 requires that this model Temporary bracing is required to ensure stability of
closely approximate the geometry and properties of the trusses during their installation and until permanent
truss members and connections. Regardless of analysis bracing for trusses and the building are in place. This
methods, structural modeling assumptions are important area is the most difficult to manage in the field.
and can dramatically influence the design (Brakeman,
1994). For example, partial fixity at truss plate joints as According to WTCA 1-1995 and ANSI/TPI 1-2007,
well as eccentricity at heel joints, can be modeled a determination and installation of temporary bracing is the
variety of ways. The heel joint usually gets the most responsibility of the building contractor. This work
attention since heel joint modeling decisions can greatly should be done in accordance with the Building
influence truss design. Component Safety Information (BCSI) Guide to Good
Practice for Handling, Installing, Restraining and
The size, and in some cases the orientation, of truss Bracing of Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses – a
plates is dependent on proprietary design values. These publication jointly produced by the Structural Building
values may be available from the manufacturer. Some Components Association (SBCA) and the Truss Plate
are available in the form of an ICC-ES Evaluation Report Institute (TPI). The BCSI guide contains the following
(see http://www.icc-es.org/reports/) ten major chapters:
Trusses can be obtained pre-engineered from the  BCSI-B1:Guide for Handling, Installing,
manufacturer. It is important to consider wind loading on Restraining & Bracing of Trusses
trusses as stress reversals can occur and overstress some  BCSI-B2:Truss Installation & Temporary
members. This design is complicated by the fact that Restraint/Bracing
wind loads are influenced by building geometry, so this  BCSI-B3: Permanent Restraint/Bracing of Chords
information must be communicated to the truss designer. & Web Members
Any structural bracing (e.g. knee braces) or redundant  BCSI-B4: Construction Loading
supports must be included in the truss design.  BCSI-B5:Truss Damage, Jobsite Modifications &
Installation Errors
4.4.4. Truss-to-Post Connection  BCSI-B7: Temporary & Permanent
The connection between the truss and post is critical. Restraint/Bracing of 3x2 and 4x2 Parallel Chord
Designers must consider both gravity forces and uplift Trusses
forces. With some truss-to-post connection designs, it  BCSI-B8: Using Toe-Nailed Connections to Attach
might be necessary to examine the impact of the Trusses At Bearing Locations
connection on the forces induced in the truss chords, heel  BCSI-B9: Multi-Ply Girders
joints, and post. Observations from several building  BCSI-B10: Post Frame Truss Installation, Restraint
investigations revealed that the individual trusses and & Bracing
posts were designed properly, but the connection  BCSI-B11: Fall Protection & Trusses

The temporary bracing requirements in BSCI-B10 (the increased using the repetitive member factors published
chapter specifically dedicated to post-frame building in ANSI/ASAE EP559 (ASABE, 2012).
trusses) is similar in content to BCSI-B2. The primary
difference is that BCSI-B2 applies to trusses spaced up to 4.5.4 Connections
2 ft on-center and up to 80 ft in length, and BSCI-B10 Girder attachment to posts and individual roof trusses is
applies to trusses between 2 and 12 ft on-center and up to a fundamental part of girder design. When designing
81 ft in length. girder-to-post connections, both uplift and gravity must
be considered. When designing truss-to-girder
4.4.7 Permanent Bracing
connections, special consideration must be given to
Permanent truss bracing is critical to the performance of situations in which trusses are hung off the side of the
the roof system. In fact, improper design and/or improper girder. In such cases truss-to-girder connections should
installation of permanent bracing are leading causes of be designed to prevent rotation between the trusses and
post-frame building structural failures. girder, the girder must be sized to handle additional
stresses due to torsion, or the girder must be braced to
Permanent bracing for trusses in post-frame buildings is
reduce rotation.
typically specified in accordance with BCSI-B3 and
BCSI-B10 (SBCA/TPI, 2013). If properly planned, the 4.6 Knee Braces
temporary bracing applied during truss installation can
be used as permanent bracing, making the completion of 4.6.1 General
the permanent bracing more efficient.
Knee braces are intended to supplement the resistance of
4.5 Girders post frames under lateral loads, and can influence the
unsupported length of columns. They have been used
4.5.1 General less and less in recent years.
Girders are heavy beams used to span large openings 4.6.2 Effectiveness
(e.g., doors) and to support trusses located between
posts. For example, when roof truss spacing is less than Knee brace effectiveness is highly dependent on the
the post spacing, girders (sometimes called headers) are stiffness of its connections to the post and truss. If the
needed to carry the intermediate trusses. This is a connections at the ends of the brace are flexible or not
common occurrence over large door openings. These very stiff due to the use of a few nails, the roof
beams are considered main wind-force resisting diaphragm carries the bulk of the load, and the brace is
members. Vertically nail-laminated lumber, structural ineffective (Gebremedhin and Woeste, 1986). If the
composite lumber, glued-laminated beams and steel I- brace connections are made very stiff (by installing many
beams are all commonly used as girders. There is an nails or bolts) the brace could effectively resist the wind
abundant supply of structural-composite lumber products loading but could overload the truss.
from manufacturers who publish their own allowable 4.6.3 Analysis
stresses. Often, the critical load combination is dead plus
snow load, although all applicable load combinations Knee braces induce primary bending moments in truss
must be checked. chords if attached between panel points. Knee braces
induce secondary bending moments when attached
4.5.2 Design Criteria directly to panel points. If knee braces are to be used in
Girders are designed as bending members. Any one of post-frame design, load sharing among the truss, post,
the four criteria used for the design of bending members knee brace, connections, and diaphragm (when
can control design (i.e. bending, shear, compression applicable) must be included in the structural analysis.
perpendicular to grain, and deflection). Shear can often
control girder design. Also note that formulae found in
4.7 Roof Purlins
most handbooks account for bending but not shear 4.7.1 General
deflection. Designers should consider the impact of shear
deflection on the total deflection of a girder. Hoyle and Roof purlins are typically 2- by 4-inch or 2- by 6-inch
Woeste (1989) provide formulae for calculating shear lumber, and are key structural elements of the roof
deflection of wood beams. assembly. They resist gravity loads, wind loads, roof
diaphragm chord forces, and provide lateral bracing to
4.5.3 Vertically Laminated Lumber truss top chords (or rafters). To fulfill the chord-bracing
role, the purlins must be supported against lateral
The design of girders for a post-frame building is routine
movement by attachment to sheathing or metal cladding
structural design except when a girder is fabricated by
that provides the needed roof diaphragm strength. Not all
vertically laminating three or more pieces of dimension
roof cladding materials provide diaphragm strength
lumber. In this case, the allowable bending stress can be

and/or purlin lateral support; one example is standing In general, the provisions of the NDS apply for the
seam roofing, which is fastened with clips that allow connections and stress analysis.
adjacent sheets to slide.
4.8 Wall Girts
4.7.2 Classification
4.8.1 General
Purlins in post-frame buildings fall into the ANSI/ASCE-
7 wind load category of “component and cladding.” Girts are used to collect wind-induced wall loads and
Components and cladding collect the loads and distribute distribute them to the post frames. For end walls, the
them to the primary structural elements, identified as the wind loads are distributed to structural end-wall posts.
main wind-force resisting system. Wind loads are much
greater at eaves, ridges, edges, corners and other
4.8.2 Classification
discontinuities. Purlin spacing and fasteners are critical Girts belong to the “component and cladding” category
in these areas. If these areas fail under extreme wind for determining the design wind load.
loading, the building envelope will be breached, and
internal wind pressures will change dramatically. 4.8.3 Orientation
4.7.3 Orientation Girts are either installed flat on post faces or recessed
between the posts. Girts recessed between posts are
Purlins are installed on-edge or flat. When they are used almost always orientated with the narrow edge facing the
on-edge, they may be either placed on top of the truss or cladding, and in this position, are frequently used to
recessed between the trusses. Purlins placed on-edge are support both interior and exterior cladding/sheathing.
frequently overlapped and fastened together at the
overlap. When used flat, purlins are installed on top of 4.8.4 Post Bracing
the trusses. Girts provide lateral support to side-wall columns. With
4.7.4 Truss Chord Bracing girts securely installed, the slenderness ratio of the post
weak axis is greatly reduced. Therefore, posts can
Purlin spacing is a factor in truss design since purlins usually be designed to carry the axial loads using the
provide lateral support to the truss top chord. In some slenderness ratio of the strong axis.
cases, the slenderness ratio for weak-axis truss chord
buckling between purlins can be greater than that for 4.8.5 Design Loads
strong-axis buckling. Therefore, when specifying trusses, Girts are normally designed to resist only wind load.
the building designer should inform the truss-design Wind loads are much greater at corners and other
engineer of the planned purlin spacing. discontinuities. Girt spacing and fasteners are critical in
4.7.5 Design Loads these areas. If these areas fail, the building envelope will
be breached, and internal wind pressures will change
Purlin design often is controlled by the dead plus snow dramatically.
load combination, or dead plus wind load (especially in
the edge zones of the roof). Dead loads used for design The dead load of the girt and attached steel is normally
may exceed actual weights for gravity load calculations; negligible for girt design. Cladding is attached to the
however, inflated dead loads cannot be used to offset girts by nails or screws, and the stiffness of these
wind uplift or wind overturn moments. In these cases, connections does not allow the girts to undergo
offsetting loads cannot exceed actual weights of significant bending stress or deflection from the action of
materials. the small dead loads present. However, the wall dead
load should be included in total dead load calculations
4.7.6 Design Criteria for the post foundation.
Purlins members should be checked for bending strength, Girts must be designed to resist forces induced by stored
shear capacity, and deflection. If the roof assembly is materials, especially granular materials such as fertilizer
functioning as a structural diaphragm, purlins will also or seeds/grain. Care should betaken to assure that the
be subjected to axial forces. Purlins shall be designed to capacity of wall panels, fasteners and girts are not
carry bending about both axes. Weak axis bending may exceeded by these forces.
be omitted if it can be demonstrated by test or analysis
that the roof sheathing provides support. The connections 4.8.6 Design Criteria
between the purlins and rafters should be designed for Girts are designed as bending members for which the
both gravity loads and wind uplift forces. Purlin hangers usual bending-member design criteria apply. The critical
are often used when purlins are recessed, and their connections between the girts and the post should be
capacity should be verified for the various loading cases. checked for both wind pressure and suction. The top wall

girt may be constructed to carry chord forces from the 4.11 Shearwalls
roof diaphragm and, if so, must be checked for the
appropriate axial loads. The NDS provisions apply for 4.11.1 General
the connections and stress analysis.
A large portion of the shear forces induced in roof and
4.9 Large Doors ceiling diaphragms is transferred to the building
foundation by shearwalls. In many post-frame buildings,
4.9.1 General the only walls available to transfer this shear are exterior
walls (i.e., endwalls and sidewalls). Where present,
Large doors are common in post-frame buildings. Door
interior partition walls can be designed to transfer
components must be designed to withstand design wind
additional shear.
loads, and are treated as “components and cladding” for
such calculations. 4.11.2 Endwalls
4.9.2 Open Doors Endwalls in post-frame buildings resist wind loads
perpendicular to the building end wall and
It is not uncommon for building owners to leave large
simultaneously help transmit roof shears (due to parallel-
doors open, even during periods of high wind. If an
to-end wall wind components) to the ground. In the
owner anticipates that this will occur, the building must
diaphragm design procedure described in Chapter 6,
be designed accordingly. Note that a large opening on
maximum roof shears occur at the endwalls. The roof
one side of the structure is generally associated with
shear is transferred into the top truss chord or rafter of
increased internal wind pressure coefficients, and thus
the endwall, through the endwall to the ground level, and
can significantly increase roof uplift forces.
finally to the ground by posts or to posts connected to a
4.10 Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms concrete slab. In addition to shear forces, the end wall is
subject to overturning forces. Wirt et al. (1992) have
4.10.1 General published procedures for analyzing and designing end-
wall foundations.
Roof and ceiling diaphragms are used to resist lateral
(sidesway) forces applied to the building by wind, 4.11.3 Wall Openings
earthquake and stored material. Under lateral load, roof
Allowances must be made for openings in shearwalls.
and ceiling diaphragms act as large stiff plates. These
One common practice in post-frame construction is to
plates support and distribute loads to wall posts.
place large doorways in the building endwalls.
Conceptually, diaphragm design is easy to understand,
Procedures for accounting for the opening and ways to
but the application of the procedure requires analysis
reinforce the remaining wall are given in Chapter 6.
tools and data.
Diaphragms made from plywood are well documented, 4.11.4 Partitioning
as well as those made entirely from steel. Less Partitioning of the building into structural segments is
information is available about wood-framed, metal-clad one method to reduce maximum roof shears and endwall
diaphragms which are prevalent in the post-frame shears. For example, if it is not practical to reinforce an
building industry. This is a major factor in post-frame endwall that has a large door installed, the alternative is
building design and is covered in more depth in Chapters to install a structural partition in the center of the
6 and 7. building. The structural partition must meet the shear
requirements delivered by the roof diaphragm.
4.10.2 Design Properties
Buttresses, inside or outside the walls, can be used to
Diaphragm performance depends on factors such as the reduce the effective length of the building with respect to
steel, steel sheet-to-sheet fasteners, steel-to-wood maximum roof and end-wall shears.
fasteners, and the wood frame. There is no standard steel
panel construction, so diaphragm strength and stiffness 4.12 Decay Resistance of Wood
depend on the specific construction used. Strength and
When wood moisture content exceeds 20% on a dry
stiffness data on laboratory test panels are generally
weight basis in the presence of oxygen, it is vulnerable to
required to derive design values. Most post-frame
attack by insects and decay fungi. Although some wood
buildings have much greater spans than laboratory test
species (and the heartwood of other species) are naturally
panels; therefore, test data must be extrapolated to
resistant to these types of attack, most structural woods
practical building sizes as explained in Chapter 7.
used in North America are not. These structural wood

species must be chemically treated to protect them from 4.12.5 Incising

decay and insect attack.
The rate at which treatments are absorbed into wood, and
4.12.1 Pressure Preservative Treatment the depth of penetration of the treatment, varies from
(PPT) wood species to wood species. Whereas southern pine
species take treatment quite well, most western species
Chemicals used for preserving wood are impregnated must be incised to comply with AWPA retention
into the wood using pressure. These preservative requirements. Incising may reduce lumber strength on
chemicals abate wood decay by altering the wood as a dimensions less than 4 inches thick. Consult the
potential food source for insects and fungi. American Wood Council (AWC) National Design
4.12.2 PPT Use in Post-Frame Buildings Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction regarding
the use of incised wood in structural applications.
Wood that is in direct soil contact must be preservative
treated. This includes embedded wood posts and any 4.12.6 PPT Quality Assurance
girts in direct ground contact (e.g. splash plank). Quality assurance is critical to the performance of treated
Structural wood elements that are not in contact with the wood. The treating industry has developed a quality
soil but are directly exposed to the outdoor environment control and treatment quality marking program
should also be preservative treated. accredited by the American Lumber Standards
4.12.3 Treatment Types Committee. Any treated members specified for use in a
post frame building should be labeled by an approved
The type of preservative treatment and the required agency (e.g., Southern Pine Inspection Bureau (SPIB),
amount of retention by the wood depends on the end use Timber Products Inspection (TPI), Bode, etc.) to assure
application (service life and environmental conditions) of that the members have been treated in accordance with
the wood component. AWPA Standard U1 and to the appropriate retention
The preservatives typically used in North America for level.
ground contact are waterborne copper-based, or oil-type. 4.12.7 MSDS
Waterborne copper-based preservatives include
chromated copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal copper Treated wood suppliers provide Material Safety Data
zinc arsenate (ACZA), copper azole (CA-C), and Sheets (MSDS) with the product. These sheets contain
alkaline copper quat (ACQ). Oil-type preservatives special instructions about the care, handling and disposal
include pentachlorophenol (penta), coal tar creosote and of treated wood. Federal law dictates that these sheets
copper naphthenate (CuN). must be provided to all employees exposed to the
materials.
As noted in Section 1.4.21, effective December 31, 2003
the EPA registered label for use of CCA no longer 4.12.8 Cutting/Drilling Treated Wood
permits use in a number of applications including all
Saw cuts or drilled holes made after treatment may
post-frame building components except embedded posts.
expose untreated wood. This problem is especially
Consequently, non CCA treatments are required for
critical if the newly exposed wood is in the splash zone
splash plank, grade girts, base plates, sill plates, etc.
or in contact with the ground. When using mechanically-
Waterborne copper-based preservatives increase the laminated posts, the cut end of the treated lumber should
potential for metal-fastener corrosion and thus their use be placed upward, above the ground level; otherwise,
will often dictate fastener type (see Section 4.13.5). brush-applied, soaked, or dipped field treatments are
recommended. AWPA Standard M4 outlines procedures
4.12.4 Treatment Levels for field treatment; some chemicals require a certified
For adequate protection from insects and decay fungi, it pesticide applicators license to apply. The chemical
is imperative that American Wood Protection suppliers should be consulted for application restrictions.
Association (AWPA) preservative retention guidelines
be followed. These retention levels are published for 4.13 Electrochemical Corrosion
various "Use Categories" in Section 6 of AWPA
Standard U1. Retention levels are considered minimums Resistance of Metals
and are expressed in lbm/ft3 (pcf). While treating to Electro-chemical corrosion is the breaking down of a
levels greater than the AWPA specified minimums can material due to chemical reactions with its surroundings.
ensure better protection against decay, the cost of this Most commonly it begins with the loss of electrons from
extra treatment in terms of enhanced durability should be a metal via a reaction with surrounding water and
weighed any negative environmental impacts. oxygen, and ultimately produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s)
of the original metal. For example, rust is a general term

for a series of iron oxides formed by the reaction of iron steel and it is attached with stainless steel screws there
with oxygen in the presence of water. Other non-iron will be very little, if any, corrosion.
based metals undergo equivalent corrosion, but the
Table 4-1. Galvanic Series in Flowing Seawater (a)
resulting oxides are not commonly called rust.
Electrical
The rate of corrosion is affected by water and accelerated Potential
by electrolytes, as illustrated by the effects of road salt Range of
Metal or Metal Alloy Alloy vs.
(calcium chloride) on the corrosion of automobiles. Reference
Given sufficient time, oxygen and water, any iron mass Electrode,
eventually converts entirely to rust and disintegrates. volts (b)
The corrosion of aluminum is much slower than that of Anodic Magnesium -1.60 to -1.63
iron because the resulting aluminum oxide forms a or Zinc -0.98 to -1.03
coating which protects the remaining aluminum in a Active Aluminum Alloys -0.70 to -0.90
End Cadmium -0.70 to -0.76
process known as passivation.
Cast Irons -0.60 to -0.72
4.13.1 Galvanic Corrosion Steel -0.60 to -0.70
Galvanic corrosion is a common form of corrosion that Aluminum Bronze -0.30 to -0.40
occurs when dissimilar metals or metal alloys are Red Brass, Yellow Brass, Naval Brass -0.30 to -0.40
brought into electrical contact by immersion in a Tin -0.29 to -0.31
conductive electrolyte. In the case of building materials, Copper -0.28 to -0.36
this conductive electrolyte is generally impure water Lead-Tin Solder (50/50) -0.26 to -0.35
(e.g., rainwater, groundwater). When electrically Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Brass -0.25 to -0.34
connected, one of the dissimilar metals becomes the Manganese Bronze -0.25 to -0.33
anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself in the Silicon Bronze -0.24 to -0.27
conductive electrolyte, while the other metal becomes Stainless Steel – Type 410, 416 (c) -0.25 to -0.36
the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone in 90-10 Copper-Nickel -0.21 to -0.28
the conductive electrolyte. Which metal becomes the 80-20 Copper-Nickel -0.20 to -0.27
anode and which becomes the cathode depends on their Stainless Steel – Type 430 -0.20 to -0.32
relative electrical potential within the conductive Lead -0.19 to -0.25
electrolyte. Table 4-1 contains a list of the electrical 70-30 Copper-Nickel -0.13 to -0.22
potentials of metals in flowing seawater. When arranged Silver -0.09 to -0.14
in order of their electrical potential, the list of metals is Stainless Steel–Types 302,304,321,347 -0.05 to -0.10
referred to as a galvanic series. Within a galvanic series, Stainless Steel – Type 316, 317 (c) -0.00 to -0.10
the metal closer to the anodic (or active) end of the series Cathodic
Titanium and Titanium Alloys +0.06 to -0.05
will be the anode and thus will corrode faster, while the or
one toward the cathodic (or noble) end will corrode Noble End Platinum +0.25 to +0.18
slower. The greater the electrical potential difference Graphite +0.30 to +0.20
between two metals, the more rapidly the anode will (a) Source: Stephen Dexter, University of Delaware Sea Grant Marine
Advisory Service
corrode when the metals are electrically connected.
(b) These numbers refer to a Saturated Calomel Electrode. Measured
4.13.2 Building Material Selection Guidelines in seawater with flow rates between 8 and13 ft/s and temperatures
between 50 and 80 F (10-27 C)
Galvanic corrosion is minimized by (1) using metals that (c) Values listed are for a passive state. In low-velocity or poorly
are not dissimilar, (2) preventing dissimilar metals from aerated water, or inside crevices, these alloys may start to corrode
and exhibit potentials near -0.5 V
becoming electrically connected, and (3) keeping small
anodes from contacting large cathodes. With respect to
the latter, rate of corrosion is dependent on the surface In high moisture environments, components that are in
area of the anode relative to the cathode. The smaller the direct contact should not have an electric potential
surface area of the anode relative to the cathode, the more difference (from Table 4-1) that exceeds 0.20 volts.
concentrated the flow of electrons at the anode (i.e., the Metals listed in Table 4-1 have been color-coded into
higher the current), and the faster the rate of corrosion. groups that fall within the potential difference range of
Conversely, the larger the anode’s surface area in relation roughly 0.20 volts. Using this as a guideline, there
to the cathode, the more spread out the flow of electrons should be no problem with zinc coated components
and the slower the rate of corrosion. For example, if there contacting aluminum components, nor a problem with tin
is a window frame made of stainless steel and it is and copper components contacting each other.
attached with carbon steel screws, the screws will Conversely, allowing a zinc- or aluminum-components
probably corrode. If the window frame is made of carbon to contact copper or tin will result in more rapid

degradation of the zinc and aluminum. Lead should not avoided. Table 4-2 contains a guideline for selection of
be used in any construction where Galvalume or fasteners based on galvanic action. In general, zinc-
aluminum is utilized. Note that if a component has a coated fasteners should only be used to connect
metallic coating, the metallic coating and not the base galvanized and aluminum-zinc alloy coated steel. Do not
metal determines the electric potential of the component. use zinc- or aluminum-coated fasteners to attach copper
or stainless-steel panels. Whenever possible, match the
Materials should be selected so rainwater does not flow
surface metal on the fasteners with that on the panels and
from the cathode in a metal pair to the anode in a metal
trim they will attach.
pair. For example, in a metal pair of copper and
galvanized steel, copper is the cathode and galvanized Table 4-2. Common Fastener Recommendations
steel (i.e., zinc) is the anode. Water from a copper roof from Manufacturers
will contain dissolved copper that will result in unwanted Fastener Metal
corrosion of a galvanized steel gutter. Alternatively,
Hot-Dip Galvanized Nails (b)

water runoff from a galvanized steel roof will not
Electro-Plated Screws (a)
Zinc Capped Screws (c)

corrode a copper gutter.
Stainless Steel
4.13.3 Sacrificial and Barrier Coatings
Aluminum
Panel/Trim Surface
Copper
Application of a metallic coating to a panel is done to Material
protect the base metal from oxidation. When the coating
is measurably more active/anodic (i.e., higher up on the
galvanic series) than the base metal, it will provide
galvanic protection to the base metal. Such is the case
with a zinc-coated (a.k.a. galvanized) steel panel. When
steel is exposed by cutting or scratching of the panel, Zinc (Galvanized) Yes Yes Yes No No No
galvanic corrosion will take place with the anodic zinc Aluminum-Zinc
moving to cover the exposed cathodic steel. A coating Alloy (e.g. No Yes Yes No No No
that protects base metal in this manner is referred to as a Galvalume)
sacrificial coating. Aluminum No No No Yes No No
The extent to which a sacrificial coating can continue to Copper No No No No Yes Yes(d)
protect base metal is directly proportional to the amount Stainless Steel No No No No No Yes
(i.e., thickness) of the coating. Metallic coatings that are
(a) Screws with an electrodeposited coating of zinc applied in
not sacrificial can only protect base metal by preventing
accordance with ASTM B633.
moisture and oxygen from reaching the base metal. Such (b) Nails with a zinc coating that meets or exceed ASTM A153
metallic coatings, along with paint, are referred to as Class D thickness specifications.
barrier coatings. (c) ASTM B633 electroplated screws with a special zinc or
Prevention of base metal oxidation by sacrificial and zinc-aluminum alloy cap.
barrier coatings is important. Not only is such oxidation (d) Austentic stainless steels (302/304, 303, 305) may increase
the corrosion of copper whereas martensitic stainless steel
unsightly, but it compromises panel strength and
(410) fasteners will not.
eventually weather tightness.
Application of paint coatings to metallic surfaces, or 4.13.5 Corrosion Due to Wood
placement of plastic or other non-metallic barriers Preservatives
between dissimilar metals, can significantly reduce
galvanic corrosion. When protecting an underlying Most waterborne wood preservatives contain copper.
metallic coating or base metal with a paint coating, it is This includes chromated copper arsenate (CCA), alkaline
important to realize that a small accidental scratch in the copper quat (ACQ), copper azole (CA), and ammoniacal
coating can result in rapid corrosion of the newly copper zinc arsenate (ACZA). To avoid galvanic
exposed metal if the exposed metal becomes the anode in corrosion in wood containing a copper-based treatment
a reaction with a nearby dissimilar metal that has a large and used in a moist condition, use fasteners that are
surface area. comprised of, or coated with: copper, a material more
noble than copper such as silicon bronze and types 304
4.13.4 Mechanical Fastener Selection and 316 stainless steel, or plastic (Baker, 1992). Do not
Due to their small surface area relative to the materials use aluminum fasteners or aluminum-coated fasteners in
they fasten, fasteners that take on the role of the anode lumber containing copper-based wood treatments (Baker,
will be at risk of rapid corrosion and thus should be 1992; AWC, 2004). Fasteners with a sufficient zinc

coating (i.e., fasteners that meet ASTM A153 Class D Hoyle, R. J. & Woeste, F. E. (1989). Wood
for hot-dip galvanizing) can generally be used in wood technology in the design of structures. Fifth edition.
containing copper-based treatments as long as the wood Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
is not regularly exposed to moisture or other
SBCA/TPI. (2013). Building component safety
environments considered extremely corrosive. This
information (BCSI): Guide to good practice for
means that any fastener with only an electrodeposited
handling, installing, restraining and bracing of
coating of zinc (e.g., an electro-plated screw) should not
metal plate connected wood trusses. Jointly
be used in wood containing copper-based treatments if
produced by the Structural Building Components
the wood is regularly exposed to moisture or an
Association (SBCA) and the Truss Plate Institute
environment considered extremely corrosive.
(TPI). http://www.sbcindustry.com/bcsi.php
Do not allow aluminum, aluminum-coated, and
Wirt, D. L., Woeste, F. E., Kline, D. E., and McLain, T.
galvalume-coated panels and trim to come into direct
E. (1992). Design procedures for post-frame end
contact with wood preservatives containing copper,
walls. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 8(1):97-
mercury or fluorides. Galvanized steel is generally
105.
compatible with chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
treatments but not with alkaline copper quat (ACQ) and 4.14.2 Normative References
copper azole (CA) in damp conditions. Avoid direct
contact between bare metal panels and treated lumber ANSI/ASAE EP 559.1 Design requirements and bending
where (1) condensation will frequently form on the metal properties for mechanically-laminated wood
surface in contact with the lumber, and (2) the wood assemblies.
treatment is more noble (cathodic) than the metal ANSI/ASABE S618 Post frame building system
surface. Direct contact between metal panels and treated nomenclature.
lumber can be avoided by separating them with a barrier
proven suitable for the application. ANSI/ASCE-7 Minimum design loads for buildings and
other structures
4.14 References ANSI/AWC-2012 National design specification for
4.14.1 Non-Normative References wood construction.
AWC. (2004). Fastener corrosion. American Wood ANSI/TPI 1-2007 National design standard for metal
Council Fact Sheet. AWC. 1111 Nineteenth Street, plate connected wood truss construction.
NW, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036 ASTM A153 Standard specification for zinc coating
http://www.awc.org/HelpOutreach/faq/CorrosionFac (hot-dip) on iron and steel hardware.
tSheet.pdf
AWPA U1-13 User specification for treated wood.
Baker, A. J. (1992). Corrosion of nails in CCA- and
ACA-treated wood in two environments. Forest WTCA 1-1995 Standard responsibilities in the design
Products Journal, 42(9):39-41 process involving metal plate connected wood
trusses.
Brakeman, D. B. (1994). Which truss design method is
the correct one? Peaks, 16(1):1-3.
Gebremedhin, K. G., & Woeste, F. E. (1986). Diaphragm
design with knee brace slip for post-frame buildings.
Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, 23(2):538-542.

.
CHAPTER 5 .
Post and Pier Foundation Design
5.1 Introduction
Contents A distinct advantage of post-frame construction is the
opportunity to transfer structural loads to the soil via post
5.1 Introduction 5–1
and pier foundations, thereby eliminating the need for a
5.2 Definitions 5–2 traditional foundation.
5.3 Soil Characteristics, Classification and Use 5–4
Post and pier foundations are a more environmentally-
5.4 Engineering Properties of Soil 5–8 friendly option to concrete frost walls because they use
5.5 Foundation Material Properties 5–11 considerably less concrete and can be quickly and easily
5.6 Structural Analysis 5–12 removed. Most post and pier foundations can be reused.
5.7 Governing Strength Equations 5–19 5.1.1 Governing Design Standard
5.8 Bearing Strength Assessment 5–22 Soil properties, safety factors, analysis methods and
5.9 Lateral Strength Assessment 5–25 design equations presented in this chapter are from
5.10 Uplift Strength Assessment 5–37 ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Shallow Post and Pier Foundation
Design.
5.11 Frost Heave Considerations 5–40
5.12 Installation Requirements 5–40 5.1.2 Classification
5.13 References 5–41 Depending on their width-to-length ratio, and the
surrounding soil type, foundations are categorized as
either shallow or deep. The vast majority of post and
pier foundations are shallow foundations, and exhibit a
behavior quite different from that of deeper systems such
as pilings.
In many respects ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 is a blend of
commonly published procedures for determining
allowable vertical loads on shallow spread footings, and
commonly published procedures for determining
allowable lateral loads on short piles. Thus the term
“shallow” is included in the title of the engineering
practice. As is common with shallow foundation design,
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 ignores any foundation-soil
friction that would help a pier/post foundation transfer
gravity loads into the soil ore resist uplift forces.
Soil deformation around a post is a three-dimensional
phenomena. Figure 5-1 shows the lines of constant soil
pressure (in a horizontal plane of soil) that form when a
post moves laterally. The greater the distance between
two posts, the less influence one post will have on the
soil pressure near the other. For design purposes,
individual embedded posts are considered isolated
foundations by ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 when post spacing

is at least 4.5 times greater than post/pier width or at A pier was defined in Section 1.2.6 as a relatively short
least 3 times greater than the maximum dimension of a column partly embedded in the soil to provide lateral and
footing or attached collar. vertical support for a building or other structure. Piers
include members of any material with assigned structural
CL
b/2 b/2
properties such as solid or laminated wood, steel, or
concrete.
Piers differ from embedded posts in that they seldom
Post extend above the lowest horizontal framing element in a
q structure, and when they do, it is often only a few inches.
Conversely, embedded posts typically extend up to and
2.0B 1.5B 1.0B 1.0B 1.5B 2.0B generally past the main roof supports. It follows that a
0.9q
post foundation and a pier foundation can appear
0.8q
0.5B identical below-grade, and that the only way to
0.7q
0.6q
differentiate between them is to identify how far above
grade the major foundation element extends.
1.0B
0.5q
0.4q 0.1q
Ground Preservative-treated
1.5B surface wood post
0.3q
2.0B
0.2q
2.5B
Post
embedment
3.0B depth, d
Foundation Uplift anchor

3.5B depth, dF (preservative-
treated wood
Figure 5-1. Constant pressure lines in a horizontal
blocking)
plane of soil.
Unattached
footing
5.1.3 Chapter Overview
Figure 5-2. Preservative-treated wood post
The layout of this chapter is similar to that for foundation.
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2. This chapter leads with
definitions (Section 5.2), soil characteristics,
classification and use (Section 5.3), engineering
Laminated
properties of soil (Section 5.4), and foundation material
wood post
properties (Section 5.5). This is followed by Section 5.6
on structural analysis and Section 5.7 on governing
strength equations. Sections 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10 cover
Ground surface
bearing strength, lateral strength, and uplift strength
assessment, respectively. The last two sections cover
frost heave considerations and installation requirements.
5.2 Definitions
Cast-in-place
5.2.1 Post versus Pier Foundations Pier concrete pier
embedment
Post and pier foundations were previously defined in depth, d
Section 1.2.7 as follows:
Post foundation: An assembly consisting of an
embedded post and all below-grade elements, which may
include a footing, uplift resistance system, and collar. Footing cast
See figure 5-2. integral with pier
Pier foundation: An assembly consisting of a pier and Figure 5-3. Cast-in-place concrete pier foundation.
all below-grade elements, which may include a footing, Footing functions as uplift resisting system.
uplift resistance system, and collar. See figure 5-3.

Chapter 5 – Post and Pier Foundation Design
Whereas a post and pier foundations are identical in dimensions characterizing a rectangular uplift resisting
every respect below grade (same materials, size, uplift system.
resisting system, etc), there will be no difference in
Uplift Resisting System Length, LU: length of a
“below-grade” performance when they are subjected to
rectangular uplift resisting system with a width BU.
equal loads at grade.
Foundation Depth, dF: Vertical distance from the
5.2.2 Foundation Components ground surface to the bottom of a post or pier foundation.
In addition to embedded posts and piers, other major Typically the vertical distance from the ground surface to
foundation elements include footings, collars, uplift the base of the footing.
anchors, and in some cases, even backfill.
Post (or Pier) Embedment Depth, d: Vertical
Footing: Foundation component at the base of a post or distance from the ground surface to the bottom of the
pier that provides resistance to vertical downward forces. embedded post or pier. Includes the thickness of the
When properly attached to the post/pier, a footing aids in footing when the footing is rigidly attached to the
the resistance of lateral and vertical uplift forces. post/pier or is cast integrally with the post/pier.
Collar: Foundation component that surrounds a post or Uplift Resisting System Depth, dU: Vertical
pier and aids in the resistance of lateral loads. When a distance between soil surface and top of the foundation
collar is mechanically attached to a post or pier such that uplift resisting system.
it can not slide up or down relative to the post/pier, it will
Water Table Depth, dW: distance between soil surface
also aid in resisting vertically-applied loads.
and top of the water table.
Uplift Anchor: Any element mechanically attached to
Depth to Point of Rotation, dR: Depth from ground
an embedded post or pier to increase the uplift resistance
surface to the point about which a non-constrained
of the foundation.
foundation rotates below grade. The rotation point is the
Backfill: Material filling the excavation around a post or point below grade at which the foundation does not move
pier foundation. laterally under the applied loads.
Footings and collars are distinctly different elements that Depth to Ultimate Point of Rotation, dRU: Depth
may or may not be present in a particular foundation. from ground surface to the point about which a non-
Both footings and collars can function as uplift anchors. constrained foundation rotates below grade when loaded
Uplift anchors can also be special elements such as to capacity.
preservative-treated wood blocks (figure 5-2) or steel
angles (figure 5-3).
5.2.4 Foundation Constraint
If a post or pier foundation is not restrained from moving
Where concrete or controlled low-strength material
horizontally at or just above the ground surface it is said
(CLSM) is used as backfill, the backfill will effectively
to be non-constrained. Conversely, if a post or pier
function as a collar.
foundation pushes against (or is attached to) an
5.2.3 Foundation Dimensions “immovable” structural element such that the lateral
displacement at some point at or just above the ground
Foundation dimensions of importance to design are surface is essentially equal to zero, the foundation is said
illustrated in figure 5-4 and defined as follows: to be constrained. An example of a constrained post or
Foundation Face Width, b: width of the face of the pier foundation is one that bears against a concrete slab-
post/pier, footing, or collar that applies load to the soil on-grade.
when the foundation moves laterally. A single post can be both constrained or non-constrained,
Post (or Pier) Side Width, w: dimension of a depending on the load case. Using the previous example
post/pier measured parallel to the direction of applied of a concrete slab-on-grade, and assuming that the post is
lateral load. Equal to width b for a round or square not attached to the slab, if the wind loading was such that
pier/pole. the post was pushing on the slab, the post would be
considered constrained. However, if the wind were
Footing Breadth, B: diameter of a round footing or blowing in the opposite direction, the post would not be
side length of a square footing. supported by the slab; hence, the post would be analyzed
Uplift Resisting System Width, BU: diameter of a for that load case as non-constrained.
circular uplift resisting system or the smaller of the two

Load Direction
Pier-to-column
connecting bracket
Ground
surface Precast concrete pier
Depth to
Water Uplift Foundation
Pier point of
table resisting face width, b
embedment rotation, dR
depth, dW system
depth, d depth, dU
Foundation Uplift resisting
depth, dF Pier side system length, LU
width, w
Uplift anchor
Unattached footing (steel angle)
Uplift resisting Footing breadth, B
system width, BU
Water table
Figure 5-4. Side view (left) and face view (right) of a pier foundation with an unattached footing and an uplift
resistance provided by steel angles.
5.3 Soil Characteristics, Unified Soil Classification System defines silts as

particles with diameters less than 0.003 inches (0.075
Classification and Use mm), sands as particles with diameters between 0.003
5.3.1 Overview and 0.08 inches (2 mm), and gravels as particles with
diameters between 0.08 and 3.0 inches (76 mm).
Soil is characterized and classified in different ways for Particles less than 0.003 inches in diameter can not be
different purposes. In this section, soil characteristics distinguished with the naked eye.
that are of interest in engineering design are defined, and
the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is 5.3.3 Particle Size Distribution
presented. The USCS is used by ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 The single most important factor dictating soil behavior
to assign engineering properties for post/pier foundation is the size distribution of the particles comprising the
design when such properties have not been directly soil. Grain-size distribution is generally determined by a
determined by laboratory or in-situ soil tests. combination of mechanical sieving and hydrometer
This section also contains information on soils that analyses. The finest mechanical sieve is a No. 500
should be avoided when constructing a building. which retains particles larger than 0.0010 in. (25 µm).
Thus you can’t use mechanical sieving to study particles
5.3.2 Soil Separates smaller than the largest silt-sized grains. Figure 5-5
shows a grain-size distribution curve along with soil size
Soil separates are specific ranges of particle (a.k.a. grain)
classifications, U.S. standard sieve sizes, and D60, D30,
sizes. In the U.S., the four main soil separates are
and D10 particle sizes. The D10 size is referred to as the
gravels, sands, silts and clays. Virtually all soil
effective size of the soil. The ratio of D60 to D10 is
classification systems define clays as particles having
defined as the uniformity coefficient, CU.
diameters less than 0.00008 inches (0.002 mm). The

Dividing the square of D30 by the product of D60 and D10 type of clay mineral present and water moisture content,
yields the coefficient of curvature, CC. the density of cohesionless soils depends on grain shape,
grain size distribution, and the relative position (packing)
Soil
 Gravel Sand Silt Clay of the grains.
Sizes
U.S. Standard
Sieve Sizes 5.3.6 Atterberg Limits
No. 100
No. 200
No. 40
No. 10
No. 20
No. 4
In 1911, in an effort to better characterize the behavior of
100 fine-grained soils, Swedish chemist Albert Atterberg
defined three soil moisture contents (dry basis, %) that
80 he called the liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage
Percent Finer
limit. These limits where later refined by Arthur

60
Casagrande. The liquid limit (LL) is the moisture
40 content (MC) above which soil behaves as a viscous
D60
liquid, the plastic limit (PL) is the MC below which soil
20
D30 behaves as a semisolid, and the shrinkage limit (SL) is
the MC below which there is no more volume change.
0
D10 The difference between the liquid and plastic limits is
2.00
0.002
0.001
4.75
0.850
0.420
0.150
0.075
0.010
10
called the plasticity index (PI). The relationships

Particle Size (mm)
between Atterberg limits as a function of moisture
content are illustrated in figure 5-6. Procedures for
Figure 5-5. Grain size distribution curve showing defining Atterberg limits are covered in ASTM D4943
soil size classifications, U.S. standard sieve sizes, and ASTM D 4318.
and D60, D30, and D10 particle sizes.
5.3.4 Fine- Versus Coarse-Grained Soils

If more than 50% of a soil (by mass) is comprised of
gravel- and sand-sized particles, the soil is categorically
referred to as a coarse-grained soil. Conversely, if more Figure 5-6. Relationship between Atterberg Limits.
than half of the soil mass consists of clay- and silt-sized
particles, the soil is considered a fine-grained soil.
A large difference between the liquid and plastic limits
5.3.5 Cohesive Versus Cohesionless Soils (i.e., a high plasticity index) means that the soil behaves
as a plastic over a wide range of moisture contents. This
Soils with individual grains that stick together are called
is an indication that the soil contains more smectite type
cohesive soils. Those soils whose particles do not stick
clay minerals and will undergo measurable expansion
together are referred to as cohesionless soils.
and contraction as it absorbs and desorbs water. Clays
The properties of cohesive soils are influenced by clay with a high plasticity index (PI) are called fat clays, and
minerals (do not confuse clay minerals with clay-sized those with a low PI are called lean clays (figure 5-7).
particles). Clay minerals result from the weathering of
Fat Clay - High PI
other minerals, mainly feldspar, mica and
ferromagnesian minerals. Since they are the end- Solid Semisolid Plastic Liquid
products of the weathering of different rock minerals,
clay minerals are quite resistant to further change by
weathering. Clay minerals consists of a large number of PI
Lean Clay - Low PI
very tiny flat plates, stacked together but separated by Plastic
thin layers of water that contain dissolved ions. The Solid Semisolid Liquid
most common clay minerals are kaolinite, illite, and
smectites. It is important to note that these three clay Figure 5-7. The difference between fat and lean clays
minerals have very different properties. is defined by the magnitude of their plasticity index.
Cohesionless soils (a.k.a. non cohesive soils) are those

that do not exhibit cohesion. Sand- and gravel-sized 5.3.7 Organic Soils
particles do not exhibit cohesion, and thus most coarse-
Soils that contain vegetative matter are called organic
grained soils are cohesionless soils. Whereas the density
soils. While organic soils are great for growing crops,
of cohesive soils is largely dependent on the
never place a building foundation on them.

Organic soils are dark or drab shades of gray, brown & 5.3.9 Unified Soil Classification System
black. They have a very distinct odor that can be revived (USCS)
upon wetting. The liquid limit of a soil containing
substantial amounts of organic matter decreases The USCS separates soils into 15 major groups in
dramatically when the soil is oven-dried before testing. accordance with the criteria outlined in Table 5-1. The
Thus a comparison of the liquid limit of a sample before diagram in figure 5-8 is required for this classification.
and after oven-drying is used as a qualitative measure of Each group has a two letter designation. The first letter
a soil’s organic matter content (see Table 5-1). identifies the predominate soil type: G = gravel, S =
sand, M = silt, C = clay, O = organic, and PT = peat.
5.3.8 Expansive Soils The second letter provides additional information: W =
Soils that shrink and swell to extremes are called well graded, P = poorly graded, M = coarse material with
expansive soils, swelling soils, heaving soils, and/or nonplastic fines or fines with low plasticity, C = coarse
volume change soils. In regions that are generally wet, material with plastic fines, L = liquid limit less than
such soils are referred to as shrinkable soils since 50%, and H = liquid limit above 50%.
problems occur in wet areas when things start to dry out. An overview of Table 5-1 shows that a particle size
In general, soils with a plasticity index (PI) between 20 distribution curve, liquid limit and plastic limit are all
and 40 have moderate expansive properties. Those with that are needed to classify soils in accordance with the
PIs between 40 and 60 are highly expansive, and those Unified Soil Classification System.
with a PI greater than 60 are very expansive.
5.3.10 Backfill Materials
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 states that soil with an expansion
index greater than 20, as determined in accordance with Backfill properties can have a significant impact on
ASTM D 422, is considered expansive and should be post/pier foundation behavior. Common backfill
avoided. A soil is also considered expansive if it meets materials include excavated soil, coarse-grained soils,
both of the following criteria. concrete, and controlled low-strength material (CLSM).
1. Plasticity index (PI) of 15 or greater, determined in Except as excluded in section 5.3.8, excavated soil can
accordance with ASTM D 4318. generally be used for backfill. In the special case where
holes are drilled in clay, it may be preferable to backfill
2. More than 10 per cent of the soil particles are less than with the excavated clay instead of a coarse-grained
5 micrometers in size, determined in accordance with material for frost heave reasons. In all cases, excavated
ASTM D 422. material used as backfill should be compacted to its pre-
excavation density and should be free of organic material
and construction debris.
Figure 5-8. Plot used to differentiate between high and low PI soils for the Unified
Soil Classification System (see Table 5-1).

Table 5-1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) from ASTM D 2487
Criteria for Assigning Group Symbols and Names Using Laboratory Tests Group
Typical Names
(Based on material passing the 3-inch (75 mm) sieve) Symbol
Well-graded gravels and gravel-
Gravels Clean Gravels CU > 4 and 1 < CC < 3 B GW
sand mixtures, little or no fines
50% or more (Less than 5%
Poorly graded gravels and gravel-
of course finesA) CU < 4 and/or 1 > CC > 3 B GP
sand mixtures, little or no fines
fraction
Fines classify as ML or Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt
retained on Gravels with Fines GMD
MH mixtures
Course- the No. 4 (more than 12%
Fines classify as CL or Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay
Grained Soils sieve finesA) GCD
CH mixtures
More than 50%
Well-graded sands and gravelly
retained on the Clean Sands CU > 6 and 1 < CC < 3 B SW
Sands sands, little or no fines
No. 200 sieve (Less than 5%
50% or more Poorly graded sands and gravelly
finesC) CU < 6 and/or 1 > CC > 3 B SP
of course sands, little or no fines
fraction Fines classify as ML or
Sands with Fines SMD Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
passes the No. MH
(More than 12%
4 sieve Fines classify as CL or
finesC) SCD Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures
CH
PI > 7 and plots on or Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock
ML
above “A” line four, silty or clayey fine sands
Silts and Inorganic
Clays Inorganic clays of low to medium
PI < 4 or plots below “A”
Liquid Limit CL plasticity, gravelly/sandy/silty/lean
line
less than 50% clays
Oven dried liquid limit
Fine-Grained Organic silts and organic silty clays
Organic divided by regular liquid OL
Soils of low plasticity
limit is less than 0.75
50% or more
passes the No. Inorganic silts, micaceous or
PI plots on or above “A”
200 sieve MH diatomaceous fine sands or silts,
line
elastic silts
Silts and Inorganic
Clays Inorganic clays or high plasticity,
PI plots below “A” line CH
Liquid Limit fat clays
50% or more
Oven dried liquid limit
Organic clays of medium to high
Organic divided by regular liquid OH
plasticity
limit is less than 0.75
Peat, muck, and other highly
Highly Organic Soils Primarily organic matter, dark in color, and organic odor PT
organic soils
A
Gravels with 5 to 12% fines require dual symbols: GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt; GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay; GP-
GM poorly graded gravel with silt; GP-GC poorly graded gravel with clay.
B
CU = Uniformity Coefficient = D60/D10 CC = Coefficient of Curvature =(D30)2/(D60 D10)
C
Sands with 5 to 12% fines require dual symbols: SW-SM well-graded sand with silt; SW-SC well-graded sand with clay; SP-SM
poorly graded sand with silt; SP-SC poorly graded sand with clay.
D
If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual symbol GC-GM or SC-SM
Replacing excavated material with a gravel or well- frost heaving.

graded sand may be necessary where greater soil strength
Where CLSM is used to increase the effective width of a
and stiffness are needed. Compact all backfill by
post/pier for lateral strength of a post/pier foundation, a
tamping layers that do not exceed a thickness of 8 inches
CLSM unconfined compressive strength greater than 150
(0.2 m).
lbf/in2 (1 MPa) is essential. CLSM with an unconfined
Cast-in-place concrete and controlled low-strength compressive strength less than 150 lbf/in2 can generally
material (CLSM) are more expensive, but can be excavated (broken up) using hand tools (e.g. shovels,
significantly enhance the lateral strength of a foundation. picks) and machinery (e.g. excavators, backhoes) fitted
This is because the width, b, of a foundation for lateral with conventional buckets. Percussive devices such as
strength analysis is equated to the diameter of the jackhammers, impact hammers and rotary drills are
concrete or CLSM backfill. Note that concrete and generally required to break up CLSM with unconfined
CLSM placed against soil may increase the potential for compressive strengths greater than 150 lbf/in2.

5.4 Engineering Properties of Soil

5.4.1 General 5.4.3.1 Sampling Location and Depth
The primary soil properties utilized in post and pier For uplift and lateral strength assessments, soil sampling
foundation design include: Young's modulus for soil, ES; and in-situ soil tests should cover the distance between
undrained soil shear strength, SU; drained soil friction one-third and 100% of the anticipated foundation depth.
For bearing strength assessment, in-situ soil tests should
angle f'; and moist unit weight, γ. In this section
be taken at a location between the anticipated footing
presumptive values for these properties are presented
base and a distance B below the anticipated footing
along with equations for calculating the properties from
depth.
standard laboratory and in-situ tests.
A minimum site investigation generally includes at least
5.4.2 Presumptive Soil Properties three borings, usually combined with standard
Table 5-2 contains presumptive soil properties as penetration testing. For a rectangular structure, a boring
tabulated in ANSI/ASABE EP486.2. These values may at each corner and one in the center of the structure is
be used in the absence of satisfactory soil test data or recommended, with more required depending on soil
specific building code requirements. complexity and variability, and the size and importance
of the structure.
Data tabulated in Table 5-2 are unfactored values for use
with the resistance and safety factors presented in 5.4.4 Young’s Modulus for Soil, ES.
Section 5.7. Because the values in Table 5-2 have not
Young’s modulus, ES, is used to predict the lateral
been pre-adjusted to account for a margin of safety in
movement of a foundation. ES can be determined from
design, they will appear to be less conservative than data
laboratory tests or from in-situ soil tests. In general, it is
appearing in many presumptive soil property tables.
best to reserve laboratory tests for backfills; that is,
Since the range of possible void ratios in silts (types ML highly disturbed materials without a stress history. ES
and MH soils) and gravels (types GW and GP soils) is for non-backfill materials is generally best estimated
relatively small, the unit weights for these soils do not using field (in-situ) tests because of the significance of
largely change with variations in consistency, and thus stress history on ES and the difficulty of obtaining
have been assigned constant values in Table 5-2. undisturbed soil samples for laboratory testing.
5.4.3 Soil Tests Common laboratory tests include triaxial compression
tests conducted in accordance with ASTM D2166 and
Either laboratory or in-situ testing or a combination of D2850. Es for most cohesive soils can also be
laboratory and in-situ testing can be used to obtain all determined using an unconfined compression test in
necessary information needed for post/pier foundation accordance with ASTM D3080.
design.
In-situ tests for ES include prebored pressuremeter tests
Site-specific soil test results almost always result in (PBPMT), cone penetration tests (CPT), and standard
higher design values than would be obtained using Table penetration tests (SPT).
5-2 values. This is because presumptive values are the
lowest values associated with a broad classification of When a prebored pressuremeter test is used, ES can be
soils, each at their minimum strength conditions. calculated as:
Additionally, soil tests remove uncertainty associated
ES = (EO + ER) / 2
with use of presumptive soil properties, and thus lower
factors of safety are associated with calculations where where: EO is the pressuremeter first load modulus and ER
soil characteristics have been ascertained through test. is the pressuremeter reload modulus calculated in
accordance ASTM D4719.
Since certain soil tests are more accurate than others for
obtaining a specific soil property, factors of safety are a When a cone penetrometer test is used, ES for sandy soils
function of soil test method. Test procedures deemed the can be calculated as:
most accurate for obtaining various soil properties can be
ES = 1.5 qcr for silts, sands and silty sands
determined by a comparison of factor of safety values
presented in Section 5.7. ES = 2 qcr for young, normally consolidated sands
When establishing soil properties, assume that all ES = 3 qcr for aged, normally consolidated sands
cohesive soils will be loaded undrained, even under long-
ES = 4 qcr for sand and gravel
term static loadings, and that all cohesionless soils will
be loaded drained, even under rapid loadings such as where: qcr is the average cone resistance determined in
those resulting from earthquakes and wind forces. accordance with ASTM D3441.

Table 5-2. Presumptive Soil Properties for Post and Pier Foundation Design from ANSI/ASAE EP486.2
Increase in
Drained Young's Young's
Undrained Pois-
Moist soil modulus modulus per
Unified soil shear son's
unit friction for unit depth
Soil strength(b), ratio(f),
Soil Type Consistency weight, g angle(a), soil(c)(d), below
Classifi- SU ν
f' ES grade(c)(d)(e),
cation AE
lbf lbf
lbf/ft3 deg lbf/in2 lbf/in2
in2-ft in3
Soft 125 3.5 3920 - -
Homogeneous inorganic
CL Medium to Stiff 130 NA 7 6160 - - 0.5
clay, sandy or silty clay
Very Stiff to Hard 135 14 8400 - -
Soft 110 3.5 1680 - -
Homogeneous inorganic
CH Medium to stiff 115 NA 7 2800 - - 0.5
clay of high plasticity
Very Stiff to Hard 120 14 4480 - -
Inorganic silt, sandy or Soft 3.5 3920 - -
clayey silt, varved silt- Medium to stiff 7 6160 - -
ML 120 NA 0.5
clay-fine sand of low
plasticity Very Stiff to Hard 14 8400 - -
Inorganic silt, sandy or Soft 3.5 1680 - -
clayey silt, varved silt- Medium to stiff 7 2800 - -
MH 105 NA 0.5
clay-fine sand of high
plasticity Very Stiff to Hard 14 4480 - -
SM, SC, Loose 105 30 - 440 37
SP-SM,
Silty or clayey fine to
SP-SC, Medium to Dense 110 35 NA - 660 55 0.3
coarse sand
SW-SM
SW-SC Very Dense 115 40 - 880 73
Loose 115 30 - 880 73
Clean sand with little
SW, SP Medium to Dense 120 35 NA - 1320 110 0.3
gravel
Very Dense 125 40 - 1760 147
Gravel, gravel-sand Loose 35 - 2640 220
mixture, boulder-gravel GW, GP Medium to Dense 135 40 NA - 3520 293 0.3
mixtures Very Dense 45 - 4400 367
Well-graded mixture of Loose 120 35 - 1320 110
fine- and coarse-grained GW-GC Medium to Dense 125 40 - 1760 147
NA 0.3
soil: glacial till, hardpan, GC, SC
Very Dense 130 45 - 2200 183
boulder clay
(a)
Rapid undrained loading will typically be the critical design scenario in these soils. Laboratory testing is recommended to assess clay
friction angle for drained loading analysis.
(b)
Loading assumed slow enough that sandy soils behave in a drained manner.
(c)
Estimate of stiffness at a rotation of 1o for use in approximating structural load distribution. Use values that are 1/3 of the tabulated
values for serviceability limit state evaluations.
(d)
Constant values of stiffness used for calculation of clay response. Stiffness increasing with depth from a value of zero used for
calculation of sand response.
(e)
Assumes soil is located below the water table. Double the tabulated AE value for soils located above the water table.
(f)
Poisson ratio of 0.5 (no volume change) assumes rapid undrained loading conditions.

When a standard penetrometer is used, ES in lbf/in2 can to the cohesion intercept of the failure envelope drawn
be assumed to equal 56 (N1)60 for silts, sandy silts, and tangent to the Mohr’s circle for all individual tests.
slightly cohesive soils; 97 (N1)60 for clean fine to
Three in-situ tests used to determine undrained soil shear
medium sands and slightly silty sands; 140 (N1)60 for
strength are the prebored pressuremeter test, the cone
coarse sands and sands with little gravel; and 170 (N1)60
penetration test and the field vane test.
for sandy gravel and gravels. (N1)60 is the N60 blow
count normalized with respect to vertical effective stress When the prebored pressuremeter test is used, SU is
and is given as: equated to 0.41 pL0.75 where both SU and pL are given in
lbf/in2 and pL is the limit pressure determined in
(N1)60 = N60 (pA/ σ’v)1/2
accordance with ASTM D4719.
where: N60 is the NSPT blow count corrected for field
Where a cone penetrometer is used, SU is equated to
procedures and equipment; pA is atmospheric pressure
0.037 qcr where qcr is average cone resistance determined
(2090 lbf/ft2); and σ’v is vertical effective stress. The SPT
in accordance with ASTM D3441.
blow count NSPT is determined for clayey soils in
accordance with ASTM D1586 and for sandy soils in When a field vane test is conducted, SU of cohesive soils
accordance with ASTM D6066. is determined directly from the torque applied to the vane
shear device in accordance with ASTM D2573.
Young’s modulus for soil can also be estimated from
undrained shear strength, SU. For soft sensitive clay, ES 5.4.6 Soil Friction Angle, f
ranges from 400 SU to 1000 SU. For medium stiff to stiff
clay, ES ranges from 1500 SU to 2400 SU. For very stiff Soil friction angle largely controls the strength of
clay, ES ranges from 3000 SU to 4000 SU cohesionless soils. It is required to calculate the uplift
resistance, U, provided by a cohesionless soil. When
The presumptive values in Table 5-2 assume that ES is ultimate bearing capacity, qB, is not determined via in-
constant with depth for silts and clays, and increases situ tests, f is used in the general bearing capacity
linearly with depth for sands and gravels. To calculate equation to determine qB of cohesionless soils. Likewise,
ES for sands and gravels, multiple the AE value in the f is used to calculate the ultimate lateral resistance
second last column of Table 5-2 by depth, z. In equation pressure, pU, where pU has not been determined by in-situ
form: testing.
ES,z = AE z (5-1) The primary laboratory tests used to determine friction
where: angle f of a cohesionless soil are the direct shear test
which is conducted in accordance with ASTM D3080
ES,z = ES that is equal to zero at grade and increases and the consolidated-drained (CD) triaxial compression
linearly with depth z below grade, lbf/in2 (kPa) test.
AE = increase in Young’s modulus per unit increase
in depth z below grade, lbf/in3 (kN/m3) In-situ tests for soil friction angle include the standard
z = depth below grade, in (m) penetration test and the cone penetration test.
5.4.5 Undrained Shear Strength, SU When the standard penetration test is conducted on sandy
soils, the soil friction angle is calculated as:
Undrained soil shear strength is used to calculate bearing
capacity, uplift resistance and lateral strength in cohesive f = [20 (N1)60]0.5 + 20
soils. Like Young’s modulus, undrained shear strength where:
can be determined from both laboratory and in-situ
testing. (N1)60 = N60 (pA/ σ’v)1/2
For a cohesive soil, undrained soil strength is determined and (N1)60 is the N60 blow count normalized with respect
using an unconfined compressive strength test in to vertical effective stress; N60 is the NSPT blow count
accordance with ASTM D2166 or an unconsolidated- corrected for field procedures and equipment; pA is
undrained triaxial compression test in accordance with atmospheric pressure (2090 lbf/ft2); and σ’v is vertical
ASTM D2850. The primary result of ASTM D2166 is effective stress.
the unconfined compressive strength of the soil, qu. The When the cone penetrometer is used in sandy soils,
undrained shear strength, SU, as determined using ASTM friction angle is calculated as:
D2166, is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive
strength qu. ASTM D2850 does not directly produce the f = 17.6 + 11.0 log [qcr /(pA σ’v )0.5]
value for undrained shear strength SU. To determine SU
where: qcr is average cone resistance; pA is atmospheric
using ASTM D2850, several (typically three) tests are
pressure (2090 lbf/ft2); and σ’v is vertical effective stress.
required at different confining pressures, and SU is equal

5.4.7 Moist Unit Weight, γ such geometric conditions, arch action ensures footing
tensile stresses are minimal under critical bearing loads.
Vertical and lateral soil resisting pressures increase with For example, if a post with actual dimensions of 4.5- by
increases in soil unit weight (i.e., density) and depth. 5.5-inches is centered on a footing with a diameter of 14
This is because soil confinement pressures increase as inches, reinforcement would not be required as long as
both of these variables increase. the footing had a nominal thickness of at least 7 inches –
Soil moist unit weight is generally determined in 4.5 inches/2 = 4.75 inches (i.e., the footing radius minus
accordance with ASTM D2937 Standard Test Method half the narrow dimension of the post). In this case, the
for Density of Soil in Place by the Drive-Cylinder 4.75 inches is guaranteed by the required minimum
Method or ASTM D1587 Standard Practice for Thin- nominal thickness of 8 inches for plain cast-in-place
Walled Tube Sampling of Soils for Geotechnical footings.
Purposes. Where the preceding edge distance requirement is not
Moisture content should always accompany any met, the need for reinforcement shall be determined in
measurement of unit weight. The two most common accordance with ACI 318 Chapter 15.
procedures for determining soil moisture content are
5.5.4. Precast Concrete Footings
ASTM D2216 Test Methods for Laboratory
Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil and In accordance with ANSI/ASAE EP486.2, the actual
Rock by Mass and ASTM D4643 Test Method for thickness of unreinforced (plain) precast footing that is
Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by placed on a flat, compacted base shall not be less than 4
Microwave Oven Heating inch. Load-induced forces may dictate a thicker footing.
Also, the thickness of a footing shall be such that the
5.5 Foundation Material Properties concrete provides a minimum cover of 1.5 inches above
and below any required steel reinforcement.
5.5.1 General
Precast concrete footings do not require steel
This section contains material requirements for post and
reinforcement when the actual maximum distance from a
pier foundation elements. Elements not specifically
precast footing edge to the nearest post/pier edge is less
addressed by the following requirements shall be
than 1.25 times the actual thickness of the footing. This
designed in accordance with applicable normative
is because under such geometric conditions, arch action
references, building codes, standards, and good
ensures footing tensile stresses are minimal under critical
engineering judgment.
bearing loads. For example, if a post with actual
5.5.2 Minimum Concrete Compressive dimensions of 4.5- by 5.5 inches is centered on a precast
Strength footing with a diameter of 14 inches, reinforcement
would not be required as long as the footing had a
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 requires that all concrete used in nominal thickness greater than (7 inches – 4.5
footings, posts and piers have a minimum 28-day inches/2)/1.25 = 3.8 inches. In this case, the 3.8 inches is
compressive strength of 3000 lbf/in2. This requirement guaranteed by the required minimum actual thickness of
is consistent with ACI 318 Building Code Requirements 4 inches established for precast footings.
for Structural Concrete and is important for application
of the prescriptive minimum plain concrete footings sizes The 1.25 factor in the preceding calculation compensates
presented in Sections 5.5.3 and 5.5.4. for the fact that the maximum distance from a footing
edge to the nearest post/pier edge is used in the
5.5.3 Cast-in-Place Concrete Footings calculation. This maximum distance is generally
The minimum nominal thickness allowed for an measurably greater than the average distance between
unreinforced (plain) footing that is cast-in-place on a the edge of the footing and the nearest post/pier edge.
compacted base is 8 inches. Load-induced forces may The 1.25 factor is not allowed in the design of cast-in-
dictate a thicker footing. Also, the thickness of a footing place footings because of greater variation in the actual
shall be such that the concrete provides a minimum cover size of cast-in-place footings, and because once they
of 3 inches above and below any required steel have been cast, cast-in-place footings cannot be shifted
reinforcement. to improve alignment with the posts/piers they support.
Cast-in-place concrete footings do not require steel When sizing reinforcement for larger precast footings,
reinforcement when the actual maximum distance from a the design must consider the extent and location of
footing edge to the nearest post/pier edge is less than the contact between the base of the placed footing and the
nominal thickness of the footing. This is because under underlying compacted base.

5.5.5 Concrete Piers 5.5.8 CLSM Base for Precast Concrete and
Axial, shear and bending forces in most concrete piers Wood Footings
are such that the assemblies must be treated as structural A controlled low-strength material (CLSM) placed
columns. ACI 318 clause 22.2.2 requires that all between the bottom of a precast concrete or wood
structural columns contain reinforcement and thus be footing and the underlying soil can be used to increase
designed in accordance with Chapters 10, 11 and 12 of the effective bearing area of the footing when its
the ACI code. unconfined compressive strength exceeds the ultimate
ACI 318 clause 10.9.1 requires that the cross-sectional bearing capacity of the underlying soil.
area of longitudinal reinforcement not be less than 1.0 In lieu of using a CLSM base for footings, some builders
percent of the gross cross-sectional area of the concrete. have compacted a non-hydrated (i.e., dry) concrete mix
ACI 318 clause 10.9.2 requires that no less than four in the base of holes drilled for pier/post foundation
longitudinal bars be used within rectangular or circular placement. Tests conducted by Bohnhoff et al. (2003)
ties, no less than three longitudinal bars be placed within have shown that non-hydrated concrete mixes that are
triangular ties, and no less than six longitudinal bars be compacted within a soil mass and allowed to self-
enclosed with spirals. hydrate, will obtain unconfined compressive strengths
The location and size of shear reinforcement in concrete that more than double the 1160 lbf/in2 (8 MPa) limit for
piers is determined in accordance with ACI 318 Chapters classification as a controlled low-strength material.
11. Shear reinforcement is not required where tests show Non-hydrated concrete mixes that are confined below a
that the required bending strength and shear strengths footing can be assumed to have the same high bearing
can be developed when the shear reinforcement is strength as any other dry soil. Thus there is no need to
omitted. be concerned about forces placed on the footing prior to
When a concrete pier is formed by casting concrete hydration of the concrete mix.
directly against earth, a minimum concrete cover of 3 5.6 Structural Analysis
inches is required on all steel reinforcement. When
concrete is cast on site but not directly against the earth 5.6.1 Introduction
(e.g., the concrete is cast into cardboard forming tubes),
the minimum concrete cover on steel reinforcement can Structural analysis is the determination of forces induced
be reduced to 2 inches for bars No. 6 or larger (bars 19 in building components by applied structural loads. For
mm or greater in diameter) and 1.5 inches for No. 5 or post-frame buildings featuring post/pier foundation
smaller bars (bars 13 mm or smaller in diameter). systems, such structural analyses can be measurably
Minimum required concrete cover on reinforcement in influenced by horizontal deformation of the soil in
precast concrete piers (i.e., piers manufactured under contact with the posts/piers.
plant control conditions) is 1.5 inches for No. 6 or larger To account for soil deformation during the structural
bars and 1.25 inches for No. 5 or smaller bars (ACI 318 analysis of a building frame with a shallow post/pier
clause 7.7.1 and 7.7.3). foundation, the soil in contact with the foundation is
modeled with a series of horizontal springs. This
5.5.6 Embedded Wood Posts and Piers
consists of determining the effective Young’s modulus
Wood used for embedded posts and piers must be for the soils surrounding the foundation (Section 5.6.2),
preservative treated in accordance with AWPA U1 Use selecting locations for the springs that will be used to
Category UC4B. model the surrounding soil (Section 5.6.3), and then
assigning properties to the soil springs (Section 5.6.4).
Mechanically-laminated wood posts and piers shall be
An example structural analysis that utilizes soil springs is
sized in accordance with ANSI/ASAE EP559. All other
presented in Section 5.6.5.
wood posts and piers shall be sized in accordance with
ANSI/AWC NDS. Section 5.6.6 contains equations that can be used to
approximate the lateral movement of a post/pier
Fasteners used below grade in mechanically-laminated
foundation due to the application of a groundline
wood posts and piers shall meet the requirements of
bending moment MG and groundline shear force VG. Use
ANSI/ASAE EP559.
of these equations is restricted to assumption inherent in
5.5.7 Anchor Attachments their development. These assumptions are overviewed in
Section 5.6.6. An application of Section 5.6.6 equations
Fasteners used below grade to attach collars, footings is presented in Section 5.6.7.
and other devices to resist uplift forces shall have a
durability equal to the service life of the structure.

5.6.2 Effective Young’s Modulus for Soil, ESE, is equated to ES for the soil surrounding the concrete
ESE or CLSM.
The key soil property required for structural analysis of a 5.6.2.1 Example ESE Calculation
pier/post foundation is the effective Young’s modulus for
the soil, ESE. At a given depth, ESE is a function of Problem Statement
Young’s modulus of the backfill material, ES,B, and the
A post foundation consists of a 3-ply post fabricated
Young’s modulus for the surrounding unexcavated soil
from 2- by 10-inch lumber resting on a precast concrete
ES,U. In equation form:
footing. Backfill is 18 inches in diameter and classified
1 as a medium to dense SW-SM soil. The surrounding
ESE = for 0 < J < 3b (5-2a)
IS / ES,B + (1-IS)/ ES,U unexcavated soil is classified as a medium to stiff ML
soil. The water table is 2 feet below the footing. What is
ESE = ES,B for J > 3b (5-2b) ESE for the foundation at a location 3 feet below grade?
ESE = ES,U for J = 0 (5-2c)
Effective Young’s Modulus for Soil, ESE
Where: From Table 5-2, the backfill material (medium to dense
ES,B = ES for backfill at depth z SW-SM soil) has an AE value of 1320 lbf/in2/ft (note: the
ES,U = ES for the unexcavated soil surrounding the Table 5-2 value of 660 lbf/in2/ft is doubled because the
backfill at depth z soil is located above the water table). Young’s modulus
IS = strain influence factor, IS, dimensionless at a depth of 3 feet for this backfill, ES,B, is equal to the
= [ln(1 + J/b)]/1.386 for 0 < J < 3b (5-3) product of AE and 3 feet or 3960 lbf/in2. The unexcavated
J = distance (measured in the direction of laterally soil (medium to stiff ML soil) has an ES = ES,U value of
foundation movement) between the edge of the 6160 lbf/in2 that is constant with depth.
backfill and the face of the foundation With a backfill diameter of 18 inches and post side width
component at depth z (see figure 5-9) of 9.25 inches, the distance J between the edge of the
b = width of the post, collar, footing that is backfill and center of the post face is (18 in. – 9.25 in.)/2
surrounded by the backfill at depth z = 4.375 in. Substituting this into equation 5-3 along with
Direction of post/pier movement
a post face width b of 4.5 inches yields a strain influence
factor IS of 0.49. Substituting this into equation 5.2a,
Edge of backfill with an ES,B of 3960 lbf/in2 and ES,U of 6160 lbf/in2 yields
an effective Young’s modulus ESE of 4842 lbf/in2
Post/pier
5.6.3 Soil Spring Location
b
To locate soil springs, first draw horizontal sectioning
lines wherever there is an abrupt change in soil type,
backfill type, and/or width of the post/pier foundation.
w J
Each layer resulting from this sectioning must be
modeled with at least one soil spring. To determine if
more than one spring is required for a particular layer,
Figure 5-9. Top view of foundation showing distance
follow the ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 recommendation that
J between the post/pier/footing/collar and the edge of soil spring spacing t should not exceed 2w where w is the
the backfill. side width of a rectangular post/pier (see figure 5-9) or
diameter of a round post/pier.
The strain influence factor is the fraction of total lateral Locating soil springs is illustrated in Figures 5-10 and 5-
displacement that is due to soil straining within a 11. Figure 5-10 shows six soil springs being used to
distance J of the face of the foundation. model a non-constrained post in a multi-layered soil.
When the foundation is surrounded by unexcavated soil, Since the footing is not attached to the post, there is no
J = 0 and ESE = ES,U = ES of the unexcavated soil need for a soil spring to model soil in contact with the
(equation 5-2c). Such is the case when a post is driven footing. It is important to note that such an assumption
into the soil, or a helical pier is turned into the soil. ignores friction between the post and footing. Although
three springs are being used to model the resistance
Equation 5-2c also applies to those portions of a provided by each soil layer, two per layer would be
foundation that are entirely backfilled with concrete or sufficient given that the thickness of each soil layer does
controlled low-strength material (CLSM). In this case, not appear to exceed more than 4 times the width w.

is simply modeled as a non-constrained post (figure 5-
w 12(b)).
tA Post contacts
ground surface
tA restraint
d Soil A
z
tA
t
tB
dF t
Soil B tB
d
z t
tB
dF
t
Footing not
t
fastened to post
Figure 5-10. Modeling a non-constrained post in a
layered soil. Footing not attached to rest of Footing not
fastened to post
foundation.
(a)
Figure 5-11 shows the modeling of a non-constrained
post that has an attached footing and an attached collar. Post moves away
Note that individual springs are required for both the from potential ground
footing and the collar because they each have different surface restraint
widths relative to the post.
t
w t
d
z t
t
dF
t
t
t
d
z t
dF
Footing fastened tF
t to post
Collar tC (b)
Footing tF Figure 5-12. Modeling an embedded post abutting

a slab-on-grade when the post moves (a) toward
Footing fastened the slab, and (b) away from the slab.
to base of post
Figure 5-11. Modeling soil behavior when both 5.6.4 Soil Spring Properties
footing and collar are attached to the post
All soil springs are assumed to exhibit linear-elastic
In addition soil springs, other restraints ssociated with behavior until a point of soil failure is reached, at which
post/pier foundation modeling include placement of a point the force in the soil spring stays constant as the
horizontal roller support at the foundation base as shown spring undergoes additional deformation. A graphical
in Figures 5-10 and 5-11. Such a support ignores friction depiction of this behavior is shown in 5-13.
between the foundation and underlying soil. The initial stiffness, KH, of an individual soil spring
Resistance provided by surface restraint(s) must also be located at depth z is given as
modeled. Figure 5-12 shows an embedded post that abuts KH = 2.0 t ESE (5-4)
a slab-on-grade. To model the restraint that the slab
provides when the post moves toward the slab, the slab is Where:
modeled as a vertical roller support (figure 5-12(a)). t = thickness of the soil layer represented by the
Because the slab only abuts the inside of the post and is spring, in. (m)
not attached to the post, it does not apply a force to the ESE = effective Young’s modulus for soil at depth z,
post when the post moved away from the slab, and thus lbf/in2 (kN/m2)

Elastic Yielding ignored of 1000 lbf are applied to the post foundation at the
region groundline, what is the resulting rotation and lateral
Fult displacement of the post foundation at the groundline?
1 Spring Location
Plastic region
Spring Force, F
KH Two depths are associated with an abrupt change in soil

Fult = pu,z t b and/or post design properties that will affect spring
location: a change in soil type at a depth of 30 inches,
KH = 2.0 t ESE
and a change in foundation width from 5.5 inches to 12
inches at a depth of 42.5 inches.
Spring Compression/Extension, ∆ z The post side width w of 5.5 inches equates to a

maximum spring spacing of 11 inches (i.e., t < 2w). To
Figure 5-13. Load-displacement relationship for a soil meet this maximum spacing requires a minimum of six
spring. springs located as shown in Figure 5-14.
For structural analyses used to determine load
distribution within a building frame, yielding of soil
springs is ignored. In other words, the stiffness of a soil 5.5 in. x 5.5
in. post MG = 20,000 in-lbf
spring is assumed to equal KH regardless of the load VG = 1000 lbf
applied to the spring. Thus, the value of Fult displayed in
10.0 in. 1
figure 5-13 is not needed during the structural analysis Medium
phase of the design process. to stiff
ML clay 30 in. 10.0 in. 2
Ignoring soil spring yielding during structural analyses is
consistent with the modeling of steel frame members and 3
10.0 in.
all other components that do not exhibit linear-elastic
behavior at high loads. The sole purpose of a structural 6.0 in. 4
Medium
analysis is to determine load distribution under service to dense
18 in.
6.5 in. 5
load conditions. When properly sized, no component SW sand
5.5 in. 6
(soil, steel, or otherwise) should be loaded to levels near
those associated with plastic behavior or failure.
The equation 5-4 relationship between soil spring Footing not fastened to post
stiffness and the effective Young’s modulus for soil is 1.5 in. x 5.5 in. x 12 in. block, typ.
purely empirical. Selection of the 2.0 value appearing in
equation 5-4 is explained in the ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Figure 5-14. Non-constrained post foundation and
Commentary. corresponding spring analog.
5.6.5. Example Structural Analysis with Soil Presumptive Soil Properties

Springs
From Table 5-2, the medium to stiff ML silt has a
Young’s modulus of 6160 lbf/in2, and the medium to
Problem Statement dense SW sand has an AE value of 110 (lbf/in2)/in. This
A nominal 6- by 6-inch No.2 SP post is embedded 4 feet. AE value is doubled to 220 (lbf/in2)/inch because the soil
It rests on a concrete footing but is not attached to the represented by the springs is all located above the water
footing. Two nominal 2- by 6-inch wood blocks, 12 table (see Table 5-2 footnote (e)).
inches in length, are bolted to each side of the base of the The mixture of approximately 2.5 feet of ML silt with
post to increase the uplift resistance and lateral strength approximately 2 feet of SW sand is likely to produce a
capacity of the foundation. The top 2.5 feet of soil are backfill that would grade out as a silty sand (SM).
classified as medium to stiff ML silts. The next several Determination of the exact designation would require
feet of soil below this clay layer are classified as medium knowledge of the particle size distributions of the ML
to dense SW sands. The water table is located 7 to 8 feet and SW soils prior to mixing. Hand compaction of this
below grade. Backfill is a mixture of the ML silt and backfill in 6-inch lifts should provide a medium to dense
SW sand removed by the 18-inch diameter auger used to consistency. From Table 5-2, a medium to dense SM
form the post hole. The mixture is compacted by hand in soil has an AE of 55 (lbf/in2)/in, which is doubled to 110
6- inch lifts. (lbf/in2)/inch because the backfill is located entirely
If a bending moment of 20,000 in-lbf and a shear force above the water table.

ESU and KH Calculations figure 5-16). For KH values in lbf/inch, this can be
Width of
achieved by (1) positioning element nodes so they are
Thickness of exactly an inch apart, (2) setting the element’s cross-
Distance from foundation at
Spring soil layer
number represented, t
surface, z spring sectional area equal to exactly one square inch, and (3)
location, b setting the element’s E value in lbf/in 2equal to the
inches inches inches numeric value of spring stiffness KH in lbf/inch.
1 10 5 5.5
2 10 15 5.5 Horizontal Displacement, inches
3 10 25 5.5
4 6 33 5.5 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
5 6.5 39.25 5.5 0
6 5.5 45.25 12
Increase in Young’s
1
Young’s Modulus
Modulus with Depth
Spring Unexca- Unexca- 10
Distance Below Grade, inches

Backfill, Backfill,
number vated Soil, vated Soil,
AE,B ES,B
AE,U ES,U 2
lbf/in2/in lbf/in2/in. lbf/in2 lbf/in2
1 - 110 6160 550
2 - 110 6160 1650 20
3 - 110 6160 2750
4 220 110 7260 3630 3
5 220 110 8635 4318
6 220 110 9955 4978 30
4
Effective Horizontal
Backfill Strain
Young’s spring
Spring thickness, Influence
Modulus, stiffness,
number J Factor, Is
ESE KH 40 5
2
inches - lbf/in lbf/in
1 6.25 0.548 935 18700 6
2 6.25 0.548 2467 49300
3 6.25 0.548 3669 73400 50
4 6.25 0.548 4691 56300
5 6.25 0.548 5579 72500 Figure 5-15. Displaced shape of the post foundation
6 4.75 0.449 6870 75600 model shown in figure 5-14.
Structural Analysis
Spring with stiffness KH
The model shown in Figure 5-14 was analyzed using IES
Inc.’s VisualAnalysis program (VA, 2013) with the No.2 Pinned-end element
SP post assigned an E value of 1.2 million lbf/in2. The with AE / L = KH
predicted displaced shape of the foundation post under
the 20,000 lbf-in groundline bending moment and 1000
Figure 5-16. Two equivalent ways to model the lateral
lbf groundline shear force is shown in figure 5-15. resisting force of soil.
Groundline displacement and rotation were found to be
0.093 inches and 0.4 degrees, respectively.
Like most commercially available structural analysis 5.6.6 Equations for Approximating Lateral
programs, VisualAnalysis contains a special spring Foundation Displacements and Soil
element that makes modeling of soil behavior a very Pressures
straight forward process (you simply input the node and
The lateral displacement of the below-grade portion of a
direction for spring application along with spring
post/pier foundation and associated soil pressures
stiffness).
induced by a groundline bending moment MG and
In lieu of a special spring element, the resisting force groundline shear VG can be estimated using equations in
applied to a post by soil can be modeled with a pinned- Sections 5.6.6.1 through 5.6.6.4. During the derivation
end element (a.k.a. a truss element) by equating the axial of these equations, the following simplifying
stiffness of the element (AE/L) to spring stiffness KH (see assumptions were made:

1. The below-grade portion of the foundation has an
9VG d + 12MG
infinite flexural rigidity (EI). ∆=
2. Unexcavated soil and backfill is homogeneous for d 3 AE
the entire embedment depth. pz = 6z(6MG z/d + 4VG z – 3d VG – 4MG)/(d 3b)
3. Effective Young’s modulus for the soil, ESE, is either
constant for all depths below grade or linearly y P
increases with depth below grade.
4. Width of the below-grade portion of the foundation
z MG
is constant. This generally means that there are no Ground surface
VG
attached collars, uplift anchors or footings that are
effective in resisting lateral soil forces.
The first of the preceding simplifying assumptions - that Post or pier
the below-grade portion of the foundation is infinitely dR Soil
stiff - is assumed to hold where soil stiffness is assumed forces
to increase linearly with depth and: d Point of zero lateral
displacement
d < 2{E I /(2AE)} 0.20 (5-5) (pivot point)
or, where soil stiffness is assumed constant with depth Soil with ES that
and: increases linearly
d < 2{E I /(2ESE)} 0.25 (5-6) Soil forces with depth z
Where: d is depth of embedment; EI is flexural rigidity
of the post/pier foundation; ESE is effective Young’s
modulus of the soil; and AE is the linear increase in P
effective Young’s modulus with depth below grade. Figure 5-17. Forces acting on a non-constrained
Other variables appearing in Sections 5.6.6.1 through post/pier of fixed width b when ESE increases
5.6.6.4 include: linearly with depth.
MG = bending moment applied to foundation at

5.6.6.2 Constrained posts/piers with linearly
grade (a.k.a. groundline bending moment)
VG = shear force applied to foundation at grade increasing ESE (figure 5-18)
(a.k.a. groundline shear force) y P
∆ = horizontal displacement of foundation at grade
= 0 (zero) for surface-constrained foundation MG
z
θ = rotation of the infinitely stiff foundation Ground surface VG
dR = depth from the ground surface to the pivot R
point for foundation rotation Restraint
= depth below the ground surface at which
foundation does not displace horizontally
= 0 (zero) for surface-constrained foundation Post or pier
pz = pressure applied to soil by foundation at a d with width b
depth z
Soil with ES
5.6.6.1 Non-constrained posts/piers with that
linearly increasing ESE (figure 5-17) increases
Soil forces
linearly with
The following equations assume that the post/pier depth z
foundation is not restrained at grade, and that ESE
increases linearly with soil depth, and is numerically
equal to AE z. P
Figure 5-18. Forces acting on a ground surface-

d(3VG d + 4MG)
dR = constrained post/pier of fixed width b when ESE
4VG d + 6MG increases linearly with depth.
12VG d + 18MG
θ= The following equations assume that the post/pier is
d 4AE
restrained at the groundline and that ESE increases
linearly with soil depth, and is numerically equal to AE z.

y P
2MG
θ=
d 4AE Ground
z MG
surface
pz = 4z2MG /(d 4b) VG
R
5.6.6.3 Non-constrained posts/piers with Restraint

constant ESE (figure 5-19)
P Post or pier
y
with width b
MG
z Ground surface d
VG Soil with ES
that is
Soil
Post or pier constant
forces Soil forces
with width b with depth z
dR
Soil with ES that
does not change d
with depth z P
Figure 5-20. Forces acting on a ground surface-

Point of zero lateral constrained post/pier of fixed width b when ESE is
displacement (pivot constant with depth.
point)
5.6.7 Example Analyses

P Problem Statement 1
Figure 5-19. Forces acting on a non-constrained A non-constrained nominal 6- by 6-inch solid-sawn post
post/pier of fixed width b when ESE is constant with with a modulus of elasticity of 1.2 million lbf/in2 rests
depth. on a precast footing. The surrounding material (soil and
backfill) has an effective Young’s modulus that
The following equations assume that the post/pier increases 155 lbf/in2 per inch of embedment depth (i.e.,
foundation is non-constrained and that ESE remains AE = 155 lbf/in3). What is the maximum depth the post
constant with depth. can be embedded for the equations in Section 5.6.6 to be
fully applicable?
d(2VG d + 3MG)
dR = Solution
3VG d + 6MG
3VG d + 6MG For the equations in Section 5.6.6 to be fully applicable,
θ= the inequality expressed by equation 5-5 must be met;
d 3ESE
that is, embedment depth d must be less than or equal to
2VG d + 3MG 2{E I /(2AE)}0.20. Given a moment of inertia I of 76.25
∆= in4 for a nominal 6- by 6-inch post, the quantity
d 2ESE
2{EI/(2AE)}0.20 is equal to a relatively shallow depth of
pz = (12MG z/d + 6VG z – 4dVG – 6MG)/(d 2b) 24.8 inches.
5.6.6.4 Constrained posts/piers with Problem Statement 2

constant ESE (figure 5-20) If the post described in problem 1 is embedded 24 inches
The following equations assume that the post/pier (i.e., d = 24 inches), and a groundline bending moment
foundation is constrained at grade and ESE remains MG of 20,000 in-lbf and a groundline shear VG of 1000
constant with depth. lbf are applied to the foundation, what will be the
groundline displacement ∆ and foundation rotation θ
1.5MG assuming the soil is not overstressed.
θ=
d 3ESE
Solution
pz = 3zMG /(d 3b)
For an AE of 155 lbf/in3, Section 5.6.6.1 equations yield
a horizontal displacement ∆ of 0.21 inches, and a
foundation rotation θ of 0.0126 radians (0.72 degrees).

5.7 Governing Strength Equations VU RL > VLRFD (5-13)

U RU > PLRFD - g MF (5-14)
5.7.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
where:
For allowable stress design, the soil surrounding a
foundation has adequate strength when the following QU = Ultimate groundline bearing strength from
four inequalities are met: Section 5.8.1
MU = Ultimate groundline moment capacity (as
QU > fB PASD (5-7)
limited by soil strength) from Section 5.9
MU > f L MASD (5-8) VU = Ultimate groundline shear capacity (as limited
by soil strength) from Section 5.9
VU > f L VASD (5-9)
U = Ultimate uplift resistance due to soil mass
U > fU (PASD - g MF) (5-10) from Section 5.10
RB = LRFD resistance factor for bearing strength
where: assessment from Table 5-3
QU = Ultimate groundline bearing strength from RL = LRFD resistance factor for lateral strength
Section 5.8.1 assessment from Table 5-4 or 5-5
MU = Ultimate groundline moment capacity (as RU = LRFD resistance factor for uplift strength
limited by soil strength) from Section 5.9 assessment from Table 5-6
VU = Ultimate groundline shear capacity (as limited PLRFD = PG due to a LRFD load combination
by soil strength) from Section 5.9 MLRFD = MG due to a LRFD load combination
U = Ultimate uplift resistance due to soil mass VLRFD = VG due to a LRFD load combination
from Section 5.10 PG = axial force in foundation at the ground surface
fB = ASD factor of safety for bearing strength (at grade)
assessment from Table 5-3 MG = groundline bending moment (bending moment
fL = ASD factor of safety for lateral strength in foundation at the ground surface)
assessment from Table 5-4 or 5-5 VG = groundline shear force (shear force in
fU = ASD factor of safety for uplift strength foundation at the ground surface)
assessment from Table 5-6 g = gravitation acceleration constant, 1.0 lbf/lbm
PASD = PG due to an ASD load combination (9.81x10-3 kN/kg)
MASD = MG due to an ASD load combination MF = foundation mass
VASD = VG due to an ASD load combination Both equations 5-11 and 5-14 contain PLRFD. Equation 5-
PG = axial force in foundation at the ground surface 11 is only applicable when PLRFD is pushing down on the
(at grade) foundation at grade. Equation 5-14 is only applicable
MG = groundline bending moment (bending moment when PLRFD is pulling up on the foundation at grade.
in foundation at the ground surface)
VG = groundline shear force (shear force in 5.7.2 Safety and Resistance Factors
foundation at the ground surface)
Tables 5-3, 5-4, 5-5 and 5-6 contain resistance factors for
g = gravitation acceleration constant, 1.0 lbf/lbm
LRFD design and corresponding safety factors for ASD
(9.81x10-3 kN/kg)
design. Table 5-3 values apply to bearing strength
MF = foundation mass
assessment, Table 5-4 values apply to lateral strength
Both equations 5-7 and 5-10 contain PASD. Equation 5-7 assessment involving the Universal Method of analysis,
is only applicable when PASD is pushing down on the Table 5-5 values apply to lateral strength assessment
foundation at grade. Equation 5-10 is only applicable involving the Simplified Method of analysis, and Table
when PASD is pulling up on the foundation at grade. 5-6 values apply to uplift strength assessment.
5.7.2 Load and Resistance Factor Design For buildings and other structures that represent a low
(LRFD) risk to human life in the event of a failure (e.g.,
ASCE/SEI 7 Category I structures), resistance factors in
For load and resistance factor design, the soil Tables 5-3 through 5-6 may be increased 25 percent
surrounding a foundation has adequate strength when the (multiplied by 1.25), and corresponding safety factors
following four inequalities are met: may be reduced 20 percent (multiplied by 0.80). In all
QU RB > PLRFD (5-11) cases, the adjusted resistance factor is limited to a
maximum value of 0.93 and the adjusted safety factor is
MU RL > MLRFD (5-12) limited to a minimum value of 1.50.

Bearing, lateral and uplift capacities in cohesionless soils this reason, the equations in Tables 5-3 through 5-6 yield
increase exponentially with friction angle, and thus small a smaller LRFD resistance factor (and conversely, a
variances in estimated friction angle have an amplified larger ASD safety factor) for greater soil friction angles
effect on these capacities as friction angle increases. For f.
Table 5-3. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Bearing Strength Assessment
LRFD resistance ASD safety factor
factor for bearing for bearing
Associated
Soil Method used to determine ultimate bearing capacity qB strength strength
Section (a)
assessment, assessment,
RB fB
General bearing capacity equation with f determined from
laboratory direct shear or axial compression tests (see 0.80 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.80 - 0.01·f)
Section 5.4.6)
0.62 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.62 - 0.01·f)
SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
Cohesionless
(SP, SW, GP. 5.8.3 0.71 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.71 - 0.01·f)
GW, GW-GC, CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
GC, SC, SM, General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
0.58 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.58 - 0.01·f)
SP-SM, SP- properties from Table 5-2
SC, SW-SM, General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
SW-SC) properties from Table 5-2 with soil type verified by 0.77 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.77 - 0.01·f)
construction testing
5.8.4 Standard penetration test (SPT) 0.41 3.4
5.8.5 Cone penetration test (CPT) 0.50 2.8
5.8.6 Pressuremeter test (PMT) 0.50 2.8
General bearing capacity equation with undrained shear
strength determined from laboratory compression tests (see 0.60 2.3
Section 5.4.5)
strength determined from PBPMT data in accordance with 0.60 2.3
Section 5.4.5
strength determined from CPT data in accordance with 0.60 2.3
Cohesive 5.8.3 Section 5.4.5
(CL,CH, ML, General bearing capacity equation with undrained shear
MH) strength determined from in-situ vane tests in accordance 0.60 2.3
with Section 5.4.5
General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
0.47 3.0
properties from Table 5-2
General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
properties from Table 5-2 with soil type verified by 0.60 2.3
construction testing
5.8.5 Cone penetration test (CPT) 0.60 2.3
5.8.6 Pressuremeter test (PMT) 0.60 2.3
(a)
Section containing the qB equation to which the resistance/safety factor applies.

Table 5-4. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Lateral Strength Assessment using the
Universal Method of Analysis
LRFD resistance ASD safety factor
factor for lateral for lateral strength
Soil Method used to determine ultimate lateral soil resistance, pU,z
strength assessment, fL
assessment, RL
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with soil friction angle f determined from
0.86 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.86 - 0.01·f)
laboratory direct shear or axial compression tests (see Section 5.4.6)
Cohesionless Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with soil friction angle f determined from
0.66 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.66 - 0.01·f)
(SP, SW, GP. SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
GW, GW- Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with soil friction angle f determined from
0.76 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.76 - 0.01·f)
GC, GC, SC, CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
SM, SP-SM, Equation from Section 5.9.2.1with presumptive soil friction angle f from
SP-SC, SW- 0.61 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.61 - 0.01·f)
Table 5-2
SM, SW-SC) Equation from Section 5.9.2.11 with presumptive soil friction angle f
0.82 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.82 - 0.01·f)
from Table 5-2, with soil type verified by construction testing
Pressuremeter test (PMT) in accordance with Section 5.9.2.3 0.56 2.5
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with undrained shear strength SU
0.68 2.1
determined from laboratory compression tests (see Section 5.4.5)
0.68 2.1
determined from PBPMT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5
0.68 2.1
Cohesive determined from CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5
(CL,CH, ML, Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with undrained shear strength SU
0.68 2.1
MH) determined from in-situ vane tests in accordance with Section 5.4.5
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with presumptive undrained shear strength
0.44 3.2
SU from Table 5-2
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with presumptive undrained shear strength
0.68 2.1
SU from Table 5-2 with soil type verified by construction testing
Pressuremeter test (PMT) in accordance with Section 5.9.2.3 0.68 2.1
Table 5-5. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Lateral Strength Assessment using the
Simplified Method of Analysis
LRFD resistance
ASD safety factor for
Method used to determine required soil factor for lateral
Soil Required property lateral strength
property strength
assessment, fL
assessment, RL
Soil friction angle Laboratory direct shear or axial compression
0.83 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.83 - 0.01·f)
f for equations in tests (see Section 5.4.6)
Cohesionless (SP,
Section 5.9.3.1, SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6 0.64 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.64 - 0.01·f)
SW, GP. GW,
5.9.3.3, 5.9.3.4
GW-GC, GC, SC,
and 5.9.3.6
CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6 0.73 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.73 - 0.01·f)
SM, SP-SM, SP-
SC, SW-SM, SW-
Soil friction angle Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.60 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.60 - 0.01·f)
SC) f for equations in
Presumptive value from Table 5-2 with soil
Sections 5.9.3.1 0.80 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.80 - 0.01·f)
type verified by construction testing
and 5.9.3.4
Undrained shear Laboratory compression tests (see Section
0.64 2.2
strength SU for 5.4.5)
equations in PBPMT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.64 2.2
Sections 5.9.3.2, CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.64 2.2
Cohesive 5.9.3.3, 5.9.3.5 In-situ vane tests in accordance with Section
and 5.9.3.6 0.64 2.2
(CL,CH, ML, 5.4.5
MH) Undrained shear Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.42 3.3
strength SU for
equations in Presumptive value from Table 5-2 with soil
0.64 2.2
Sections 5.9.3.2 type verified by construction testing
and 5.9.3.5

Table 5-6. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Uplift Strength Assessment
LRFD resistance
ASD safety factor for
Method used to determine required soil factor for uplift
Soil Required property uplift strength
property strength
assessment, fU (a)
assessment, RU (a)
Laboratory direct shear or axial compression
Cohesionless (SP, 1.20 - 0.015·f 1.4/(1.20 - 0.015·f)
tests (see Section 5.4.6)
SW, GP. GW, Soil friction angle SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
0.93 - 0.015·f 1.4/(0.93 - 0.015·f)
GW-GC, GC, SC, f for use in the
CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6 1.07 - 0.015·f 1.4/(1.07 - 0.015·f)
SM, SP-SM, SP- equations of
SC, SW-SM, SW- Section 5.10.3 Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.87 - 0.015·f 1.4/(0.87 - 0.015·f)
SC) 1.16 - 0.015·f 1.4/(1.16 - 0.015·f)
Laboratory compression tests (see Section
0.70 2.0
5.4.5)
PBPMT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.70 2.0
Undrained shear
Cohesive CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.70 2.0
strength SU for use
(CL,CH, ML, In-situ vane tests in accordance with Section
in the equation of 0.70 2.0
MH) 5.4.5
Section 5.10.4
Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.56 2.5
0.70 2.0
(a)
In all cases, RU is limited to a maximum value of 0.93 and FU is limited to a minimum value of 1.50.
5.8 Bearing Strength Assessment foundation elements, the net ultimate bearing capacity
can be approximated as the difference between qB and
5.8.1 Ultimate Bearing Strength, QU g·dF as is done in equation 5-15.
The ultimate groundline bearing strength of a post or pier 5.8.2 Correction Factors for qB of
foundation is given as: Cohesionless Soils
QU = (qB - g dF) A (5-15) Correction factors CW1 and CW2 are included in equations
where: for cohesionless soils to account for water table depth, dW
relative to foundation depth, dF. In equation form:
QU = ultimate bearing strength of a post or pier
foundation at the ground surface (z = 0), lbf CW1 = 0.5 when dW < dF
qB = ultimate soil bearing capacity, lbf/ft2 = 1.0 when dW > 1.5 B + dF
g = moist unit weight of soil, lbf/ft3 = 0.5 + (dW - dF)/(3B) when dF < dW < 1.5 B + dF
dF = foundation or footing depth, ft (see figure 8-4) CW2 = 0.5 + 0.5 dW / dF when dW < dF
A = footing bearing area, ft2 = 1.0 when dW > dF
Different methods for calculating ultimate soil bearing 5.8.3 qB from the General Bearing Capacity
capacity qB are given in Sections 5.8.3, 5.8.4, 5.8.5, and Equation
5.8.6. Equations in these sections assume that the
ground surrounding the location of the installed footing For saturated clay soils:
is level. If it is not, adjustments to calculated values qB = Su NC dC sC + g dF
must be made in accordance with common engineering
practice. qB = Su (6.19 + 1.23 dF /B) + g dF for dF /B < 2.5
Adjustments to qB are required for cohesiveless soils qB = Su 9.25 + g dF for dF /B > 2.5
when the water table is within a distance 1.5 B of the
bottom of the footing where B is the breadth of the where:
footing. These adjustment factors are given in Section NC = 5.14 for f = 0
5.8.2.
sC = 1.2 for square and round footings
Quantity g dF is the pressure applied to the foundation
base (i.e., at a depth, dF) by the soil overburden. dC = 1 + 0.2 dF /B for dF /B < 2.5
Assuming that the difference is negligible between the dC = 1.5 for dF /B > 2.5
density of the soil and the average density of the

For cohesionless soils: bearing capacity coefficient given as:
qB = g (0.5 B Cw1 Nγ sγ + dF Cw2 Nq dq sq) CPB = 0.80 + 0.642(dF/B) - 0.0839(dF/B)2 for sands
where: CPB = 0.80 + 0.384(dF/B) - 0.0572(dF/B)2 for silts
Nγ = 2 (Nq + 1) tan f CPB = 0.80 + 0.223(dF/B) - 0.0395(dF/B)2 for clays
Nq = exp(π tanf) tan2(45 + f/2) where: dF is footing depth; and B is diameter of a round
footing or side length of a square footing.
sγ = 0.6 for square and round footings
5.8.7 Example Problem
sq = 1 + tan f for square and round footings
dq = 1 + 2 tan f (1- sinf)2 tan-1(dF /B) Problem Statement
Obtain values for CW1 and CW2 from Section 5.8.2. What is the ultimate groundline bearing strength QU for a
Values of Nγ, Nq, sq and dq for different values of f are foundation consisting of a post supported on a footing
given in Table 5-7. that is 6 inches thick and 14 inches in diameter if the
distance to the top of the footing is 4.5 feet. Surrounding
5.8.4 qB from Standard Penetration Test unexcavated soil is classified as a medium to stiff ML
(SPT) Results soil. This classification is based on observation and not
on actual testing. The water table is located two feet
Bearing resistance for foundations in sands can be taken
below the footing. If the maximum gradeline bearing
as:
force due to ASD loadings PG = PASD is 3500 lbf, is the
qB = N1 CSPT B(Cw1 + Cw2 dF /B) foundation adequate for resisting bearing forces?
where: CSPT is a constant equal to 200 lbf/ft3(31.4 Solution
kPa/m); Cw1 and Cw2 are given in Section 5.8.2; and N1 is
Ultimate bearing strength is given by equation 5-15 as:
the SPT blow count, NSPT, normalized with respect to
vertical effective stress as given in Section 5.4.4. For QU = (qB - g dF) A
calculations of qB, the SPT blow count, NSPT , shall be In this case dF is equal to 60 inches (i.e., 54 inches plus
obtained within the range of depth from footing base to the footing thickness of 6 inches) and B is 14 inches.
1.5B below the footing. This yields a dF /B ratio of 4.29. For cohesive soils with
a dF /B ratio of 4.29, qB is given as:
5.8.5 qB from Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Results qB = Su 9.25 + g dF
Substitution of this equation into the previous equation
For saturated clay soils:
yields:
qB = CCPT1 + qcr / 3 QU = Su 9.25 A = 9965 lbf
For cohesionless soils: where:
qB = qcr B (Cw1 + Cw2 d F/B) / CCPT2 SU = 7 lbf/in2 from Table 5-2
A = π(14 in.)2/4 = 153.9 in.2
where: qcr is average cone resistance within a depth B Since an ASD loading is involved, the governing
below the bottom of the footing; CCPT1 is a constant equal strength relationship is given by equation 5-7:
to 11,400 lbf/ft2(546 kPa); CCPT2 is a constant equal to 40
ft (12 m); and Cw1 and Cw2 are given in Section 5.8.2. QU > fB PASD
5.8.6 qB from Pressuremeter Test (PMT) Without soil tests, the ASD factor of safety for bearing
Results strength assessment fB from Table 5-3 is 3.0. In
accordance with Section 5.7.2, this value can be reduced
For all soils: to 2.4 for structures with a low risk to human life; thus:
qB = qo + CPB (pL – σ0h) QU > fB PASD = 2.4 (3500 lbf) = 8400 lbf
where: qo is the initial total vertical pressure at the base Since QU is equal to 9965 lbf, this inequality is met and
of the footing; pL is the average value of limiting the design is adequate. If it were not, design options
pressures obtained from the PMT within a zone of +1.5 B include increasing the footing size and/or conducting soil
above and below the footing depth dF; σ0h is the tests to determine actual soil strength. The latter would
horizontal total stress at rest from the PMT for the depth likely result in a higher SU value and a lower factor of
where the PMT is performed; and CPB is an empirical safety.

Table 5-7. Bearing Capacity Factors as a Function of Soil Friction Angle

Soil dF / B
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12
friction 1-
tan f Ng Nq sq tan-1(dF / B)
angle, sinf 1.11 1.25 1.33 1.37 1.41 1.43 1.45 1.47 1.49
f dq
0 0.000 1.000 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
1 0.017 0.983 0.07 1.09 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
2 0.035 0.965 0.15 1.20 1.03 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.10 1.10
3 0.052 0.948 0.24 1.31 1.05 1.10 1.12 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.14
4 0.070 0.930 0.34 1.43 1.07 1.13 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.18 1.18 1.18
5 0.087 0.913 0.45 1.57 1.09 1.16 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.20 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.22
6 0.105 0.895 0.57 1.72 1.11 1.19 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.25
7 0.123 0.878 0.71 1.88 1.12 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.27 1.27 1.28 1.28
8 0.141 0.861 0.86 2.06 1.14 1.23 1.26 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.30 1.30 1.31 1.31
9 0.158 0.844 1.03 2.25 1.16 1.25 1.28 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.32 1.33 1.33 1.34
10 0.176 0.826 1.22 2.47 1.18 1.27 1.30 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.34 1.35 1.35 1.36
11 0.194 0.809 1.44 2.71 1.19 1.28 1.32 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.36 1.37 1.37 1.38
12 0.213 0.792 1.69 2.97 1.21 1.30 1.33 1.35 1.37 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.39 1.40
13 0.231 0.775 1.97 3.26 1.23 1.31 1.35 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.40 1.41 1.41
14 0.249 0.758 2.29 3.59 1.25 1.32 1.36 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.41 1.42 1.43
15 0.268 0.741 2.65 3.94 1.27 1.33 1.37 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.43 1.44
16 0.287 0.724 3.06 4.33 1.29 1.33 1.38 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.45
17 0.306 0.708 3.53 4.77 1.31 1.34 1.38 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.45 1.46
18 0.325 0.691 4.07 5.26 1.32 1.34 1.39 1.41 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.46
19 0.344 0.674 4.68 5.80 1.34 1.35 1.39 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.45 1.46 1.47
20 0.364 0.658 5.39 6.40 1.36 1.35 1.39 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.46 1.47
21 0.384 0.642 6.20 7.07 1.38 1.35 1.39 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.46 1.47
22 0.404 0.625 7.13 7.82 1.40 1.35 1.39 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.46 1.47
23 0.424 0.609 8.20 8.66 1.42 1.35 1.39 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.46 1.47
24 0.445 0.593 9.44 9.60 1.45 1.35 1.39 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.45 1.46 1.47
25 0.466 0.577 10.87 10.66 1.47 1.34 1.39 1.41 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.46
26 0.488 0.562 12.54 11.85 1.49 1.34 1.38 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.45 1.46
27 0.510 0.546 14.47 13.20 1.51 1.34 1.38 1.40 1.42 1.43 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.45
28 0.532 0.531 16.71 14.72 1.53 1.33 1.37 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.43 1.44 1.45
29 0.554 0.515 19.33 16.44 1.55 1.33 1.37 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.43 1.44
30 0.577 0.500 22.40 18.40 1.58 1.32 1.36 1.38 1.40 1.41 1.41 1.42 1.42 1.43
31 0.601 0.485 25.99 20.63 1.60 1.31 1.35 1.37 1.39 1.40 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.42
32 0.625 0.470 30.21 23.17 1.62 1.31 1.34 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.41
33 0.649 0.455 35.18 26.09 1.65 1.30 1.34 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.40
34 0.675 0.441 41.06 29.43 1.67 1.29 1.33 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.39
35 0.700 0.426 48.02 33.29 1.70 1.28 1.32 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.36 1.37 1.37 1.38
36 0.727 0.412 56.30 37.74 1.73 1.27 1.31 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.35 1.36 1.36 1.37
37 0.754 0.398 66.18 42.91 1.75 1.26 1.30 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.34 1.35 1.35 1.36
38 0.781 0.384 78.01 48.92 1.78 1.26 1.29 1.31 1.32 1.32 1.33 1.33 1.34 1.34
39 0.810 0.371 92.23 55.94 1.81 1.25 1.28 1.30 1.31 1.31 1.32 1.32 1.33 1.33
40 0.839 0.357 109.39 64.18 1.84 1.24 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.31 1.32 1.32
41 0.869 0.344 130.18 73.88 1.87 1.23 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.30 1.30 1.31
42 0.900 0.331 155.51 85.35 1.90 1.22 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.29
43 0.933 0.318 186.48 98.99 1.93 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.27 1.27 1.28 1.28
44 0.966 0.305 224.58 115.28 1.97 1.20 1.22 1.24 1.25 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.26 1.27
45 1.000 0.293 271.68 134.84 2.00 1.19 1.21 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.26
46 1.036 0.281 330.25 158.46 2.04 1.18 1.20 1.22 1.22 1.23 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.24
47 1.072 0.269 403.54 187.15 2.07 1.17 1.19 1.21 1.21 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.23 1.23
48 1.111 0.257 495.86 222.24 2.11 1.16 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.22 1.22
49 1.150 0.245 612.97 265.42 2.15 1.15 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.19 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.21
50 1.192 0.234 762.64 318.96 2.19 1.14 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.18 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19

5.9 Lateral Strength Assessment MG that falls within the VU -MU envelope will not exceed
the ultimate capacity of the foundation.
5.9.1 Overview
Maintaining a proper sign convention is important.
As the groundline shear force VG and groundline bending Groundline shear forces and groundline bending
moment MG applied to the top of a post (or pier) moments are given the same sign when they
foundation are increased, the pressure applied to the independently rotate the foundation in the same direction
foundation by the soil increases. This increase in soil (figure 5-22).
pressure at a particular depth will continue until the
+ MG + VG - MG - VG
ultimate lateral soil resisting pressure pU at that depth (as
calculated in Section 5.9.2) is reached. Once this point is
reached, there is no further increase in pressure applied
to the foundation by the soil at that depth.
The ultimate strength of a post or pier foundation is
reached when all soil in contact with the foundation has
reached its ultimate lateral soil resisting pressure. The
groundline shear force VG and groundline bending
moment MG when this state is reached are respectively
defined as the ultimate groundline shear capacity VU and
the ultimate groundline moment capacity MU of the Figure 5-22. Groundline shear forces and groundline
foundation as limited by soil strength. bending moments are given the same sign if they
independently rotate a foundation in the same
For any foundation, the ultimate groundline moment direction.
capacity, MU, is dependent on the groundline shear force
induced in the foundation. Thus there is (in theory) an The two shaded regions in figure 5-21 identify loadings
infinite number of VU - MU combinations for each non- in which groundline bending moment and groundline
constrained foundation design. These combinations can shear have the same sign. Although these regions
be represented with a VU -MU envelope on a plot of comprise a relatively small area of the VU - MU envelope,
groundline shear VG versus groundline bending moment the vast majority of loadings on non-constrained
MG (figure 5-21). foundations are located in these regions.
150
Surface-Constrained The two most extreme points on the VU – MU envelope
Foundation Properties
represent the VU – MU combinations associated with the
Groundline Bending Moment, MG, in-kips
100 g = 110 lbm/ft3 restraint of the foundation at or just above the ground
f = 35º
d = 48 inches surface (i.e., constrained or surface-constrained
50 b = 4.5 inches foundation). In this case, the groundline shear force is
the force in the foundation at a point just below the
surface restraint, and is opposite in sign to the groundline
0
bending moment.
VU – MU Envelope
-50
Section 5.9.3 contains equations for calculating MU for
foundations that have a fixed face width and are
surrounded by soil that is homogeneous for the entire
-100 embedment depth. Application of these equations is
Surface-Constrained relatively straight-forward, and thus is referred to as the
-150 Simplified Method of analysis.
-4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Groundline Shear Force, VG, lbf Determination of the ultimate lateral strength capacity of
foundations that do not meet requirements for application
Figure 5-21. VU - MU envelope for a post/pier of the Simplified Method, involves modeling soil
foundation.
behavior with discrete springs and is covered in Section
5.9.4. Strength capacity determination utilizing soil
Plotted in figure 5-21 is a VU -MU envelope for a springs is referred to as the Universal Method of
foundation with a 4.5 inch width and 48 inch depth. analysis.
Additionally, the foundation is surrounded by a
cohesionless soil with a moist unit weight of 110 lbm/ft3 Section 5.9.5 contains an example analysis that
and soil friction angle of 35 degrees. Any combination showcases methods from Sections 5.9.3 and 5.9.4.
of groundline shear VG and groundline bending moment

5.9.2 Ultimate Lateral Soil Resistance, pU equal to cohesion, c, for a saturated clay soil.
5.9.2.1 pU Based on Soil Properties 5.9.2.2 pU for Cohesionless Soils from CPT
Tests
In accordance with ANSI/ASAE EP486.2, the ultimate
lateral soil resisting pressure pU at a given depth z is At a given depth z, ultimate lateral soil bearing pressure
calculated as: pu for cohesionless soils can be determined from CPT
cone penetration resistance qcr at depth z using the
pU,z = 3σ’v,z KP + (2 + z/b) c KP 0.5 for 0 < z < 4b (5-16) following correlation from Lee et al. (2010).
pU,z = 3 (σ’v,z KP + 2 c KP 0.5) for z > 4b (5-17) pU,z = (1.959 pA-0.10 qcr0.47) /(σ’m,z-0.63)
where: where: pU,z is ultimate lateral resistance at depth z; pA is
pU,z = ultimate lateral resistance pU at depth z atmospheric pressure; and σ’m,z is mean effective stress at
KP = coefficient of passive earth pressure, depth z and is given as:
dimensionless
σ'm,z = (σ'v,z + 2 σ'0h,z)/3
= (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f)
f = soil friction angle, degrees where: σ’v, z is effective vertical stress at depth z; and
c = soil cohesion at depth z σ'0h,z is at rest effective horizontal stress at depth z.
b = face width of foundation at the groundline
To maintain dimensional homogeneity, input pA, qcr and
σ’v,z = effective vertical stress at depth z
σ’m,z in identical units. Pressure pU,z will then have the
= σv, z - uz = g z - uz
same units as these three input variables.
σv, z = total vertical stress at depth z
= gz 5.9.2.3 pU from Pressuremeter Tests
g = moist unit weight of soil
For any given depth, pu can be determined from a
uz = pore water pressure at depth z
pressuremeter reading in accordance with procedures
= gw •(distance the water table is above depth z) outlined by Briaud (1992).
gw = water unit weight = 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 0.0361 lbf/in3
5.9.3 MU and VU via the Simplified Method
Equations 5-16 and 5-17 equate ultimate lateral soil
resisting pressure pU to three times the Rankine passive The equations in this Section are only applicable to
pressure. Although basing resisting pressure solely on foundations that have a fixed face width and are
passive pressure would appear to neglect the active surrounded by soil that is homogeneous for the entire
earth-pressure acting on the back of the foundation and embedment depth.
side friction, the factor of three by which the passive
Equations in Section 5.9.3.1, 5.9.3.2 and 5.9.3.3 are for
pressure is increased is based on observed ultimate loads
non-constrained foundations, and were set up with MU as
– ultimate loads which were most likely influenced by
the dependent variable and VU as an independent
forces acting on all sides of the foundation system.
variable. To establish a VU - MU envelope line for a non-
Passive pressure due to soil cohesion is assumed to constrained foundation, simply calculate MU for more
increase from 1/3 its full value at the ground surface to than one VU value as shown in figure 5-23.
its full value at a depth of 4 b. This partially accounts for
the reduced soil containment at the soil surface and less
Groundline Bending Moment, MG
than full mobilization of the soil due to the likelihood of

foundation-soil detachment near the surface. The VU – MU envelope
quantity 2cKP 0.5 in equations 5-16 and 5-17 is the
MU1
Rankine passive pressure due to soil cohesion.
For cohesionless soils, equations 5-16 and 5-17 both MU2
reduce to:
pU,z = 3 σ’v,z KP (5-18)
For cohesive soils, equations 5-16 and 5-17 reduce to:
pU,z = 3 SU (1 + z/(2b)) for 0 < z < 4b (5-19) VU1 VU2
pU,z = 9 SU for z > 4b (5-20) Groundline Shear Force, VG
where: SU is undrained soil shear strength at depth z. The Figure 5-23. Equations for the Simplified Method for
value of 9 SU is approximately equal to three times non-constrained foundations require selection of a VU
value to determine MU.
2SUKP0.5 when f is equal to 32 degrees. SU is numerically

Variables used in this section have been previously 5.9.3.2 Non-Constrained Foundation in
defined in Sections 5.7.1, 5.7.2 and 5.9.2.1, with the Cohesive Soils
exception of the following:
PU
dRU = Depth from ground surface to the ultimate pivot y
point (i.e., the point below grade at which the Ground MU 3 b SU
foundation does not move horizontally under z surface VU
ultimate load).
SLU = Increase in the ultimate lateral force per unit Post/pier with width
depth applied to a foundation by a cohesionless b and dRU < 4b
dRU
soil
(a)
5.9.3.1 Non-Constrained Foundation in Ultimate Pivot Point d
Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate moment MU that can be applied at the
3 b SU +
groundline to a post/pier foundation that is not 1.5 dRU SU
constrained at the groundline and is embedded in
cohesionless soil (figure 5-24) is: 9 b SU Cohesive soil with
3 3 undrained shear
MU = SLU (d - 2 dRU ) / 3 (5-21) PU strength SU
where: PU
y
2 0.5
dRU = (VU / SLU + d / 2) < d Ground MU 3 b SU
SLU = 3 b KP g z surface VU
KP = (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f)
VU = VLRFD / RL for LRFD Post/pier with width 4b
VU = f L VASD for ASD b and dRU > 4b
If shear VLRFD (or VASD) and moment MLRFD (or MASD) dRU
rotate the top of the foundation in opposite directions, (b)
Ultimate Pivot Point d
input a negative value for VLRFD (or VASD).
PU 9 b SU
y
Ground MU
z surface VU
9 b SU Cohesive soil with
undrained shear
PU strength SU
Post or pier Figure 5-25. Forces acting on a non-constrained
with width b foundation of fixed width b in cohesive soil at failure
dRU (a) when dRU is less than 4 b, and (b) when dRU is
greater than 4 b.
d Ultimate
Pivot Point The ultimate moment MU that can be applied at the
groundline to a post/pier foundation that is not
3 dRU b KP γ constrained at the groundline and is embedded in
cohesive soil is:
Cohesionless soil
3 d b KP γ with density r and MU = b SU (4.5 d 2 - 6 dRU 2 - dRU 3/ (2b)) (5-22)
friction anγle f
PU where:
Figure 5-24. Forces acting on a non-constrained dRU = [64 b2 + 4VU / (3SU) +12 b d]1/2 - 8 b < d
foundation of fixed width b in cohesionless soil at
failure. and
dRU < 4b

The preceding equations apply when dRU is less than 4b MU = SLU (d 3 - 2 dRU3) / 3 +
and the force distribution shown in figure 5-25(a) 6 b c KP 0.5 (d 2/ 2 - dRU 2 + b 2 / 4) (5-24)
applies. If dRU from the preceding equation is greater
where:
than 4b (in which case the force distribution shown in
figure 5-25(b) applies) then: dRU = [A2 + VU / SLU + dA +d 2/2 +A b/ 2] 0.5 - A < d
dRU > 4b
MU = 9 b SU (d 2/ 2 - dRU 2 + 16 b 2 / 9 ) (5-23)
A = 2c / (KP 0.5 g)
where SLU = 3 b KP g
dRU = VU / (18 b SU) + d / 2 + 2 b / 3 < d KP = (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f)
VU = VLRFD / RL for LRFD
and VU = f L VASD for ASD
dRU > 4b If shear VLRFD (or VASD) and moment MLRFD (or MASD)
In both cases: rotate the top of the foundation in opposite directions,
input a negative value for VLRFD (or VASD).
VU = VLRFD / RL for LRFD
VU = f L VASD for ASD 5.9.3.4 Constrained Foundation in
Cohesionless Soils
If shear VLRFD (or VASD) and moment MLRFD (or MASD)
rotate the top of the foundation in opposite directions, The ultimate moment MU that can be applied at the
input a negative value for VLRFD (or VASD). groundline to a post/pier foundation that is constrained at
the groundline and is embedded in cohesionless soil
5.9.3.3 Non-Constrained Foundation in Any (figure 5-27) is:
Soil MU = d 3 b KP g (5-25)
y PU KP = (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f)
MU
z Ground surface VU
2 c b KP 0.5 P
y
4b Ground MG
Post/pier with width b z surface VG
R
dRU Restraint
Ultimate Pivot Point d
6 c b KP 0.5 3 dRU b KP γ Post or pier

with width b
Soil with density r, friction
anγle f, and cohesion c d
Cohesionless
3 d b KP γ 6 c b KP 0.5 soil with
Soil forces density r and
PU friction anγle f
Figure 5-26. Forces acting on a non-constrained 3 d b KP γ

foundation of fixed width b in a homogenous soil at
failure. P
Figure 5-27. Forces acting on a constrained
The ultimate moment MU that can be applied at the
foundation of fixed width b in cohesionless soil at
groundline to a post/pier foundation that is constrained at failure.
the groundline and for which dRU is greater than 4b
(figure 5-26) is:

5.9.3.5 Constrained Foundation in Cohesive 5.9.3.6 Constrained Foundation in Any Soil
Soils The ultimate moment MU that can be applied at the
The ultimate moment MU that can be applied at the groundline to a post/pier foundation that is constrained at
groundline to a post/pier foundation that is constrained at the groundline and is embedded in any soil (figure 5-29)
the groundline and is embedded in cohesive soil (figure is:
5-28) is:
MU = d 3b KP g +
2
MU = b SU (4.5 d – 16 b ) 2
for d > 4b (5-26) bcKP 0.5 (3d 2 – 32b2/ 3) for d > 4b (5-28)
and and
MU = b d 2 SU (3/2 + d/(2b)) for d < 4b (5-27) MU = d 3 b KP g +
b d 2c KP 0.5 (1 + d /(3b)) for d < 4b (5-29)
where
Ground PU y
surface KP = (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f)
MU y PU
3 b SU z
VU
R MU
z Ground
surface 2 c b KP 0.5 VU
Restraint
R
Restraint
(a) Post or pier with
d width b and depth
d < 4b
(a) d
Post or pier
with width b
Cohesive soil with
an undrained shear Soil with density r,
strength SU friction anγle f, and
cohesion c
3 b SU +
1.5 d SU 3 d b KP γ
PU
c KP 0.5 (2 b + d) PU
PU y
Ground PU
y
surface
MU
3 b SU z Ground MU
VU 2 c b KP 0.5
z surface VU
R
Restraint R
4b
Restraint
(b) Post or pier with 4b

d width b and depth (b) Post or pier
d > 4b with width b
d
Cohesive soil with Soil with density r,
an undrained shear friction anγle f, and
strength SU cohesion c
9 b SU
6 c b KP 0.5 3 d b KP γ
PU
PU
foundation of fixed width b in cohesive soil at failure
foundation of fixed width b in a homogenous soil at
(a) when d is less than 4 b, and (b) when d is greater
failure (a) when d is less than 4 b, and (b) when d is
than 4 b.
greater than 4 b.

5.9.4 MU and VU via the Universal Method of these directions can switch as the applied loads
increase as shown in figure 5-30.
The ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Universal Method of analysis
utilizes soil springs with an initial stiffness KH and
MG << MU
ultimate strength Fult as shown in figure 5-13. Of these
two spring properties, only Fult is required to establish
MG = MU
MU and VU.
5.9.4.1 Soil Spring Strength, Fult
The ultimate load that an individual spring can sustain is Ultimate
given as: Pivot
Point
Fult = pU,z t b (5-30)
where:
Fult = Ultimate load that a spring at depth z can
sustain, lbf
pU,z = Ultimate lateral soil resistance for unexcavated
soil at depth z from Section 5.9.2, lbf/in.2
t = Thickness of the soil layer represented by the
soil spring, inches
b = Face width of post/pier, footing, or collar that is
being modeled with the spring, in. MG << MU
z = Distance of spring below grade, in.
MG = MU
Although backfill properties will influence spring
stiffness KH, they are not factored into calculations of
ultimate spring strength Fult. This is because the soil
failure planes associated with the ultimate lateral
capacity of the foundation are almost entirely located in dRU
the unexcavated soil surrounding the backfill.
5.9.4.2 Conditions at Ultimate Lateral
Capacity
Ultimate
Each soil spring is assumed to exhibit linear-elastic Pivot
behavior until Fult is reached, at which point the spring is Point
assumed to undergo a plastic state of strain with the force
in the soil spring remaining at Fult. The lateral strength
capacity of a foundation (as limited by soil strength) is
reached when all springs acting on the foundation have Figure 5-30. Surface-constrained (top) and non-
reached their maximum ultimate strength capacity Fult. . constrained (bottom) post foundations subjected to a
In other words, a foundation has reached its lateral groundline bending moment. At ultimate lateral
strength capacity when there is not a single remaining capacity (MG = MU) there is no more than one pivot
soil spring that can take additional load. point (i.e., the ultimate pivot point) located below
grade.
The groundline shear VG and groundline bending
moment MG that will result in a plastic state of strain in Once all soil springs have yielded (i.e., once the
all soil springs are defined respectively as the ultimate foundation has reached its ultimate capacity), the
groundline shear capacity VU and ultimate groundline foundation will pivot about a single point, herein referred
moment capacity MU for the foundation. to as the ultimate pivot point (figure 5-30). The ultimate
The key to determining MU and VU for any foundation is pivot point is also identified as the point of zero lateral
identifying on which side of the foundation each soil displacement under ultimate load. All soil springs
spring is pushing. At loads less than a foundation's located above an ultimate pivot point act in the same
ultimate capacity (i.e., prior to the yielding of all soil direction. Likewise, all springs located below an
springs), the direction that many soil springs act is a ultimate pivot point act in the same direction.
function of the bending stiffness of the foundation It’s important to note that the ultimate pivot point’s
relative to the stiffness of the surrounding soil, and some location is not a function of the foundation’s bending
stiffness, nor is it a function of soil spring stiffness KH

(as previously stated, prior to reaching ultimate capacity, n = Number of springs used to model the soil
locations of zero lateral displacement in non-constrained surrounding the foundation.
posts are a function of the foundation’s bending stiffness Fult,i = Ultimate strength of spring i . Positive when
and soil spring stiffness). This means that MU and VU for pushing to the right.
any foundation can be determined without knowledge of zi = Absolute distance between groundline and
foundation bending properties or soil spring stiffness. spring i.
5.9.4.3 MU and VU for a Specified Ultimate Equation 5-31 is obtained by summing forces in the
Pivot Point Location horizontal direction on a free body diagram of the below-
grade portion of a foundation. Equation 5-32 is obtained
Each modeling spring represents a soil layer with by summing moments about the groundline on the same
thickness t. When the ultimate pivot point is located at free body diagram.
the interface between two of these soil layers (see figure
5-31) or the ultimate pivot point is located above the soil Figure 5-32 contains a VU – MU envelope obtained by
surface or below the foundation, MU and VU can be applying equations 5-31 and 5-32 to all 13 ultimate pivot
calculated as: point locations associated with a 12 soil spring model (11
locations between springs plus locations at the
N
groundline and foundation base). To obtain the full VU –
MU = Σ zi Fult,i (5-31) MU envelope shown in figure 5-32, signs are switched on
i=1
all thirteen “VU , MU” values. This is equivalent to
switching the directions of all soil springs at each
n
ultimate pivot point location.
VU = − Σ Fult,i (5-32)
i=1 For design purposes, the entire VU – MU envelope need
not be constructed. Calculating MU and VU for three or
where:
so ultimate pivot points in the ½ df to 7/8 df range,
MU = Ultimate groundline moment capacity of the enables construction of a MU -VU envelope line that
foundation (as limited by soil strength). would cover most loadings associated with a non-
Positive when acting clockwise. constrained foundation. The deeper value of 7/8 df is
VU = Ultimate shear capacity (as limited by soil associated with foundations that have an attached
strength) of the foundation at a point just below footing, bottom collar, and/or some other mechanism that
the foundation restraint. Positive when acting results in the base of the foundation having a much
to the right. greater effective width than the rest of the foundation.
MU0 MU1 MU2 MU3 MU4
MU
VU0 VU1 VU2 VU3 VU4
VU
dRU1,t1 dRU1
1
dRU2
dRU2
dRU3 t2 2
z dRU3
dRU4 t3 3
dRU4
t4 4
t5 5
Figure 5-31. When ultimate pivot points are located at the interface between soil layers modeled with different soil
springs, Equations 5-30 and 5-31 can be used to calculate MU and VU, respectively.

0.08 df 0.17 df In figure 5-33, “VU1, MU1” is the point on the VU - MU
0.0 df 0.25 df envelope that is numerically closest to coordinate point
Groundline Bending Moment, MG, in-kips
150 0.34 df 0.42 df “VASD fL, MASD fL”. “VU1, MU1” lies on a line drawn
0.50 df
through the origin and “VASD fL, MASD fL”. Stated
100
0.58 df
differently, the closest “VU, MU” point to “VASD fL,
MASDfL” is the one whose MU/VU value equals MASD/VASD.
50 0.67 df
More generically, the closest “VU, MU” point to a
0.75 df
0
particular “VG, MG” point is one whose MU/VU value
0.83 df equals MG /VG. Rearranging yields the equality:
Foundation Properties
-50 0.92 df
g = 110 lbm/ft3 MU = VU (MG /VG) (5-33)
f = 35º 1.00 df
-100 d = 48 inches As will be demonstrated in the following paragraph,
b = 4.5 inches
equation 5-33 makes it possible to determine if a
-150
-4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
foundation is adequate without having to first establish a
Groundline Shear Force, VG, lbf
VU - MU envelope plot like that shown in figure 5-32.
Figure 5-32. VU - MU envelope obtained by applying Figure 5-34a shows a nonconstrained post with MG and
equations 5-31 and 5-32 for 13 different ultimate pivot VG applied at the groundline. Figure 5-34b shows VG
point locations (12-spring model). “Boxed” values located a distance MG/VG above the groundline. From a
identify ultimate pivot point locations (dRU values). statics perspective, the diagrams in Figures 5-34a and 5-
34b are equivalent. As force VG in Figure 5-34b is
increased, soil springs will begin to yield. As a spring
5.9.4.4 MU and VU for a Specified MG/VG yields, it is replaced with an equivalent force as shown in
Value Figure 5-34c. Force VG can be increased until all but one
A foundation is adequate under lateral loads if MU > soil spring has reached its ultimate capacity Fult. The
MASD fL and VU > VASD fL for Allowable Stress Design, and value of VG when this point is reached is defined as the
MU > MLRFD /RL and VU > VLRFD /RL for Load and ultimate groundline shear capacity of the foundation VU
Resistance Factor Design. (Figure 5-34d). Once VU is established, MU is calculated
by direct application of equation 5-33.
Checking if these inequalities have been met is straight
forward once a VU -MU envelope plot exists. For The spring that has not reached its ultimate capacity Fult
example, figure 5-33 shows the results of two different (when VU is reached) is the spring that represents the soil
structural analyses involving the same foundation; one layer in which the ultimate pivot point is located. For this
ASD and the other LRFD. A quick scan of this plot reason, the spring is referred to as the pivot spring. It
reveals that the foundation is adequate for the LRFD follows that the pivot spring is simultaneously
loading but not for the ASD loading. representing soil forces applied to both sides of the
foundation as shown in Figure 5-34e. Because these
VU – MU envelope
forces (1) counteract each other, and (2) individually
cannot exceed Fult, the pivot spring itself will always
Groundline Bending Moment, MG
MASD fL
have a load less than Fult. The only time this would not
VU1 ,MU1 , dRU1
be the case is when the ultimate pivot point is located
MU1 MASD exactly at the interface between soil layers represented
Slope = =
VU1 VASD by different springs (figure 5-31).
VU2 ,MU2 , dRU2
Given that the forces in all soil springs that have yielded
MLRFD MU2 MLRFD
Slope = = are known, the only unknowns in Figure 5-34d are VU
RL VU2 VLRFD and the force in the pivot spring. Thus, VU can be
calculated by summing moments about the point at
which the pivot spring attaches to the foundation, and the
force in the pivot spring can be determined by summing
VASD fL VLRFD moments about the point at which VU is applied (i.e., at a
RL distance MG/VG from the groundline).
Groundline Shear Force, VG It is evident that the procedure for determining VU (and
Figure 5-33. Using a VU - MU envelope to check the thus MU) is very straightforward if one knows which one
adequacy of a foundation under two different of the soil springs is the pivot spring. In practice, this can
loadings. be determined by trial and error. If the wrong spring is
selected, the absolute value of the force calculated for
that spring will exceed the spring’s Fult value.

VG VG VG = VU VG = VU
MG MG / VG
Groundline
VG
1 Fult,1 Fult,1 Fult,1
2 dRU Fult,2 dRU Fult,2

3 Fult,3a
Fult,3b
4 Fult,4 Fult,4
5 Fult,5 Fult,5
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 5-34. (a) Groundline shear VG and groundline bending moment MG, (b) equivalent load applied to
spring model of foundation, (c) soil springs yield under increased load, (d) ultimate capacity of foundation is
reached when all but one soil spring reaches its ultimate strength, (e) spring that doesn’t reach its ultimate
load is replaced by two opposing forces that represent force applied by soil yielding on both sides of the
foundation.
In this case, six springs were used to model the soil as

5.9.4.4.1 Example Determination of MU and shown in figure 5-35 (for accuracy purposes, it is
VU for a Specified MG/VG Value recommended that at least 5 springs be used). Table 5-8
A nonconstrained post foundation with a uniform width lists the location and ultimate strengths of each spring.
of 4.5 inches, depth of 48 inches, located in cohesionless Table 5-8. Spring Forces in a Nonconstrained
soil with a soil friction angle of 35 degrees and moist Post Foundation
(a)
unit weight of 110 lbf/ft3, was subjected to a groundline

shear VG of 500 lbf and a groundline bending moment Loca- Pivot Spring
MG of 10,000 in-lbf (MG /VG = 20 inches). Load tion, Fult, 4 5 6
element z, lbf
Force in load element, lbf
VG VU VU
inches
MG / VG (762 lbf) (595 lbf) Spring 1 4 102 -102 -102 -102
(20 in.) Spring 2 12 305 -305 -305 -305
Spring 3 20 508 -508 -508 -508
Groundline
Spring 4 28 711 -1878 (b) -711 -711
1 102 lbf 102 lbf Spring 5 36 914 914 -87 -914
305 lbf
Spring 6 44 1117 1117 1117 1840 (b)
2 305 lbf
VU -20 NA 762 595 698
3 508 lbf 508 lbf (a)
b = 4.5 inches, df = 48 inches, g = 110 lbf/ft3, f = 35
(b)
Force exceeds maximum allowable value.
4 711 lbf
1878 lbf For the trial-and-error analysis, spring 4 was first
5 914 lbf
selected as the pivot spring. This resulted in a VU value
87 lbf of 762 lbf and a pivot spring force of -1878 lbf as shown
6 1117 lbf 1117 lbf
in figure 5-35. Because the absolute value of the -1878
lbf force exceeds the Fult for spring 4 of 711 lbf (Table 5-
(a) (b) (c)
8), spring 4 is not the pivot spring. Consequently, spring
5 was selected as the pivot spring. This resulted in a VU
Figure 5-35. (a) Spring model of nonconstrained post value of 595 lbf and a pivot spring force of -87 lbf as
foundation, (b) free body diagram with an overloaded shown in Figure 5-35. Because the absolute value of -87
spring 4 as pivot spring, and (c) free body diagram lbf does not exceed the Fult for spring 5 of 914 lbf, spring
with spring 5 as the pivot spring.

5 is indeed the pivot spring. For demonstration purposes,
spring 6 was also selected as the pivot spring. The results Solution
of this analysis are given in the last column of Table 5-8. Since this is an ASD loading, the governing equations
Multiplication of the VU value of 595 lbf by the MG /VG are equations 5-8 and 5-9 which are given as:
ratio of 20 inches yields an MU of 11,900 in-lbf. Since MU > f L MASD and VU > f L VASD
these values each exceed the VG and MG values by 19%, The equations in Section 5.9.3.2 (Simplified Method for
and thus t Constrained Foundation in Cohesive Soils) are
applicable to this problem because the foundation has a
5.9.4.4.2 Determining MU and VU for a fixed width and the soil is assumed homogenous for the
Negative MG/VG Value entire depth of the foundation. When the Simplified
One variation on the preceding “pivot spring” procedure Method is used, only the first of the preceding governing
occurs when MG and VG independently rotate the equations (MU > f L MASD) needs to be checked. This is
foundation in opposite directions, as shown in Figure 5- because the Simplified Method equation for MU has been
36. This produces a negative MG /VG ratio. A negative derived such that if MU is greater than f L MASD, then VU
value means that VG is placed a distance MG/VG below will automatically exceed f L VASD.
the groundline as shown in Figure 5-36. The rest of the From Section 5.9.3.2 when dRU is less than 4b:
analysis is conducted in the same manner, as if VG was
located a distance MG/VG above the groundline. MU = b SU (4.5 d 2 - 6 dRU 2 - dRU 3/ (2b)) > 0
where:
MG
VG
dRU = [64 b2 + 4VU / (3SU) +12 b d]1/2 - 8 b < d
t1 When dRU from the preceding equation is greater than 4b:

1
MG / VG MU = 9 b SU (d 2/ 2 - dRU 2 + 16 b 2 / 9 ) > 0
t2 2
where:
t3 3 dRU = VU / (18 b SU) + d / 2 + 2 b / 3 < d
VG
t4 4 In both cases VU = f L VASD for ASD
t5 5 From Table 5-2 for a medium to dense MH soil, the wet
unit weight g is 105 lbf/ft3 (0.06076 lbf/in3) and the
undrained soil shear strength SU is 7 lbf/in2. From Table
(a) (b)
5-5, fL = 2.2 which yields a minimum required ultimate
groundline soil shear strength VU of 2.2 x 800 lbf = 1760
Figure 5-36. (a) Forces VG and MG independently lbf. Additionally, b is equal to 5.5 inches and d equals
rotate the top of the foundation in opposite 48 inches. Substituting these variables into the first of
directions, and (b) a statically equivalent spring the above equations for dRU yields:
model is used for determination of VU and MU.
dRU = [64 b2 + 4VU / (3SU) +12 b d]1/2 - 8 b < d
5.9.5 Example Analyses dRU = [64 (5.5 in)2 + 4 (1760 lbf)/(3(7 lbf/in2)) +
12(5.5 in)(48 in.)]1/2 – 8(5.5 in.) = 29.75 in.
5.9.5.1 Non-Constrained Foundation in
Since this is greater than 4b = 22 inches, dRU must be
Cohesive Soil – Simplified Method recalculated as:
Problem Statement dRU = VU / (18 b SU) + d / 2 + 2 b / 3 < d
A non-constrained foundation consists of a nominal 6- dRU = (1760 lbf)/(18(5.5 inch)(7 lbf/in2)) +
by 6-inch post that extends 48 inches below the soil (48 in.)/2 + 2(5.5 in.)/3 = 30.21 in.
surface and bears on a footing to which it is not attached. and MU is given as:
Via testing, the surrounding soil (backfill and
unexcavated soil) was verified as a medium to dense silt MU = 9 b SU (d 2/ 2 - dRU 2 + 16 b 2/ 9 ) > 0
with higher plasticity (soil type MH). If the groundline MU = 9(5.5 in.)(7 lbf/in2) [ (48 in.)2/2–
shear force VASD and groundline bending moment MASD (30.21 in.)2 + 16 (5.5)2/9] = 101,650 in-lbf
due to the applied ASD structural loads are 800 lbf and MU > f L MASD = 2.2 (45,000 in-lbf) =99,000 in-lbf
45,000 in-lbf, respectively, is the foundation adequate?
VASD and MASD rotate the foundation in the same Since MU exceeds 99,000 in-lbf, the foundation is
direction. adequate.

5.9.5.2 Constrained Foundation in 5.9.5.3 Constrained Foundation in

Cohesionless Soil – Simplified Method Cohesionless Soil – Universal Method
Problem Statement Problem Statement

A surface-constrained foundation consists of a nominal To reduce the embedment depth associated with the
6- by 6-inch post that extends 48 inches below the soil previous problem from 48 inches to 36 inches, a
surface and bears on a footing to which it is not attached. reduction in the factor of safety of 20% (to 2.5) for a
Via testing, the surrounding soil (backfill and ASCE 7 Category I building is being applied and a cast-
unexcavated soil) was identified as a dense, poorly- in-place concrete collar that fills the 18-inch diameter of
graded sand (soil type SP). If the groundline bending the post hole surrounding the foundation is being added.
moment MASD due to the applied ASD structural loads is How far above the footing must this concrete collar
50,000 in-lbf, is the foundation adequate? extend to provide the necessary ultimate groundline
bending capacity MU > f L MASD = 2.5 (50,000 in-lbf) =
Solution
125,000 in-lbf?
Since this is constrained foundation with ASD loading,
Solution
the only governing equation is:
Because the collar results in a foundation with a varying
MU > f L MASD
thickness, the Universal Method with its soil springs
The following equations from Section 5.9.3.4 (Simplified must be used. With an embedment depth of 36 inches, 6
Method for Constrained Foundation in Cohesionless equally-spaced springs are selected to model the soil,
Soils) are applicable to this problem because the each with a ultimate strength given by equation 5-22 as:
foundation has a fixed width and the soil is assumed
Fult = pU,z t b
homogenous for the entire depth of the foundation.
where:
MU = d 3 b KP g
where: pU,z = 3 KP σ’v,z
= 3(3.69) (0.06944 lbf/in3) z = (0.769 lbf/in3) z
KP = (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f)
KP = (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f) = 3.69 for f ' = 35⁰
From Table 5-2 for a dense, poorly-graded sand, the wet σ’v,z = g z for a homogenous soil located above the
unit weight g is 120 lbf/ft3 (0.06944 lbf/in3) and the water table
drained soil friction angle f ' is 35⁰. From Table 5-5, fL = = (0.06944 lbf/in3) z
1.4/(0.80 - 0.01·f) = 3.11. With b equal to 5.5 inches t = Thickness of the soil layer represented by the
and d equal 48 inches: soil spring
b = Face width of post/pier, footing, or collar that is
KP = (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f) = 3.69 being modeled with the spring
MU = d 3 b KP g z = Distance of spring below grade
= (48 in.)3(5.5 in.)(3.69)(0.06944 lbf/in3) For the initial check, the collar will be assumed to extend
= 155,860 in-lbf 6 inches above the footing, thus providing the follow
MU > f L MASD = 3.11(50,000 in-lbf) = 155,500 in-lbf spring properties and moment resisting values.
Since MU exceeds 155,500 in-lbf (just barely), the z t B pU,z Fult Fult·z
No.
foundation is adequate. in. in in. lbf/in2 lbf in-lbf
1 3 6 5.5 2.3 76 228
Notes:
2 9 6 5.5 6.9 228 2056
1. The 3.11 safety factor is a relatively high value, and 3 15 6 5.5 11.5 381 5710
some engineers feel comfortable using a reduced 4 21 6 5.5 16.1 533 11191
value in this application. ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 allows 5 27 6 5.5 20.8 685 18500
a 20% reduction in fL for buildings that represent a 6 33 6 18 25.4 2741 90444
low risk to human life in the event of a failure such as MU = 128128
an ASCE/SEI 7 Category I building.
The far right column of the above table contains the
2. Using a bottom collar is an effective way to increase resisting moment about the groundline provided by each
MU of a constrained foundation, and is common spring. In accordance with equation 5-31, the
where there is a desire to reduce embedment depth. summation of these values provides the total ultimate

groundline bending capacity MU of the foundation. Since strength SU of 7 lbf/in2 (from Table 5-2 for a medium to
this exceeds the required value by 3000 in-lbf, the dense cohesive soil), the calculated embedment depth
analysis was rerun with a 5.5 inch thick collar. This was was 55 inches. Based on this value, an overall depth
quickly accomplished with changes in the depth and (including the attached footing) of 48 inches was
associated thickness of the lower two springs. selected. The soil spring model used is shown in figure
5-37.
z t b pU,z Fult Fult·z
No.
in. in in. lbf/in2 lbf in-lbf
1 3 6 5.5 2.3 76 228
2 9 6 5.5 6.9 228 2056 MU MLRFD / VLRFD = 66.7 in.
3 15 6 5.5 11.5 381 5710 VU
4 21 6 5.5 16.1 533 11191
5 27.25 6.5 5.5 21.5 769 20945 6 in. 1
6 33.25 5.5 18 26.1 2584 85915
6 in. 2
MU = 126045
The resulting MU value still exceeds the required 6 in. 3
minimum of 125,000 in-lbf. However, reducing the collar
thickness another half inch does not work as MU for the 6 in. 4
foundation with a 5 inch thick collar is 120,600 in-lbfs.
6 in. 5
5.9.5.4 Non-Constrained Foundation in 6 in. 6

Cohesive Soil – Universal Method 4 in. 7
Problem Statement 8 in. 8
A non-constrained foundation consisting of a 4.5- by

9.25-inch post is subjected to a groundline shear force Figure 5-37. Spring placement for non-constrained
VLRFD of 1200 lbf, and a groundline bending moment post with attached footing.
MLRFD of 80,000 in-lbf. How deep must the post extend Spring strength was calculated in accordance with
into the ground if it is attached to an 8 inches and 16 inch equation 5-22 as:
diameter footing? Via testing, the surrounding soil
(backfill and unexcavated soil) was verified as a medium Fult = pU,z t b
to dense silt with higher plasticity (soil type MH). VLRFD where:
and MLRFD rotate the foundation in the same direction. pU,z = 3 SU (1 + z/(2b)) for 0 < z < 4b
Solution pU,z = 9 SU for z > 4b
SU = 7 lbf/in2 for a medium to dense cohesive soil
Since this is an LRFD loading, the governing equations (from Table 5-2)
for this problem are equations 5-12 and 5-13: t = Thickness of the soil layer represented by the
MU RL > MLRFD and VU RL > VLRFD soil spring
b = 4.5 inches for post
From Table 5-4, the LRFD resistance factor for lateral = 16 inches for footing
strength assessment using the Universal Method of z = Distance of spring below grade
analysis RL is given as 0.68. Thus:
Spring Properties
MU > MLRFD / RL = 80,000 in-lbf/0.68 = 117,600 in-lbf
Spring z t b pU,z Fult
and No. in. in. in. lbf/in2 lbf
VU > VLRFD / RL = 1200 lbf/0.68 = 1768 lbf 1 3 6 4.5 28 756
Because the collar results in a foundation with a varying 2 9 6 4.5 42 1134
thickness, the Universal Method with its soil springs 3 15 6 4.5 56 1512
must be used. 4 21 6 4.5 63 1701
5 27 6 4.5 63 1701
Equations in Section 5.9.3.2 were used to calculate a post 6 33 6 4.5 63 1701
embedment depth assuming the foundation was not 7 38 4 4.5 63 1134
attached to the footing. For an undrained soil shear
8 44 8 16 63 8064

Following calculation of ultimate spring strengths, the

5.9.6 Increasing Lateral Strength
free body diagram shown in figure 5-38(a) was Generally, the most cost effective way to increase the
established. In accordance with Section 5.9.4.3, VU was lateral strength of a post or pier foundation is to increase
located a distance MLRFD/VLRFD = 66.67 inches above the its effective depth. Two circumstances where increasing
groundline. Spring 7 was arbitrarily selected as the depth may not be cost effective are (1) where hole
pivot spring, and all other springs were replaced with a drilling is difficult because of large rock and/or rock
force equal to their ultimate strength. strata, and (2) where an increase in depth will require a
VU = 1880 lbf
post that is measurably more expensive because of the
VU = 1898 lbf
increased overall length requirement.
66.7 in. An alternative to increasing foundation depth is to
increase foundation width. This can be accomplished
Groundline with concrete or CLSM backfill, a concrete collar, an
756 lbf
uplift anchorage system, or by laminating dimension
1 756 lbf
lumber to the sides of the embedded portion of the post.
2 1134 lbf 1134 lbf With respect to the latter, it is important to note that a
single 8-foot piece of dimension lumber, when cut in half
3 1512 lbf 1512 lbf and appropriately fastened to both sides of a post,
effectively increases the foundation width three full
4 1701 lbf 1701 lbf
inches.
5 1701 lbf 1701 lbf Attaching a post/pier to the footing upon which it bears
will effectively increase the depth of a foundation and
6 1701 lbf 1701 lbf
the foundation width in the footing region. It is
7 1457 lbf 1134 lbf important that such an attachment be properly
engineered. Friction between a post/pier and footing can
8 8064 lbf 7759 lbf not be relied upon for lateral load transfer.
(a) (b)
5.10 Uplift Strength Assessment
Figure 5-38. Spring placement for non-constrained
post with attached footing. 5.10.1 General
Foundation uplift strength is provided by the
Summing moments about the pivot spring in figure 5-
combination of foundation mass MF and resistance to
38(a) results in a VU value of 1898 lbf. With VU known,
uplift provided by soil mass U. The governing strength
a summation of horizontal forces yields a pivot spring equations introduced in Section 5.7 (equations 5-10 and
(spring 7) force of 1457 lbf. Since this exceeds the 5-14) include both of these variables and appear as:
maximum force of 1134 lbf allowed in spring 7, the
ultimate pivot point is not located in the soil layer U > fU (PASD - g MF) for ASD
represented by spring 7. Based on the direction at which
and
the spring force of 1457 lbf acts, it is apparent that
additional force acting to the left is needed. This is only U RU > PLRFD - g MF for LRFD
possible if the ultimate pivot point is lower than the soil
Foundation mass MF includes all foundation element
layer represented with spring 7. Thus, the ultimate pivot
below grade that are mechanically attached to the post.
point is located in the layer modeled with spring 8.
Thus it may include concrete and CLSM backfill, but
A subsequent analysis with spring 8 as the pivot spring does not include soil used as backfill. Foundation mass
was conducted (figure 5-38(b)), resulting in a VU value can also include concrete slabs/paving located at grade
of 1880 lbf, and a spring 8 force of 7759 lbf. Since the when they are mechanically fastened to the foundation.
7759 lbf does not exceed the maximum force of 8064 lbf
The resistance to uplift provided by soil mass, U,
allowed in spring 8, the ultimate pivot point is indeed
depends on (1) the size (breadth) of the anchorage
located in the soil layer represented by spring 8.
system, (2) the depth of the anchorage system, (3) the
The VU value of 1880 lbf exceeds the required value of attachment of the anchorage system, and (4) soil
1768 lbf so the selected overall foundation depth of 48 properties.
inches is adequate. A subsequent analysis with an
Anchorage systems are overviewed in Section 5.10.2.
overall foundation depth of 47 inches (post embedment
Sections 5.10.3 and Sections 5.10.4 contain equations for
depth of 39 inches) produced a VU value of 1800 lbf,
calculating ultimate uplift resistance due to soil mass, U,
thereby validating 47 inches as an adequate depth.

for foundations in cohesionless and cohesive soils, 5-39. Conversely, a deep foundation under uplift is a
respectively. foundation associated with a failure plane that does not
reach the ground surface as shown in figure 5-39.
5.10. 2 Anchorage Systems
An anchorage or uplift resisting system is any system Deep foundation
that effectively increases the breath of the lower portion
of a foundation. Anchorage systems include attached γ (dU – h)
footings, attached collars, special wood or plastic blocks,
steel angles, and any other component(s) that is/are
properly attached near the base of the foundation.
The anchorage system must be designed with capacity to Shallow foundation
adequately handle and transfer load between the soil
dU
mass and the post (or pier) foundation. Use the
Failure plane
applicable structural design specification(s) to make h
these determinations. For example, use the ANSI/AWC
dU
National Design Specification (NDS) for Wood
Construction to determine the adequacy of mechanical
fasteners used to connect wood uplift blocking to a wood
post.
Uplift resistance
To move the soil mass located above the anchorage BU
systems requires that a failure plane form in the soil.
This failure plane extends upward and outward from the Figure 5-39. Modes of uplift failure for uplift
edges of the anchorage system. It may or may not reach resistance systems at different depths.
the ground surface depending on soil properties and the
depth dU and width BU of the anchorage system. For a shallow foundation under uplift (h > dU) with a
circular anchorage system:
Without an anchorage system the only resistance to uplift
is that provided by friction between the soil and vertical U = g dU (π dU sF BU KU tanf/2 +
surfaces of the foundation. Friction forces between soil BU2 π/4 – Ap) (5-34)
and a shallow post/pier foundation are minimal and
For a shallow foundation under uplift (h > dU) with a
unreliable for resisting uplift forces.
rectangular anchorage system:
5.10.3 Uplift Resistance U In Cohesionless
U = g dU [dU(2sF BU + LU – BU)KU tanf +
Soils BU LU – Ap] (5-35)
Soil uplift resistance values for foundations in where:
cohesionless soils are based on work by Meyerhof and
Adams (1968). The first step in these calculations is KU = nominal uplift coefficient of earth pressure on a
determining the vertical extent of the uplift soil failure vertical plane through the edges of the
surface for deep foundations, h which is a function of the anchorage systems
angle of internal soil friction f, and the anchorage system = 0.95
width BU. These variables are graphically defined in sF = Factor that accounts for shape of the failure
figure 5-39. The vertical extent of the uplift soil failure plane
surface, h, is given as follows: = 1 + 1.105(10-5) f 2.815dU / BU for f in degrees
AP = cross-sectional area of post/pier
For f < 20: h = 2.5 BU dU = distance between soil surface and top of the
For f > 20: h = BU (5.78 – 0.350 f + 0.00947 f 2) foundation uplift resisting system
BU = diameter of a circular uplift resisting system or
where: f is in degrees. the smaller of the two dimensions characterizing
If h > dU the foundation is classified as a shallow a rectangular uplift resisting system
foundation under uplift. If h < dU the foundation is a LU = length of a rectangular uplift resisting system
deep foundation under uplift. A shallow foundation with a width BU
under uplift is a foundation associated with a failure g = moist unit weight of soil
plane that reaches the ground surface as shown in figure f = soil friction angle, degrees

For a deep foundation under uplift (h < dU) with a

circular anchorage systems:
U = g [π h(dU-h/2) sF BU KU tanf +
dU BU2 π /4 – dU Ap] (5-36) 41 in.
below
For a deep foundation under uplift (h < dU) with a grade
6 in. Wood pier
rectangular anchorage systems:
U = g [h(2dU - h)(2sF BU + LU – BU)KU tanf +
Uplift block
dU BU LU – dU Ap] (5-37)
Bearing plate
where:
12 in.
h = Vertical extent of the uplift soil failure surface
sF = 1 + 1.105(10-5) f 2.815h / BU Figure 5-40. Wood pier anchorage system.
5.10.4 Uplift Resistance U in Cohesive Soils Solution

For foundations with circular anchorage systems Since the soil is cohesionless, the first step in the analysis
surrounded by cohesive soils, uplift resistance is given is to determine the vertical extent of the uplift soil failure
as: surface, h, which is given as:
U = g dU (BU2 π/4 – Ap) + FC Su BU2 π/4 h = BU (5.78 – 0.350 f + 0.00947 f 2)
For foundations with rectangular anchorage systems For a f of 30 and BU of 6.0 inches (i.e., the smaller of the
surrounded by cohesive soils, uplift resistance is given two dimensions characterizing the uplift resisting
as: system), h is 22.8 inches. This is less than the 41 inch
distance between the soil surface and the top of the uplift
U = g dU (BU LU – Ap) + FC Su BU LU
resisting system; therefore the foundation is classified as
where: a deep foundation under uplift, and the maximum uplift
force that can be applied to the foundation is given by
FC = Breakout factor equation 5-37:
= 1.2 dU /BU < 9
U = g [h(2dU - h)(2sF BU + LU – BU)KU tanf +
5.10.5 Backfill Compaction dU BU LU – dU Ap]
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 requires that backfill be where:
compacted to at least 85% of the density of the
surrounding soil. Where this compaction requirement is g = 105 lbf/ft3 = 0.0608 lbf/in3
not met, soil uplift resistance U shall not exceed the h = 22.8 inches
product of the gravitational constant g and the mass of dU = distance between soil surface and top of uplift
backfill material located directly above the anchorage resisting system
system. = 41 inches
sF = shape factor for uplift resistance in deep
5.10.6 Example Analyses foundations in cohesionless soils
= 1 + 1.105(10-5) f 2.815 h / BU
Problem Statement = 1.60
Two nominal 2- by 6- inch wood uplift blocks each with BU = narrow dimension of rectangular uplift system
a length of 12 inches are bolted to the base of a two-ply = 6.0 inches
nail-laminated pier that itself is fabricated from nominal LU = long dimension of rectangular uplift system
2- by 6-inch members (figure 5-40). Attached to the = 12.0 inches
bottom of the uplift blocks and pier is a nominal 2- by 8- KU = nominal uplift coefficient of earth pressure on a
inch bearing plate with a length of 12 inches. The vertical plane
foundation system is in a cohesionless soil with a drained = 0.95
soil friction angle of 30 degrees and moist unit weight of AP = cross sectional area of pier foundation
105 lbf/ft3. The distance between the groundline and the = 16.5 in2
top of the uplift blocks is 41 inches. What is the Substitution of these preceding values into equation 5-37
resistance to uplift provided by soil mass, U, for this produces an uplift soil resisting force U of 1273 lbf
wood pier anchorage system?

Section 5.11 Frost Heave recommended to backfill with coarse granular backfill to
reduce frost heave, this is not recommended when holes
Considerations are dug in clay soils. Drilling holes in clay soils and
5.11.1 General backfilling with a coarse-grained soil turns every post-
hole into a sump pit that traps and holds water. This
Freezing temperatures in the soil result in the formation leaves the backfill in a saturated, and thus prolonged
of ice lenses in the spaces between soil particles. Under low-strength state and very prone to significant frost
the right conditions, these ice lenses will continue to heave when freezing conditions occur. Consequently, as
attract water and increase in size. This expansion of ice a general rule, backfill holes in silts and clays with clay
lenses increases soil volume. If this expansion occurs soils.
under a footing, or alongside a foundation element with a
rough surface, that portion of the foundation will be 5.11.3 Concrete Floors
forced upward. This action is called frost heave, and can If the ground beneath a concrete floor can freeze, the
induce large differential movements in a structure. floor should be installed such that its vertical movement
Differential movement can crack building finishes, and is not restricted by embedded posts or by structural
induce significant stress in structural connections and elements attached to embedded posts. While concrete
components. When ice lenses thaw, soil moisture content shrinkage may break bonds between a floor and
increases dramatically. The soil is generally in a surrounding components, more proactive measures will
saturated state with reduced strength. As soil water ensure independent vertical behavior. For example,
drains from the soil, effective soil stresses increase and roofing felt or plastic film can be placed against
the foundation will generally settle. surrounding surfaces prior to placing the floor.
5.11.2 Minimizing Frost Heave 5.11.4 Concrete Backfill
Frost heave can be minimized by building on soils with a The use of cast-in-place concrete as a backfill material
low likelihood of freezing, providing good water may actually increase the likelihood of frost heave. The
drainage, and using fine-grained soils with caution. rough soil-to-concrete backfill interface provides the
Footing Location. The best way to avoid foundation potential for significant vertical uplift forces due to frost
frost heave is to minimize the freezing potential of heave. Also, the placement of concrete in holes that
underlying soils. This is accomplished by extending decrease in diameter with depth provide additional risk
footings below the local frost line or by using a for frost heave.
foundation system designed and constructed in
accordance with SEI/ASCE 32 (Bohnhoff, 2010a;
Section 5.12 Installation
Bohnhoff, 2010b). Requirements
Water Drainage. Proper surface and subsurface This section covers two construction-related factors that
drainage can reduce frost heave. Drainage of surface can significantly affect structural performance: soil
waters from a structure is enhanced by installing rain compaction and component placement.
gutters, adequately sloping the finish grade away from
the structure, and raising the building elevation to a level 5.12.1 Compaction Under Footings
above that of the surrounding area. Subsurface drainage Compact all disturbed soil at the base of a hole to a level
is achieved with the placement of drain tile or coarse consistent with the soil bearing capacity assumed in
granular material below the maximum frost depth, with design. Soil upon which a precast concrete footing will
drainage to an outlet. Such drainage lowers the water be placed must be flat and level. A non-flat surface
table and interrupts the flow of water moving both results in uneven soil-to-footing contact, and this
vertically and horizontally through the soil. increases bending moments and shear stresses within the
Fine-Grained Soils. Fine-grained soils such as clays footing. If the compacted base is not level, the top
and silts are more susceptible to frost heave than sands surface of any precast concrete footing will not be level,
and gravels because (1) water is drawn up further in the resulting in only line or point contact between the footing
smaller capillaries of fine-grained soils, and (2) there is and post/pier it supports.
much more surface area in a unit volume of fine-grained 5.12.2 Backfill Compaction
soil, and therefore more surface area for water
adsorption. One factor that limits frost heave in fine- Compact all backfill by tamping all soil in layers (a.k.a.
grained soils is that water is less mobile (moves slower) lifts) that do not exceed a thickness of 8 inches (0.2 m)
as capillaries decrease in size – a factor which explains so as to achieve lateral stiffness and strength properties
why frost heave is more of a problem in silts than it is in consistent with those used in design.
the more finer-grained clay soils. While it is often

5.12.3 Embedment Depth Lee, J., Kim, M., & Kyung, D. (2010). Estimation of
lateral load capacity of rigid short piles in sands
Installed depth of a post/pier foundation shall not be less using CPT results. Journal of Geotechnical and
than 90% of the specified depth. A post foundation can Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(1): 48-56.
be installed deeper than specified without adversely
affecting foundation behavior. However, installing a Meyerhof, G.G. & Adams, J.I. (1968). The uplift
post or pier deeper than specified can leave the top too capacity of foundations. Canadian Geotechnical
short to meet specified structural needs. In the case of Journal, 5(4): 225-244.
spliced, laminated wood posts (i.e., posts with
5.13.2 Normative References
preservative-treated lumber spliced to non-treated
lumber), deeper embedment may bring the non-treated Structural Design Specifications
portion of the post closer to grade, making it more
difficult to meet the ANSI/ASAE EP559 requirement ACI 318 Building code requirements for structural
concrete and commentary
that preservative wood treatment extend a minimum of
16 inches above the ground surface. ANSI/AWC NDS National design specification (NDS)
for wood construction with commentary
5.12.4 Footing Placement
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Shallow post and pier foundation
The lateral location and plumbness of drilled holes can
design
be adversely affected by: stones and roots struck during
drilling, rough/sloping terrain, drilling equipment ANSI/ASAE EP559 Design requirements and bending
characteristics, limited site access for drilling equipment, properties for mechanically laminated-wood
etc. This frequently requires that the base of a hole be assemblies
manually enlarged to facilitate more accurate footing
SEI/ASCE 32 Design and construction of frost-protected
placement. Unless otherwise permitted by engineering
shallow foundations
design, a precast concrete footing shall be placed so that
the center of the footing is within a distance b/2 of the Laboratory Soil Testing Standards
center of the post/pier it supports, where b is the width of
ASTM D422 Standard test method for particle-size
the post/pier. Cast-in-place concrete footings shall be
analysis of soils
placed so that distance from the center of the post/pier to
the nearest edge of the footing is not less than half the ASTM D854 Standard test methods for specific gravity
specified diameter/width of the footing. of soil solids by water pycnometer
5.13 References ASTM D2166 Standard test method for unconfined

compressive strength of cohesive soil
5.13.1 Non-Normative References
ASTM D2216 Test methods for laboratory
Bohnhoff, D. R., Hartjes, Z. D., Kammel, D. W., & determination of water (moisture) content of soil
Ryan, N.P. (2003). In-situ hydration of a dry and rock by mass
concrete mix. ASAE Paper No. 034003. St. Joseph,
MI.: American Society of Agricultural Engineers. ASTM D2487 Standard practice for classification of
soils for engineering purposes (unified soil
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2010a). Below-grade insulation for classification system)
post-frame buildings. Part I: preventing frost heave.
Frame Building News, 22(1):55-63. ASTM D2850 Standard test method for unconsolidated-
undrained triaxial compression test on cohesive
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2010b). Below-grade insulation for soils
post-frame buildings. Part II: preventing heat
transfer. Frame Building News, 22(2):56-63. ASTM D3080 Standard test method for direct shear test
of soils under consolidated drained conditions
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2014a). Modeling soil behavior with
simple springs, Part 1: spring placement and ASTM D4318 Standard test methods for liquid limit,
properties. Frame Building News, 26(2):49-54. plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2014b). Modeling soil behavior with ASTM D4643 Test method for determination of water
simple springs, Part 2: determining the ultimate (moisture) content of soil by microwave oven
lateral capacity of a post/pier foundation. Frame heating
Building News, 26(3):50-55. ASTM D4767 Standard test method for consolidated
Briaud, Jean-Louis. (1992). The Pressuremeter. undrained triaxial compression test for cohesive
Brookfield, VT.: A.A. Balkema Publishers. soils

ASTM D4943 Standard test method for shrinkage ASTM D3441 Standard test method for mechanical cone
factors of soils by the wax method penetration tests of soil
In-Situ Soil Testing Standards ASTM D4719 Standard test method for prebored
pressuremeter testing in soils
ASTM D1586 Standard test method for standard
penetration test (SPT) and split-barrel sampling of ASTM D5778 Standard test method for electronic
soils friction cone and piezocone penetration testing of
soils
ASTM D1587 Standard practice for thin-walled tube
sampling of soils for geotechnical purposes ASTM D6066 Standard practice for determining the
normalized penetration resistance of sands for
ASTM D2573 Standard test method for field vane shear
evaluation of liquefaction potential
test in cohesive soil
Preservative-Treated Wood Standard
ASTM D2937 Standard test method for density of soil in
place by the drive-cylinder method AWPA U1 Use category system: User specification for
treated wood

.
CHAPTER 6 .
Diaphragm Design
6.1 Introduction
Contents 6.1.1 2-D Frame Analysis
Prior to the 1980’s, the common method of analysis for
6.1 Introduction 6–1
post-frame structures in agricultural, commercial and
6.2 Structural Model 6–2 light industrial applications was to consider the structure
6.3 Frame Stiffness, k 6–3 as a system of independently-acting, two-dimensional (2-
6.4 Diaphragm Stiffness, Ch 6–10 D) post-frames. Although a 2-D frame analysis method
works well for designing frames under vertical loadings;
6.5 Eave Load, R 6–10
it is often too conservative for designing buildings
6.6 Load Distribution 6–14 against sidesway. In addition, many 2-D frames offer
6.7 Component Design 6–25 little or no resistance to loads acting normal to the frames
6.8 Rigid Roof Design 6–29 (e.g., wind acting normal to the endwalls).
6.9 References 6–30 6.1.2 Diaphragm Action
A considerable portion of the horizontal load applied to
many post-frame structures is actually resisted by roof
and ceiling diaphragms and shearwalls. As previously
stated (Section 4.10), roof and ceiling diaphragms are
large plates that are formed when cladding is attached to
roof and ceiling framing, respectively. These large plates
help redistribute load throughout the structure. This
redistribution of load by the diaphragms is called
diaphragm action. A shearwall is any wall – interior or
exterior – with a measurable amount of racking
resistance. Most of the load to which a diaphragm is
subjected, is transferred to the foundation by shearwalls
orientated parallel to the direction of applied load. Figure
6-1 illustrates a situation in which wind load directed at a
sidewall, is transferred via the roof diaphragm to the
endwalls and one interior wall. Under this loading, the
two endwalls and the one interior wall function as
shearwalls. When the same wind load is directed toward
the endwall, the sidewalls function as shearwalls in
transferring the load from the roof diaphragm to the
foundation system.
6.1.3 Post-Frame Contributions
Whenever load is applied normal to the sidewall of a
structure, any post-frame with measurable racking
resistance functions like the interior shearwall in figure
6-1. The amount of load that an individual post-frame
will transfer to the foundation is dependent on (1) the in-
plane shear stiffness of the diaphragm, and (2) the

racking stiffness of the post-frame relative to that of 6.1.6 ASAE EP484.2.

other post-frames and shearwalls. If a diaphragm is
constructed in such a way that it is quite stiff in shear, The current diaphragm design procedure is outlined in
diaphragm action will be enhanced and the diaphragm ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm Design of Metal-Clad,
will transfer load from post-frames with low racking Wood-Frame Rectangular Buildings. This procedure,
stiffness to shearwalls and post-frames with high racking which is outlined in the following sections, can be
stiffness. However, if the shear stiffness of the broken into five steps:
diaphragm is relatively low, load transfer will be Step 1. Construct a finite element model of the
minimal and the behavior of the structure will be much building by breaking the structure into frame,
more in accordance with the assumption of shearwall, and diaphragm elements (Section
independently acting post-frames. 6.2)
Eave displacement Step 2. Assign stiffness values to frames and
shearwall elements (Section 6.3) and
diaphragm elements (Section 6.4).
Step 3. Calculate structural loads (i.e., eave loads) for
Wind load
the model (Section 6.5).
Step 4. Determine the distribution of load to
individual elements (Section 6.6).
Step 5. Check to make sure that loads do not exceed
Intermediate allowable values (Section 6.7).
shearwall
Roof diaphragm
6.2 Structural Model
End shearwall 6.2.1 General
Original shape The model developed in this section is only applicable
Deformed shape for determining the distribution of loads that are applied
parallel to individual post-frames (a.k.a., primary
Figure 6-1. Example of diaphragm action in which the frames). As previously stated, an individual post-frame
roof diaphragm transfers load to three shearwalls – consists of an individual truss and any attached posts.
one interior and two exterior walls.
6.2.2 Diaphragm Sectioning
6.1.4 Endwall Loadings The process of modeling a post-frame building for
Virtually all post-frame buildings are longer than they diaphragm design begins with the dividing of individual
are wide. It follows, that diaphragms in such buildings, roof and ceiling diaphragms into sections, herein referred
when viewed from the endwall, appear as narrow, deep to as diaphragm sections. Diaphragm sectioning is a
plates. For endwall loadings, these narrow, deep straight-forward process with interior post-frames,
diaphragms are generally assumed to have an infinite interior shearwalls, ridge lines and any other abrupt
shear stiffness, which means that every structural changes in roof and ceiling slopes servings as lines of
element attached to the diaphragm, shifts the same demarcation between diaphragm sections.
amount when the diaphragm shifts without rotating. For Figures 6-2a shows a post-frame building with three
example, under an endwall loading, the roof diaphragm interior post-frames. Drawing a line along each interior
would ensure equal displacement of the top of endwall frame and the ridge results in the eight (8) roof
posts and the top of each sidewall. diaphragm sections shown in figure 6-2c, and the four
6.1.5 Diaphragm Design ceiling diaphragm sections shown in figure 6-2d.
When diaphragm action is accounted for in overall To avoid confusion when assigning properties to
building design, the design process is referred to as diaphragm sections, it is helpful to identify each
diaphragm design. Diaphragm design is a relatively diaphragm section with a two-digit identifier. The first
straight forward process when a diaphragm is (1) digit identifies the bay associated with the section. Bays
assumed to have infinite shear stiffness, and/or (2) only are generally numbered from left-to-right, as shown in
attached to two shearwalls/post-frames (as is generally figures 6-2c and 6-2d. The second digit identifies the
the case with endwall loadings). When neither of these
conditions applies (generally true with loads normal to
the sidewall) diaphragm design is more complex.

Chapter 6 - Diaphragm Design
specific roof or ceiling slope. In figure 6-2, letters have 6.2.3 Discretization
been used to identify these slopes, with letters “a” and
“b” representing different roof slopes, and letter “c” used The process of breaking a structure into elements for
to identify ceiling sections. analysis is referred to as discretization. For diaphragm
design, a structure is broken into frame elements and
diaphragm elements. Each post-frame is considered a
separate frame element, as is each shearwall orientated in
the same direction as the post-frames. The example
building shown in figure 6-2 would be modeled with five
(5) frame elements. These frame elements have been
identified in figures 6-2c and 6-2d with the encircled
numbers (as with individual bays, numbering is generally
from left-to-right). Each diaphragm element models the
diaphragm sections within a single bay. For example,
diaphragm sections 1a, 1b, and 1c in figure 6-2 would be
represented with a single diaphragm element. It follows
(a) that the number of diaphragm elements is equal to the
number of building bays, which in turn, is one less than
the number of frame elements. Discretization of a four-
bay building is shown in figure 6-3a.
Diaphragm "a"
Diaphragm "b" 6.2.4 Spring Model
To determine the distribution of horizontally applied
loads to individual diaphragm and frame elements
requires only a single stiffness property for each element.
Diaphragm "c"
For this reason, diaphragm and frame elements are
generally represented with simple springs. As shown in
figure 6-3c, frame elements are represented with springs
(b) of stiffness, k, and diaphragm elements are represented
as springs with stiffness Ch. The element (or spring)
1 2 3 4 5 connection points (a.k.a. nodes) are taken to represent
locations at the eave of each frame/shearwall.
Horizontal components of applied building loads are
1a 2a 3a 4a typically uniformly distributed along the length of the
building as shown in figure 6-3a. For modeling purposes,
this uniform load is converted into a set of equivalent
1b 2b 3b 4b concentrated loads that are applied at the nodes as shown
in figure 6-3b. Because of the location of their
application, these forces are referred to as eave loads.
(c)
6.3 Frame Stiffness, k
1 2 3 4 5 6.3.1 Definition
To be compatible with a model in which nodes represent
points along the eave line (figure 6-3c), frame element
stiffness, k, must equal the force required for a unit
displacement of the frame at the eave (figure 6-4). In
1c 2c 3c 4c
equation form:
k = P/∆ (6-1)
where:
(d) k = frame stiffness, lbf/in (N/mm)
Figure 6-2. (a) Perspective view of a four-bay post-
P = load applied at eave, lbf (N)
frame building with (b) roof and ceiling ∆ = lateral displacement at eave resulting from
diaphragms. Sectioning of (c) roof diaphragms, applied load P, in (mm)
and (d) ceiling diaphragm.

1 2 3 4 5 6.3.2 Frame Stiffness via FEA

Frame stiffness is generally obtained by analyzing an
entire post-frame with a 2-dimensional finite element
analysis (FEA) program. Numerous FEA programs are
1 2 3 4
commercially available for this task. The algorithms
used by these programs will produce identical results
when a linear, first-order analysis is performed using the
same structural analog. When material non-linearities or
second order analyses (e.g. P-delta analyses) are
conducted, different FEA programs may give slightly
different results for the same structural analog.
(a)
One of the unique aspects of post-frame buildings for
which a modeler must account is the movement
associated with the deformation of the soil surrounding
embedded posts.
6.3.2.1 Modeling with Soil Springs
The most accurate way to account for movement
associated with soil deformation is to use soil springs as
presented in Section 5.6.
r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 6.3.2.2 Modeling Without Soil Springs
(b) In the past, engineers generally ignored soil properties,
and modeled embedded posts using analogs similar to
those shown in figure 6-5. An inherent deficiency of
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 these analogs is that the pin supports used to fix the posts
below grade do not allow the posts to naturally displace.
More problematic is the fact that the analogs in figures 6-
5 produce a reduced post stiffness when depth of
embedment, d, is increased. In reality, anytime a post is
Ch1 Ch2 Ch3 Ch4 embedded deeper into the ground, the stiffness
associated with the post increases.
r1 r2 r3 r4 r5
(c)
Figure 6.3. (a) Top view of a four-bay building
showing individual elements and applied Hp Hp
horizontal loads. Encircled numbers identify
Ground Floor
frame elements, other numbers identify slab
surface
diaphragm elements. (b) Load concentrated at
eaves. (c) Corresponding spring model.
0.34 d
0.7 d
d d
∆
P 0.1 d
(a) (b)
k=P/∆
Figure 6.5. Structural analogs once used for
modeling (a) non-constrained and (b) surface
constrained posts. These analogs are not
recommended for use as they provide a reduced
post stiffness with an increase in embedment depth.
Figure 6-4. Definition of frame stiffness, k.

Individuals who elect to ignore soil behavior in order to Tables 6-1 and 6-2 contain equations for calculating
simplify the modeling of an embedded post, often fix the individual post stiffness values for posts with a constant
post at grade. A better alternative to this practice is to fix flexural rigidty, EI. This requirement excludes spliced
the post at a depth below grade that is equal to the post mechlam posts as defined in Chapter 8. Equations in
width w as shown in figure 6-6. This is because the top Table 6-1 are for posts assumed to be fixed or pinned at
few inches of soil do not provide much lateral restraint. their base. Equations in Table 6-2 are for posts
Not only will fixing the post below grade produce a more embedded in soil.
realistic frame stiffness, but the moment at the fixed
support will more closely match the maximum bending Table 6-1. Post Stiffness Equations for Posts
moment that can be expected to occur in the embedded Not Embedded in Soil
post below grade. Free Non- Free Non-
Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational
(a) (b)
P
H
w
d
Non-constrained post/pier
w Pinned Pinned Fixed Fixed

Post Top
Post
Fixity Post-to-Base Restrained
Figure 6-6. When using a fixed base analog to model Stiffness, kP
Case Connection from Rotating? (b)
a non-constrained post, (a) fix the post at a depth (a)
below grade equal to the post side width, instead of
(b) fixing the post at grade. 1 Pinned No 0
2 Pinned Yes 3EI/H 3
6.3.3 Frame Stiffness via Summation of 3 Fixed No 3EI/H 3
Individual Post Stiffness Values 4 Fixed Yes 12EI/H 3
(a) Top of posts are free to translate in the vertical and
Frame stiffness can be calculated to varying degrees of horizontal directions.
accuracy by summing the stiffness of the individual posts (b) E is post modulus of elasticity, I is post moment of
within the frame. In equation form: inertia, and H is distance between truss/rafter and
base connections.
n
k = Σ kP,i (6-2) The Table 6-2 equations assume the embedded portion of
i=1 the post has an infinite flexural rigidity (EI) below grade
and a constant flexural rigidity stiffness above grade, and
where: that soil modulus of elasticity ES increases linearly with
kP,i = stiffness of post i, lbf/in (N/mm) depth z as
= Pp,i /Δp,i ES = AE z.
PP,i = horizontal force applied to top of post i, lbf
(N) Calculating frame stiffness by summing individual post
ΔP,i = horizontal displacement of the top of post i, stiffness values is relatively accurate when post-to-truss
due to load PP,i, in. (mm) (or post-to-rafter) connections behave as pins and thus
n = number of posts in the post-frame can be appropriately modeled without rotational restraint
(Fixity Cases 1 and 3 in Table 6-1 and Fixity Cases 5 and
7 in Table 6-2).

As the rigidity of post-to-truss/rafter connections stiffness. The error introduced by the infinite bending
increases, the greater will be the dependency of frame stiffness assumption was investigated by Bohnhoff
stiffness on the in-plane bending stiffness of the (1992a) and found to significantly impact some frame
truss/rafter(s). stiffness calculations. Specifically, the stiffness of
frames in narrower buildings with low eave heights was
For there to be full rotational restraint at the top of the
overestimated by 50%. Conversely, in some taller and
post (as is assumed with Fixity Cases 2, 4, 6 and 8), the
wider buildings, the infinitely stiff truss assumption
post-to-truss/rafter connection must be completely rigid
overestimated frame stiffness by less than 10%.
AND the truss/rafter must have an infinite bending
(a)(b)
Table 6-2. Post Stiffness Equations for Posts Embedded in Soil
Free Non- Free Non-
Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational
HP
Grade Line
Non-Constrained Non-Constrained Constrained Constrained

Post Top
Fixity Post Fixity at
Restrained from Post Stiffness, kP (d)
Case Groundline (c)
Rotating?
5 Non-Constrained No 3 EI [C/{C+4.5(d/HP)2 + 12(d/HP)+9}]/HP 3
6 Non-Constrained Yes 12 EI [(C+3)/{C + (d/HP)2(18+6/C) + 24d/HP + 12}]/HP3
7 Constrained No 3 EI [C/(1+C)]/HP3
8 Constrained Yes 12 EI [(1+3C)/(4+3C)]/HP3
(a) Equations assume that the embedded portion of the post has an infinite flexural rigidity (EI) below grade and a constant
EI above grade. Soil modulus of elasticity ES is assumed to increase linearly with depth z as ES = AE z.
(b) From Bohnhoff (1992b)
(c) Top of posts are free to translate in the vertical and horizontal directions.
(d) C = d 4AE HP /(6 EI)
d = distance from grade to the top of a detached footing, or distance from grade to the bottom of an attached footing.
HP = distance from grade to the post-to-truss/rafter connection.
AE = increase in Young’s modulus for soil per unit increase in depth z below grade.
E = modulus of elasticity for above-grade portion of post.
I = moment of inertia for above-grade portion of post.

6.3.4 Shearwalls Solution 1: Modeling with Soil Springs

End shearwalls and intermediate shearwalls, like post-
A model of the below-grade portion of the post frame is
frames, are modeled as frame elements (see Section
shown in figure 6-8. A vertical roller was used to fix the
6.2.3). Consequently, their stiffness, like that for post-
left post at the groundline (i.e., the point where it would
frames, is defined as the ratio of a horizontal force, P,
make contact with the concrete slab as the post moves
applied at the eave of the wall, to the resulting horizontal
inward). Each spring was used to model a 6-inch soil
eave displacement, ∆. layer, resulting in a total of seven springs per post. The
The stiffness of shearwalls can be obtained using stiffness assigned each spring was calculated as KH = 2.0
validated structural models, or from tests of functionally t AE z where AE was fixed at 880 lbf/in2/ft. This value
equivalent assemblies. ASAE EP558.1 gives laboratory corresponds to two time the 440 lbf/in2/ft value listed in
test procedures that can be used to determine the stiffness Table 5-2 for “silty or clayey fine to course sand” in a
of functionally equivalent walls. This topic is also loose state. Doubling of the value from 440 to 880
discussed in Section 7.5. lbf/in2/ft is allowed because the soil is located above the
water table (see Table 5-2 footnote).
The actual analysis was performed using IES Inc.’s
6.3.5 Example Calculations VisualAnalysis program (VA, 2013). A screen capture
of the VisualAnalysis model is shown in figure 6-9.
Problem Statement Like most commercially available structural analysis
programs, VisualAnalysis contains a special spring
Determine the frame stiffness for the post-frame shown element that makes modeling of soil behavior a very
in figure 6-7. Posts are nominal 6- by 6-inch No. 2 straight forward process (you simply input the node and
Southern Pine, that are embedded 3.5 feet. Posts are not direction for spring application along with spring
attached to the footing upon which they bear. A slab-on- stiffness).
grade restricts inward post movement, but does not
restrict movement away from the slab. Truss is pin- The E value of 1.2 million lbf/in2 applies both above and
connected to the posts. Truss chords are nominal 2- by below the groundline for timber. Where the post is a
6-inch No. 1 SP. Truss webs are nominal 2- by 4-inch mechanically-laminated assembly fabricated from
No. 2 SP. Both backfill and surrounding soil are best dimension lumber, the tabulated reference value for E
classified as a loose, silty fine-grained sand. The water must be multiplied by the NDS wet service factor of
table is located a couple feet below the footing. 0.90.
With a post E value of 1.2 million lbf/in2 and I value of
76.25 in4, the application of an 1000 lbf force to the eave
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft 6 ft of the frame produced a horizontal eave displacement of
13.98 inches. This equates to a frame stiffness of 71.5
12
lbf/in.
6
Direction of
applied eave load
8 ft 8 ft 8 ft 3 in.
L1 R1
Nominal 6- by 6-inch L2 R2
15 ft
No. 2 SP posts 3.5 ft
L3 R3
L4 R4
6 in. typ.
L5 R5
5 in. thick concrete slab
L6 R6
3.5 ft L7 R7
6 in. thick, 14 in. diameter

detached concrete footing
Figure 6-8. Spring analog for the below-grade portion
Figure 6-7. Example post-frame. of the post-frame shown in figure 6-7.

Two noteworthy items based on the Table 6-3 results.

Table 6-3. Soil Spring Properties and
First, the horizontal force that is resisted by the concrete
Modeling Results
slab is slightly over five times the eave load. Second,
Depth Spring Post
Com- Below Stiffness, Reaction Move- the left (or constrained) post resists 56.5% of the applied
poent Grade, KH,(b) Force, (c) ment, (d) load, and the right (non-constrained) post the remaining
(a)
z, ft lbf/in. lbf in. 43.5%. Not surprising, the maximum bending moment
Slab 0 NA -5098 0 is much higher in the left post than in the right
L1 0.25 2640 74 -0.028 (104.7E03 in-lbf versus 76.6E03 in-lbf). Maximum
L2 0.75 7920 475 -0.060 bending moment in the left post occurs at the top of the
L3 1.25 13200 889 -0.067 concrete slab, and that for the right post at the location
L4 1.75 18480 1102 -0.060 of spring R1. The significant difference in bending
L5 2.25 23760 1048 -0.044 moments points out the importance of accurately
L6 2.75 29040 739 -0.025 modeling different constraint conditions at the post base.
L7 3.25 34320 206 -0.006
-565(e) Solution 2: Modeling Without Soil Springs
R1 0.25 2640 -755 0.286
Two models with fixed supports were analyzed. For the
R2 0.75 7920 -1357 0.171
R3 1.25 13200 -1145 0.087
first analysis, both posts were fixed at grade – a model
R4 1.75 18480 -521 0.028 that is not recommended (see figure 6-6(b)) because it
R5 2.25 23760 251 -0.011 completely ignores the influence of soil behavior on
R6 2.75 29040 1080 -0.037 frame stiffness. For the second analysis, the base of
R7 3.25 34320 2013 -0.059 each post was fixed 6 inches below grade – a depth
-435(f) approximately equal to post side width as recommended
(a) See figure 6-8. in Section 6.3.2.2 and shown in figure 6-6(a). Results
(b) KH = 2.0 t AE z where AE is 880 lbf/in2/ft for both of these analyses are compiled in Table 6-4.
(c) Forces due to 1000 lbf eave load. Negative values act Table 6-4. Results For Models With Fixed
in direction opposite to applied eave load.
(d) Post movement at depth z due to 1000 lbf eave load.
Supports
Negative values are in opposite direction of applied Both Posts
Both
load. Fixed Six
Posts
(e) Sum of forces acting on left post. Design Variable Inches
Fixed at
(f) Sum of forces acting on right post. Below Grade
Grade (a)
Eave load, lbf 1000 1000

Eave displacement, inches 10.63 11.29
Frame stiffness, lbf/in. 94.1 88.6
Shear force in left post, lbf 500.2 519
Shear force in right post, lbf 499.8 481
Maximum bending moment
90.0E03 93.3E03
in left post, in-lbf
Maximum bending moment
90.0E03 86.6E03
in right post, in-lbf
(a) Left post also fixed from moving horizontally at
grade to simulate slab constraint
Both “fixed base” models produce a frame stiffness
greater than the 71.5 lbf/inch stiffness associated with
the “soil spring” model. Fixing both posts at grade
resulted in a frame stiffness 31% greater than the soil
spring model, and fixing both posts 6-inches below
grade a stiffness 24% greater than the soil spring model.
With both posts fixed at grade, the applied eave load is
Figure 6-9. Screen capture of VisualAnalysis model.
resisted near equally by the two posts (the slight
Upper arrow identifies the eave load. Lower arrows
show location and direction of fixed displacements. difference of 0.04% is due to truss deformation). In this
case, the horizontal translation of the top of each post

large moment of inertia or modulus of elasticity value
could have simply been calculated as V H 3/(3EI) where
can be input to VA to produce an element that for all
V is the shear resisted by the post (equal to ½ the applied
practical purposes behaves as a rigid link. Regardless of
eave load in this case), H is the vertical distance between
the method used, it is important to note that a soil spring
the post-to-truss connection and the fixed base, and E
model (figure 6-8) will provide the same post stiffness
and I are the modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia
values as the equations in Table 6-2 when (1) the post is
of the post.
pin-connected to the truss/rafter, and (2) the post is
Fixing both posts slightly below grade gives a more assumed to have an infinite flexural rigidity below
realistic estimate of frame stiffness, maximum post shear grade.
forces and maximum post bending moments than does Post Lateral Movement, inches
fixing both posts at grade. -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0
For the specific post-frame being analyzed, the
difference in shear forces resisted by the individual posts 0.5
Distance Below Grade, feet

is a direct measure of the difference between the
individual stiffness of a surface-constrained post and that 1.0 Non-constrained,
of a non-constrained post. When modeled using soil Flexible
springs, the post shear forces (and hence maximum 1.5
bending moments) differed by an amount equal to 13% Surface-constrained,
2.0 Rigid
of the applied eave load. For the model that fixes both
posts at a location six inches below grade, this difference 2.5 Non-constrained, Rigid
in post shear forces is 4%. The fact that 4% is much
closer to 0% than 13% implies that fixing the posts six 3.0
inches below grade, while a step in the right direction - Surface-constrained, Flexible
may not be going far enough to capture the affect of soil 3.5
behavior on frame stiffness. Figure 6-10. Effect of post bending stiffness on the
below-grade movement of surface-constrained and
Solution 3: Frame Stiffness by Summation of non-constrained posts. Not to scale (horizontal
Individual Post Stiffness Values displacements significantly exaggerated).
For the post-frame shown in figure 6-7, frame stiffness
The error introduced by assuming the posts are infinitely
can be approximated by summing post stiffness values
rigid below grade is clearly evident in figure 6-10. It is
for the surface-constrained (left) post and the non-
important to note that in both the surface-constrained
constrained (right) post. Equations for calculating these
and non-constrained cases, it is not so much the lateral
values are given in Table 6-2 (Fixity Cases 7 and 5,
movement of the posts that influences overall frame
respectively). In each case d is 42 inches, HP is 180
stiffness, but the rotation of the posts near grade.
inches, AE is 880 lbf/in2 per foot of depth (or 73.33
lbf/in2 per inch of depth), E is 1.2 million lbf/in2, and I ANSI/ASAE EP 486.2 provides some guidance for use
equals 76.25 in4. These numbers yield post stiffness of the “below-grade infinitely rigid post” assumption.
values of 46.4 lbf/inch and 40.5 lbf/inch for the surface When soil modulus of elasticity increases linearly with
constrained and non-constrained post respectively, for a depth an amount AE (as was assumed in this case),
total frame stiffness of 86.9 lbf/in. ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 recommends against assuming a
post (with a flexural rigidity EI) has an infinite flexural
The 86.9 lbf/inch frame stiffness is 20% greater than the
rigidity below grade if the depth of embedment d
frame stiffness of 71.5 lbf/inch obtained with the soil
exceeds 2[EI/(2AE)]0.20. In this case, the quantity
spring model. In this case, the difference is solely due to
2[EI/(2AE)]0.20 equals 28.8 inches, and thus is indeed
the fact that the equations in Table 6-2 assume that the
exceeded by the embedment depth of 42 inches; thereby
embedded portion of a post has an infinite flexural
indicating the posts should not be assumed infinitely
rigidity, EI.
rigid below grade. In other words, the designer should
The difference that the rigid post assumption makes in probably not rely on Table 6-2 equations to determine
below grade movement of the posts is illustrated in the stiffness of the frame in figure 6-7. That said, the
figure 6-11. The displacement values for the curves in equations in Table 6-2 provide a more realistic and more
figure 6-11 were obtained using the VisualAnalysis accurate estimate of frame stiffness than obtained by
(VA) program. VA contains a special “rigid link” totally ignoring soil stiffness (e.g., modeling without soil
element that was used to model those portions of the springs) as is done when embedded posts are assumed
post assumed to be infinitely rigid. Alternatively, a very fixed at grade or fixed slightly below grade.

6.4 Diaphragm Stiffness, Ch 6.4.3 Example Calculation
6.4.1 Definition Problem Statement:

As shown in figure 6-11, the stiffness of a diaphragm What is the total horizontal diaphragm shear stiffness for
element is the horizontal load required to cause a unit each of the four diaphragm elements for the building
shift (in a direction parallel to the trusses/rafters) of the shown in figure 6-2? Assume that each roof diaphragm
roof/ceiling assembly over a frame spacing (a.k.a. bay section has a horizontal shear stiffness of 6000 lbf/inch
width), s. This stiffness is commonly referred to as the and that each ceiling diaphragm section has a horizontal
total horizontal shear stiffness, Ch of the diaphragm for shear stiffness of 4000 lbf/inch.
the building bay in question.
Solution:
For the building in figure 6-2, each bay is comprised of
two roof sections and a ceiling section. Adding the
1 2 3 4 horizontal stiffness of each of these three diaphragm
sections yields the total horizontal diaphragm shear
stiffness for the bay. For building bay 1:
Ch,1 = ch,1a + ch,1b + ch,1c
s1 s2 s3 s4
= 6000 lbf/in + 6000 lbf/in + 4000 lbf/in
(a)
= 16,000 lbf/inch
P P
Given that all diaphragm in this example are identical,
Ch,1 = Ch,2 = Ch,3= Ch,4 .
∆ 6.5 Eave Load, R

i 6.5.1 Definition
Ch,x = P/∆
For diaphragm design, building loads are replaced by an
equivalent set of horizontally acting, concentrated (i.e.,
point) loads. These loads are located at the eave of each
sx frame element (i.e., at each interior post-frame, each end
shearwall, and each intermediate shearwall) and
(b) therefore are referred to as eave loads. Eave loads and
Figure 6-11. (a) Top view of a four-bay building. (b) applied building loads are equivalent when they
Definition of total horizontal diaphragm stiffness for horizontally displace the eave an equal amount ∆ as
building bay x, Ch,x. shown in figure 6-12.
It is important to note that when eave load R from figure
6.4.2 Calculation 6-12(b) is applied in the opposite direction to the loaded
The total horizontal diaphragm shear stiffness for a frame in figure 6-12(a), the horizontal displacement of
building bay is simply equal to the sum of the horizontal the eave ∆ will be numerically equal to zero. In other
shear stiffness values of the diaphragm sections located words, eave load R is numerically equal to the force that
in the building bay. In equation form: keeps the eave of a loaded frame from moving
n horizontally.
Ch,x = Σ ch,i (6-3) 6.5.2 Calculation by Plane-Frame Structural
i=1 Analysis
where:
Ch,x = total horizontal diaphragm shear stiffness for To determine R by plane-frame structural analysis, a
building bay x, lbf/in (N/mm) horizontal restraint (vertical roller) is placed at the eave
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm section line as shown in figure 6-13 and the structural analog is
i in building bay x (from Section 6.4.4), lbf/in analyzed with all external loads in place. The horizontal
(N/mm) reaction at the vertical roller support is numerically equal
n = number of individual diaphragm sections to the eave load, R.
located in building bay x

Roof Gravity Loads 6.5.3 Calculation Using Post Fixity Factors

For a given post-frame, eave load R is numerically equal
sx to the total horizontal load applied to the truss (or
q wr q
∆ sx lr rafters), plus the horizontal load transferred to the truss
(or rafters) by each attached post. When: (1) the only
applied loads with horizontal components are due to
wind, (2) wind pressure is uniformly distributed on each
wall and roof surface, and (3) each post has a fixed
s x qww
flexural rigidity (EI), then eave load can be estimated as:
s x qlw
Ceiling Gravity Loads
R = s (Hwr qwr – Hlr qlr + Hww fw qww – Hlw fl qlw) (6-4)
where:
R = eave load, lbf (N)
s = bay width = frame spacing for interior post-
(a) frames and shearwalls, ft (m)
= one-half the frame spacing for endwalls, ft (m)
∆ Hwr = windward roof height, ft (m)
Hlr = leeward roof height, ft (m)
R Hww = windward wall height, ft (m)
Hlw = leeward wall height, ft (m)
qwr = windward roof pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlr = leeward roof pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qww = windward wall pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlw = leeward wall pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
fw = windward post fixity factor (Table 6.5)
fl = leeward post fixity factor (Table 6.5)
(b)
Height and wind pressure variables are graphically
Figure 6-12. Horizontal eave displacement ∆ due to defined in Figure 6-14. Inward acting wind pressures
(a) applied building loads, and (b) eave load, R. have positive signs, outward acting pressures are
negative. In buildings with variable frame spacings, set s
equal to the average of the frame spacings on each side
Roof Gravity Loads of the frame for which the eave load is being calculated.
s x qlr
sx Hlr
s x qwr
q wr q
sx lr Hwr
Vertical
s x qlw
Roller
s x qww
Hlw
Hww
s x qww
s x qlw

Windward Leeward
Post Post
(constant EI) (constant EI)
Figure 6-14. Variable definitions for equation 6-4.
For symmetrical base restraint and frame geometry,

Figure 6-13. Typical structural analog for obtaining equation 6-4 reduces to:
eave load, R.
R = s [Hr (qwr – qlr) + Hw f (qww – qlw)] (6-5)
Always place the vertical roller at the same location where:
horizontal load P was placed when determining frame Hr = roof height, ft (m)
stiffness (see figure 6-4). The value of R is very Hw = wall height, ft (m)
dependent on the magnitude of forces with horizontal f = frame-base fixity factor for both leeward and
components (i.e., wind and stored materials). windward posts

A post fixity factor is the fraction of the total load acting Cases 1 through 4 are for posts assumed to be fixed or
on a post that is transferred to the eave by the post. Post pinned at their base. Cases 5 through 8 apply to
fixity factors are a function of load distribution, post embedded posts. Equations for embedded posts assume
properties and post end fixities. that the embedded portion has an infinite flexural rigidity
(EI), and that soil modulus of elasticity ES increases
Table 6-5 contains post fixity factors for uniformly
linearly with depth z as ES = AE z.
loaded posts that have a constant flexural rigidity (EI).
(a)(b)
Table 6-5. Post Fixity Factors
Free Non- Free Non- Free Non- Free Non-
Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational
sq HP
HP
Pinned Pinned Fixed Fixed

d
Non- Non- Constrained Constrained

Constrained Constrained
Post Top
Post Fixity at (d)
Fixity Case Restrained from Post Fixity Factor, f
Groundline
Rotating? (c)
1 Pinned No 1/2
2 Pinned Yes 5/8
3 Fixed No 3/8
4 Fixed Yes 1/2
5 Non-Constrained No [C/12 + (d/HP)2 + 2d/HP +1] / [2C/9+(d/HP)2 + 8d/(3HP) + 2]
[C/2 + (d/HP)2(18+6/C) + 20d/HP + 7.5] / [C +
6 Non-Constrained Yes
(d/HP)2(18+6/C) + 24d/HP+12]
7 Constrained No (4 + 3C) / (8 + 8C)
8 Constrained Yes (5 + 3C) / (8 + 6C)
(a) Equations assume a uniformly distributed load acts over height HP and that the embedded portion of the post has an
infinite flexural rigidity (EI) below grade and a constant flexural rigidity above grade. Soil modulus of elasticity ES is
assumed to increase linearly with depth z as ES = AE z.
(b) From Bohnhoff (1992b)
(c) Top of posts can freely translate in vertical direction but are fixed from moving horizontally.
(d) C = d 4AE HP /(6 EI)
HP = distance from grade to the post-to-truss/rafter connection. Also distance over which the uniform load is applied.

6.5.4 Example Calculations
Problem Statement pinned post-to-truss model and the fixed post-to-truss

model. These models produced eave load values of 1111
The post-frame described in Section 6.3.5 is shown lbf and 1249 lbf, respectively.
under a combination of wind and snow loads in figure 6-
15. These loads include a balanced snow load of 30
lbf/ft2, dead loads of 5 lbf/ft2 on both the roof and
ceiling, and winds loads of 8, 3, -7, and -5 lbf/ft2 on the
windward wall, windward roof, leeward roof and
leeward wall, respectively. For analysis purposes, the
roof dead load of 5 lbf/ft2 was converted to a 5.6 lbf/ft2
load acting on a horizontal plane. In figure 6-19 this
roof load is shown combined with the balanced snow
load.
Determine eave load R assuming (1) posts are pin-
connected to the truss, and then (2) posts are rigidly
connected to the truss.
35.6 lbf/ft2
7 lb
f/ft
2 f/ft 2
3 lb
12
6
5 lbf/ft2
Nominal 6- by 6-inch
5 lbf/ft2
8 lbf/ft2
15 ft No. 2 SP posts
24 ft
Frames spaced 8 ft on center
3.5 ft
6 in. thick, 14 in. diameter
detached concrete footing
Figure 6-15. Example post-frame with applied loads.
Solution 1: Calculation by Plane-Frame

Structural Analysis
The post-frame was modeled as described in Section
6.3.5 using seven springs per post to model soil
behavior, and a vertical roller to fix the left post at the
groundline (i.e., the point where it would make contact
with the concrete slab as the post moves inward). In
addition, a vertical roller support was placed at left post-
to-truss connection to determine eave load R. Figure 6-16. Screen captures of VisualAnalysis
The actual analysis was performed using IES Inc.’s output showing deformed model for posts pinned to
VisualAnalysis program (VA, 2013). Screen captures of truss (top) and posts rigidly-connected to truss
(bottom).
VisualAnalysis output are shown in figure 6-16 for the

Solution 2: Calculation Using Post Fixity Solution 3: Calculation Using Post Fixity
Factors for Embedded Posts Factors for Fixed-Based Posts
Since leeward and windward roof heights are the same, When both posts are assumed to be fixed at grade,
and leeward and windward wall heights are the same, equation 6-5 can be used with post fixity factor f equal to
equation 6-4 can be reduced to: 0.375 when posts are assumed to be pin-connected to the
truss (Table 6-5 fixity case 3), and f equal to 0.500 when
R = s [Hr (qwr – qlr) + Hw (fw qww – fl qlw)] (6-6)
posts tops are not allowed to rotate (Table 6-5 fixity case
For this example problem, equation variables are given 4). For this example problem, these fixity factors
as: produce eave loads of 1065 lbf and 1260 lbf,
respectively. These values are 4.1% lower and 0.9%
s = bay width = frame spacing = 8 ft
higher, respectively, than the values of 1111 lbf and
Hr = roof height = 6 ft
1249 lbf obtained via plane-frame structural analysis
Hw = wall height = 15 ft
with soil springs.
qwr = windward roof pressure = 3 lbf/ft2
qlr = leeward roof pressure = -7 lbf/ft2 In general, use of Table 6-5 post fixity factors for Cases
qww = windward wall pressure = 8 lbf/ft2 1 through 4 provides a quick and sufficiently accurate
qlw = leeward wall pressure = -5 lbf/ft2 estimate of eave load.
fw = windward post fixity factor
= 0.377 for constrained post pinned to truss
(Table 6-5 fixity case 7) 6.6 Load Distribution
= 0.502 for constrained post with top fixed from
rotating (Table 6-5 fixity case 8) 6.6.1 General
fl = leeward post fixity factor The distribution of horizontal loads to frames,
= 0.402 for non-constrained post pinned to truss shearwalls, and various diaphragm sections can be
(Table 6-7 fixity case 5) determined after stiffness values have been assigned to
= 0.541 for non-constrained post with top fixed each frame and diaphragm element, and eave loads have
from rotating (Table 6-5 fixity case 6) been established.
Post fixity factors were calculated using the equations in Load distributions are typically determined using a
Table 6-5 with C equal to 74.8 and a d/HP ratio of 0.233. plane-frame structural analysis program as described in
The proceeding variables produce an eave load R of Section 6.6.2, or by using computer program DAFI as
1083 lbf when posts are assumed pinned to the trusses, described in Section 6.6.3. Neither of these two
and a value of 1482 lbf when the top of posts are not approaches places restrictions on frame stiffness values,
allowed to rotate. diaphragm stiffness values, or individual eave load
values.
The 1083 lbf eave load is 2.5% lower than the 1111 lbf
value obtained via plane-frame structural analysis with Two other methods, one using mS and mD Tables as
soil springs and posts pin-connected to the truss. This described in Section 6.6.4, and the other involving
difference can be attributed to the fact that post fixity Simple Beam Analogy Equations as provided in Section
factors for embedded posts assume an infinitely rigid 6.6.5 can be used when all five of the following
post below grade which results in more load being conditions exist: (1) all diaphragm elements have the
attracted to the foundation (and less being shifted to the same stiffness Ch, (2) all interior frame elements have the
eave). same stiffness, k, (3) both exterior frame elements (i.e.,
the two elements representing the endwalls) have the
The 1482 lbf eave load is 18.6% greater than the 1249 same stiffness, ke, (4) eave load, R, is the same at each
lbf value obtained via plane-frame structural analysis interior frame, and (5) the eave load for each exterior
with soil springs and posts rigidly connected to the truss. frame is equal to one-half that for an interior frame.
This significant difference can be attributed to the fact
that the post fixity factors assume post tops do not rotate 6.6.2 Load Distribution via Plane-Frame
which is typically only the case when (1) posts are Structural Analysis
rigidly connected to the truss, and (2) the truss has an Virtually any finite element or plane-frame structural
infinite bending stiffness. When modeling with soil analysis program can be used to determine the
springs, indivudal truss elements and their connections distribution of load between frame and diaphragm
were modeled; that is, the truss was not assumed to elements. The connectivity between, and behavior of
behave as a beam with infinite bending stiffness. these elements are typically represented with a two-

dimensional model as described in Section 6.2.4 and would be required to model each diaphragm). Two
illustrated in figure 6-3(c). The figure 6-3(c) illustration, solutions to this problem are to model the system as
which has been reproduced as figure 6-17(a), has five shown in figures 6-17(b) and 6-17(c).
nodes – one for each interior and endwall frame. These
The model shown in figure 6-17(b) uses conventional
nodes are only allowed to translate in the direction of
frame elements to model diaphragms. The modifier
applied load.
"conventional" is used herein to avoid confusion between
"frame elements" that are used in this chapter to
represent individual post-frames, and the much broader
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
use of "frame elements" as the modeling elements used
to represent framing components in finite element
1 2 3 4 5 analysis programs.
Each of the conventional frame elements in figure 6-
Ch1 Ch2 Ch3 Ch4 17(b) used to model a diaphragm element must be fixed
to their respective nodes, the nodes must also be fixed
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
from rotating (an often overlooked requirement), one
(a) node must be fixed from translating perpendicular to the
applied load, and each element must be assigned a
modulus of elasticity calculated as:
1’ 2’ 3’ 4’ 5’
Ed = Ch Ld3/(12 Id) (6-7)
A1 , E1 , L1
A3 , E3 , L3
A2 , E2 , L2
A4 , E4 , L4
A5 , E5 , L5
or
Ed = Ch Ld3/(bd dd3) (6-8)
1 2 3 4 5
Id1,Ed1,Ld1 Id2,Ed2,Ld2 Id3,Ed3,Ld3 Id4,Ed4,Ld4 where:
Ed = modulus of elasticity assigned to element x
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Ch = shear stiffness of the diaphragm being
modeled with element x
k1 = A1 E1 / L1 k4 = A4 E4 / L4 Ch2 = 12 Ed2 Id2 / Ld23 Ld = length of element x
k2 = A2 E2 / L2 k5 = A5 E5 / L5 Ch3 = 12 E d3 Id3 / Ld33 Id = moment of inertia of element x
k3 = A3 E3 / L3 Ch1 = 12 Ed1 Id1 / Ld13 Ch4 = 12 Ed4 Id4 / Ld43 bd = thickness of element x when element is
rectangular
(b) dd = depth of element x when element is
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 rectangular
R1 Also shown in figure 6-17(b) is the use of conventional
1 R2 2 R3 3 R4 4 R5 5 frame elements (in place of spring elements) to model
Ad1,Ed1,Ld1 Ad2,Ed2,Ld2 Ad3,Ed3,Ld3 Ad4,Ed4,Ld4 the behavior of interior and endwall frames. This
Ch1 = Ad1 Ed1 / Ld1 Ch3 = Ad3 Ed3 / Ld3
requires an additional set of nodes (identified as 1’,2’, 3’,
4’ and 5’ in figure 6-17(b)). Complete the model by pin-
Ch2 = Ad2 Ed2 / Ld2 Ch4 = Ad4 Ed4 / Ld4
(c)
connecting these elements to their respective nodes, and
then assign each element a modulus of elasticity
Figure 6-17. (a) Two-dimensional spring model calculated as:
with frame and diaphragm element stiffness
values and individual eave loads identified. Black E = k L/A (6-9)
dots represent eave nodes with numbers
where:
corresponding to the frame they represent. (b)
Alternate 2-D model using beam elements (in red) E = modulus of elasticity assigned to element x
and truss elements (in blue) to model frame and k = frame stiffness of the post-frame being
diaphragm behavior. (c) Alternate 1-D model. modeled with element x
L = length of element x
A = cross-sectional area of element x
The problem with trying to analyze the figure 6-17(a)
model with a plane-frame structural analysis program is When compiling input values for computer analysis, it is
the program is unlikely to feature a special spring important to maintain a consistent set of units in
element that can be used to completely model an equations 6-7, 6-8 or 6-9. In practice, it is recommended
individual diaphragm (typically a 1-D spring element that nodes be spaced one inch apart (which sets the
plus additional nodes and special rigid link elements length of each element at one inch), and that the width

and depth of all elements be fixed at one inch. When this (Diaphragm And Frame Interaction). A Microsoft
is done, the value of Ed in lbf/in2 is numerically equal to windows-based version of DAFI developed by Ben
the value of Ch in lbf/in. Likewise, the value of E in Bohnhoff can be downloaded at no cost from the NFBA
lbf/in2 will be numerically equal to the value of k in web site:
lbf/in. (http://www.nfba.org/Resources/content/dafi.html).
Output values of interest from the analysis of the figure An example use of DAFI is shown in figure 6-18. When
6-17(b) model are: (1) shear forces in the fixed-end DAFI is first opened, the Default Values window shown
elements which equal the shear forces resisted by the in figure 6-18(a) appears. This window enables users to
diaphragms, (2) axial forces in the pinned-connected input a project name, project filename (name under
elements which equal the forces transferred to the ground which input data will be saved for later retrieval),
by interior and endwall frames, and (3) nodal number of building bays, and default values for: endwall
displacements which equal eave-line displacements of frame stiffness, interior frame stiffness, diaphragm shear
the frames. stiffness, and eave load applied to an interior frame.
Once default values have been entered, they can be saved
Even through it may be less intuitive, the one-
by clicking on the button at the bottom of the window.
dimensional model shown in figure 6-17(c) is typically
Note that default values from previous examples in this
easier to implement than the figure 6-17(b) model. All
chapter have been used in this demonstration of DAFI.
nodes, elements and applied loads associated with the
figure 6-17(c) model are colinear. To precisely illustrate Clicking on the Specific Values tab brings up the
this would result in an indecipherable drawing. For this window shown in figure 6-18(b). Using the previously
reason, the nodes in figure 6-17(c) have been stretched to input default values, DAFI pre-populates the two tables
avoid drawing loads on top of springs on top of elements. that comprise this window. Note that the default eave
load on each endwall frame is set equal to one-half the
Simple springs are used in the figure 6-17(c) to model
default interior frame eave load.
interior and endwall frame behavior, and conventional
modeling elements are used to model diaphragm The Specific Values window can be used to change any
behavior. With respect to the later, the modulus of number of stiffness and/or load values from their default
elasticity that should be assigned to each element is values. Simply click on the cell containing the value to
given as: be changed and enter a new value.
Ed = Ch Ld/Ad (6-10) Analysis results can be obtained by clicking on the
Frame Analysis tab which brings up the window shown
where:
in figure 6-18(c), or the Diaphragm Analysis tab which
Ed = modulus of elasticity assigned to element x brings up the window shown in figure 6-18(d). Data in
either table can be resorted by clicking on the heading of
Ch = shear stiffness of the diaphragm being
one of the columns. This will sort the data in that
modeled with element x
column from high-to-low (or with a subsequent click,
Ld = length of element x from low-to-high). This feature enables a user to quickly
locate the maximum horizontal displacement, diaphragm
Ad = cross-sectional area of element x shear force, etc.
When analyzing the one-dimensional model in figure 6- Shear loads appearing in the DAFI output are horizontal
17(c), all elements should be fixed to their respective compoents of the in-plane shear force to which the
nodes, and at least two of the nodes should be fixed from daiphragm is subjected. It is also important to note that
translating in a direction perpendicular to the applied the shear load listed for each diaphragm in the DAFI
load (if not, the structure will be unstable). Unlike with output is essentially an average shear load in the
the figure 6-17(b) model, the nodes in figure 6-17(c) diaphragm. For example, the average shear load listed in
need not be fixed from rotating. The axial forces induced figure 6-18(d) for diaphragm 1 is 1542.5 lbf . To
in the elements of the one-dimensional model will equal calculate the maximum shear load in each diaphragm
the shear forces in the diaphragm being represented by element, simply add the quantity R/2 to the average
the elements. value. For this example analysis, half the eave load is
6.6.3 Load Distribution via DAFI 555.5 lbf. Adding this to the average shear load in
diaphragm 1 yields a maximum shear force in diaphragm
To avoid using a plane-frame structural analysis program 1 of 2098 lbf. As should be expected, the maximum
to determine load distribution due to diaphragm action, shear force in the end diaphragm is equal to the total
Bohnhoff (1992a) developed computer program DAFI eave load resisted by the endwall frame.

(a)
Default
Values
window
(b)
Specific
Values
window
(c)
Frame
Analysis
window
(d)
Diaphragm
Analysis
window
Figure 6-18. Screen captures of the four DAFI windows.

6.6.3.1 DAFI Inner Workings the eave load for each exterior frame is equal to one-half
that for an interior frame. These five requirements are
DAFI sets up and solves the equations that relate eave generally met in buildings with a fixed bay spacing,
loads to eave displacements. These equations, which are endwalls that are virtually identical in construction, and
obtained by summing the forces applied to the eave interior frames that don’t vary in overall design. When
nodes, can be written as follows (Bohnhoff, 1992): Tables 6-6 and 6-7 are applicable, the analysis tools
For the first endwall frame (i = 1): discussed in Sections 6.6.2 and 6.6.3 are generally not
needed.
R1 = Δ1 (k1 + Ch1) - Δ2 Ch1 (6-11a)
Input parameters required for Tables 6-6 and 6-7 include:
For i = 2 to n – 1: number of frame elements (i.e., the number of interior
Ri = Δi (ki +Ch,i-1+Ch,i) - Δi+1Ch,i - Δi-1Ch,i-1 (6-11b) frames + 2); ratio of diaphragm element to interior frame
element stiffness, Ch / k; and ratio of exterior to interior
For the last frame (i = n): frame element stiffness, ke / k.
Rn = Δn (kn + Ch,n-1) - Δn-1 Ch,n-1 (6-11c) The most highly loaded diaphragm element (in any
Where: building that meets the preceding five conditions) is the
element located adjacent to the endwalls. The maximum
i = eave node at which forces are being summed. shear force in this diaphragm element, Vh, is equal to the
Eave node i is on frame i appropriate shear modifier value, mS, from Table 6-6,
n = total number of frames both endwall and multiplied by the eave load, R, for an interior frame. In
interior equation form:
Δi = displacement of eave node i
Ri = eave load applied to frame i Vh,max = R mS (6-14)
ki = stiffness of frame i where:
Ch,i = shear stiffness of diaphragm element i.
Diaphragm element i is located between nodes i Vh,max = maximum horizontal shear force in a
and i+1. diaphragm element, lbf (N)
mS = shear force modifier from Table 6-6
Once structural equations are established, DAFI R = eave load at interior frame, lbf (N)
simultaneously solves them to obtain the unknown eave
displacements. The following equations are then used to The value obtained from equation 6-14 is simply equal to
calculate shear forces in diaphragm elements, and loads one-half of the total horizontal eave load that is not
resisted by individual interior and exterior frame carried by the interior frames.
elements. The most highly loaded interior frame element (in any
Vhi = Chi (Δi+1 – Δi ) (6-12) building that meets the preceding five conditions) is the
element located closest to the building midlength.
F i = Δ i ki (6-13) Because of diaphragm action, the total horizontal load
where: that this critical frame must resist is reduced from that
which it would resist without diaphragm action. The
Vhi = shear transferred by diaphragm element i magnitude of this reduction is referred to the sidesway
Fi = eave load resisted by frame element i restraining force because in reality, it is a restraining
It is worth noting that the purpose of the models in force applied to the frame by the roof (and/or ceiling)
figures 6-17(b) and 6-17(c) is to essentially trick a plane- diaphragms. Numerically, the sidesway restraining force
frame structural analysis program into developing for the critical frame, Qc, is equal to the product of the
equations 6-11(a), 6-11(b) and 6-11(c). eave load R, and the appropriate sidesway restraining
force factor, mD from Table 6-7. In equation form:
6.6.4 mS and mD Tables
Qc = R mD (6-15)
Forces in the most highly loaded diaphragm and frame
elements, can be calculated using Tables 6-6 and 6-7 where:
when all five of the following conditions exist: (1) all Qc = sidesway restraining force for the critical
diaphragm elements have the same stiffness Ch, (2) all frame, lbf (N)
interior frame elements have the same stiffness, k, (3) mD = sidesway restraining force factor from Table
both exterior frame elements (i.e., the two elements 6-7
representing the endwalls) have the same stiffness, ke, (4) R = eave load at interior frame, lbf (N)
eave load, R, is the same at each interior frame, and (5)

Table 6-6. Shear Force Modifier (mS)

Number of frames (endwalls are counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
5 5 0.88 1.14 1.33 1.45 1.53 1.59 1.62 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68
5 10 0.89 1.19 1.42 1.59 1.72 1.82 1.89 1.94 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.05 2.06
5 20 0.90 1.22 1.48 1.68 1.85 1.98 2.08 2.16 2.23 2.29 2.33 2.36 2.39 2.41
5 50 0.91 1.24 1.51 1.74 1.93 2.10 2.23 2.35 2.45 2.53 2.60 2.67 2.72 2.77
5 100 0.91 1.24 1.53 1.76 1.97 2.14 2.29 2.42 2.53 2.63 2.72 2.80 2.87 2.93
5 200 0.91 1.25 1.53 1.77 1.98 2.16 2.32 2.46 2.58 2.69 2.79 2.87 2.95 3.02
5 500 0.91 1.25 1.54 1.78 1.99 2.18 2.34 2.48 2.61 2.73 2.83 2.92 3.01 3.08
5 1000 0.91 1.25 1.54 1.78 2.00 2.18 2.35 2.49 2.62 2.74 2.84 2.94 3.02 3.10
5 10000 0.91 1.25 1.54 1.79 2.00 2.19 2.35 2.50 2.63 2.75 2.86 2.95 3.04 3.12
10 5 0.91 1.23 1.46 1.62 1.73 1.81 1.86 1.89 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.93 1.94 1.94
10 10 0.93 1.29 1.58 1.81 1.99 2.13 2.23 2.31 2.36 2.40 2.44 2.46 2.48 2.49
10 20 0.94 1.33 1.66 1.94 2.17 2.36 2.52 2.66 2.76 2.85 2.92 2.98 3.03 3.06
10 50 0.95 1.35 1.70 2.02 2.30 2.55 2.76 2.96 3.12 3.27 3.40 3.51 3.61 3.70
10 100 0.95 1.36 1.72 2.05 2.35 2.62 2.86 3.08 3.27 3.45 3.61 3.76 3.89 4.01
10 200 0.95 1.36 1.73 2.07 2.37 2.65 2.91 3.14 3.36 3.56 3.74 3.90 4.06 4.20
10 500 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.39 2.68 2.94 3.19 3.41 3.62 3.82 4.00 4.17 4.32
10 1000 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.40 2.68 2.95 3.20 3.43 3.64 3.84 4.03 4.20 4.37
10 10000 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.40 2.69 2.96 3.21 3.45 3.66 3.87 4.06 4.24 4.41
20 5 0.93 1.28 1.54 1.73 1.85 1.94 2.00 2.03 2.06 2.07 2.09 2.09 2.10 2.10
20 10 0.95 1.35 1.68 1.95 2.16 2.33 2.45 2.55 2.62 2.67 2.71 2.74 2.76 2.78
20 20 0.96 1.39 1.76 2.09 2.38 2.62 2.83 3.00 3.14 3.25 3.35 3.43 3.49 3.54
20 50 0.97 1.41 1.82 2.20 2.54 2.85 3.14 3.39 3.62 3.83 4.01 4.17 4.32 4.44
20 100 0.97 1.42 1.84 2.23 2.60 2.95 3.26 3.56 3.83 4.09 4.32 4.54 4.74 4.92
20 200 0.97 1.42 1.85 2.25 2.63 2.99 3.33 3.65 3.95 4.24 4.50 4.75 4.99 5.21
20 500 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.65 3.02 3.38 3.71 4.03 4.33 4.62 4.90 5.16 5.41
20 1000 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.66 3.03 3.39 3.73 4.06 4.37 4.66 4.95 5.22 5.48
20 10000 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.67 3.04 3.40 3.75 4.08 4.40 4.70 5.00 5.28 5.55
50 5 0.95 1.31 1.59 1.79 1.93 2.03 2.09 2.14 2.16 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.20 2.21
50 10 0.97 1.38 1.74 2.04 2.28 2.46 2.61 2.72 2.80 2.86 2.91 2.94 2.97 2.99
50 20 0.98 1.43 1.83 2.20 2.52 2.80 3.04 3.25 3.41 3.55 3.67 3.77 3.84 3.91
50 50 0.99 1.45 1.90 2.32 2.71 3.08 3.42 3.73 4.01 4.26 4.50 4.70 4.89 5.06
50 100 0.99 1.46 1.92 2.36 2.78 3.18 3.57 3.93 4.27 4.60 4.90 5.18 5.45 5.69
50 200 0.99 1.47 1.93 2.38 2.82 3.24 3.65 4.04 4.42 4.79 5.14 5.47 5.79 6.09
50 500 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.84 3.28 3.70 4.12 4.52 4.91 5.29 5.66 6.02 6.37
50 1000 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.85 3.29 3.72 4.14 4.55 4.96 5.35 5.73 6.11 6.47
50 10000 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.86 3.30 3.74 4.16 4.58 5.00 5.40 5.80 6.19 6.57
100 5 0.95 1.32 1.61 1.82 1.96 2.06 2.13 2.17 2.20 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.24 2.25
100 10 0.97 1.40 1.76 2.07 2.32 2.51 2.67 2.78 2.87 2.93 2.98 3.02 3.05 3.06
100 20 0.98 1.44 1.86 2.24 2.58 2.87 3.12 3.34 3.52 3.67 3.79 3.89 3.98 4.05
100 50 0.99 1.47 1.92 2.36 2.77 3.16 3.52 3.85 4.16 4.43 4.69 4.91 5.12 5.30
100 100 0.99 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.85 3.27 3.68 4.07 4.44 4.79 5.13 5.44 5.73 6.01
100 200 0.99 1.48 1.96 2.43 2.89 3.33 3.77 4.19 4.61 5.00 5.39 5.76 6.12 6.46
100 500 1.00 1.48 1.97 2.44 2.91 3.37 3.83 4.27 4.71 5.14 5.56 5.98 6.38 6.78
100 1000 1.00 1.48 1.97 2.45 2.92 3.39 3.85 4.30 4.75 5.19 5.62 6.05 6.48 6.89
100 10000 1.00 1.49 1.97 2.45 2.93 3.40 3.86 4.32 4.78 5.23 5.68 6.12 6.56 7.00
1000 5 0.95 1.33 1.63 1.84 1.99 2.09 2.16 2.20 2.23 2.25 2.27 2.27 2.28 2.28
1000 10 0.98 1.41 1.78 2.10 2.36 2.56 2.72 2.84 2.93 3.00 3.05 3.09 3.12 3.14
1000 20 0.99 1.45 1.88 2.28 2.63 2.93 3.20 3.43 3.62 3.78 3.91 4.02 4.11 4.18
1000 50 1.00 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.83 3.24 3.62 3.97 4.30 4.60 4.87 5.12 5.34 5.54
1000 100 1.00 1.49 1.97 2.45 2.91 3.36 3.79 4.21 4.61 4.99 5.35 5.69 6.02 6.32
1000 200 1.00 1.49 1.99 2.47 2.95 3.42 3.89 4.34 4.78 5.22 5.64 6.05 6.44 6.83
1000 500 1.00 1.50 1.99 2.49 2.98 3.46 3.95 4.42 4.90 5.37 5.83 6.29 6.74 7.18
1000 1000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.49 2.98 3.48 3.97 4.45 4.94 5.42 5.90 6.37 6.85 7.31
1000 10000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 2.99 3.49 3.98 4.48 4.97 5.47 5.96 6.45 6.94 7.43
10000 5 0.96 1.33 1.63 1.84 1.99 2.09 2.16 2.21 2.24 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.28 2.29
10000 10 0.98 1.41 1.79 2.10 2.36 2.57 2.72 2.85 2.94 3.01 3.06 3.10 3.12 3.14
10000 20 0.99 1.45 1.89 2.28 2.63 2.94 3.21 3.43 3.63 3.79 3.92 4.03 4.12 4.19
10000 50 1.00 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.84 3.25 3.63 3.98 4.31 4.61 4.89 5.14 5.36 5.57
10000 100 1.00 1.49 1.98 2.45 2.92 3.37 3.80 4.22 4.62 5.01 5.37 5.72 6.05 6.35
10000 200 1.00 1.50 1.99 2.48 2.96 3.43 3.90 4.35 4.80 5.24 5.66 6.08 6.48 6.87
10000 500 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.49 2.98 3.47 3.96 4.44 4.92 5.39 5.86 6.32 6.78 7.23
10000 1000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 2.99 3.49 3.98 4.47 4.96 5.44 5.93 6.41 6.88 7.36
10000 10000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 4.99 5.49 5.99 6.49 6.98 7.48

Table 6-6. Shear Force Modifier (mS), cont.

Number of frames (endwalls are counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
5 5 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69 1.69
5 10 2.06 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.07 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08 2.08
5 20 2.43 2.44 2.46 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.48 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.50 2.50
5 50 2.81 2.84 2.87 2.89 2.92 2.94 2.95 2.97 2.98 2.99 3.00 3.01 3.01 3.02
5 100 2.98 3.03 3.07 3.11 3.14 3.18 3.20 3.23 3.25 3.27 3.29 3.30 3.32 3.33
5 200 3.09 3.14 3.19 3.24 3.28 3.32 3.36 3.39 3.42 3.45 3.48 3.50 3.52 3.54
5 500 3.15 3.22 3.28 3.33 3.38 3.43 3.47 3.51 3.55 3.58 3.61 3.64 3.67 3.70
5 1000 3.18 3.24 3.30 3.36 3.41 3.46 3.51 3.55 3.59 3.63 3.66 3.70 3.73 3.75
5 10000 3.20 3.27 3.33 3.39 3.45 3.50 3.54 3.59 3.63 3.67 3.71 3.74 3.78 3.81
10 5 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94
10 10 2.50 2.50 2.51 2.51 2.51 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52
10 20 3.09 3.12 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.21 3.21
10 50 3.77 3.84 3.89 3.94 3.99 4.02 4.06 4.09 4.11 4.13 4.15 4.17 4.18 4.19
10 100 4.12 4.21 4.30 4.38 4.45 4.52 4.58 4.63 4.68 4.72 4.76 4.80 4.83 4.86
10 200 4.33 4.45 4.56 4.66 4.76 4.84 4.92 5.00 5.07 5.13 5.19 5.25 5.30 5.35
10 500 4.47 4.61 4.74 4.86 4.97 5.08 5.18 5.27 5.36 5.44 5.52 5.60 5.67 5.73
10 1000 4.52 4.66 4.80 4.93 5.05 5.16 5.27 5.37 5.47 5.56 5.65 5.73 5.81 5.88
10 10000 4.57 4.72 4.86 4.99 5.12 5.24 5.36 5.47 5.57 5.67 5.76 5.86 5.94 6.03
20 5 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10
20 10 2.79 2.80 2.80 2.81 2.81 2.81 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82
20 20 3.58 3.62 3.64 3.66 3.68 3.69 3.71 3.71 3.72 3.73 3.73 3.74 3.74 3.74
20 50 4.56 4.65 4.74 4.82 4.88 4.94 4.99 5.03 5.07 5.11 5.14 5.16 5.18 5.20
20 100 5.08 5.24 5.38 5.51 5.62 5.73 5.83 5.91 5.99 6.07 6.13 6.20 6.25 6.30
20 200 5.42 5.61 5.80 5.97 6.13 6.28 6.42 6.55 6.67 6.79 6.90 7.00 7.09 7.18
20 500 5.65 5.88 6.09 6.30 6.50 6.69 6.87 7.04 7.20 7.36 7.51 7.65 7.78 7.91
20 1000 5.73 5.97 6.20 6.42 6.64 6.84 7.03 7.22 7.40 7.58 7.74 7.90 8.06 8.21
20 10000 5.81 6.06 6.30 6.54 6.77 6.98 7.20 7.40 7.60 7.79 7.97 8.15 8.33 8.50
50 5 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21
50 10 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.02 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04
50 20 3.96 4.00 4.03 4.06 4.08 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.14 4.15 4.15 4.16
50 50 5.20 5.33 5.45 5.55 5.64 5.72 5.79 5.85 5.90 5.95 5.99 6.03 6.06 6.08
50 100 5.92 6.13 6.33 6.51 6.67 6.83 6.97 7.10 7.21 7.32 7.42 7.51 7.59 7.67
50 200 6.39 6.66 6.93 7.18 7.41 7.64 7.85 8.05 8.24 8.42 8.59 8.75 8.90 9.04
50 500 6.71 7.04 7.36 7.67 7.97 8.26 8.54 8.81 9.07 9.32 9.57 9.80 10.03 10.25
50 1000 6.83 7.18 7.52 7.85 8.18 8.50 8.80 9.10 9.40 9.68 9.96 10.23 10.50 10.75
50 10000 6.94 7.31 7.68 8.03 8.38 8.72 9.06 9.39 9.72 10.04 10.35 10.66 10.97 11.27
100 5 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25
100 10 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.10 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.12
100 20 4.10 4.14 4.18 4.21 4.23 4.25 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.30 4.31 4.31 4.31
100 50 5.46 5.61 5.74 5.85 5.95 6.04 6.12 6.19 6.24 6.30 6.34 6.38 6.42 6.45
100 100 6.26 6.50 6.72 6.93 7.12 7.29 7.45 7.60 7.74 7.86 7.98 8.08 8.18 8.27
100 200 6.79 7.10 7.41 7.69 7.97 8.23 8.48 8.72 8.94 9.15 9.35 9.54 9.72 9.89
100 500 7.16 7.54 7.91 8.27 8.62 8.96 9.29 9.62 9.93 10.24 10.53 10.82 11.10 11.37
100 1000 7.30 7.70 8.10 8.49 8.87 9.24 9.61 9.97 10.33 10.67 11.01 11.35 11.68 12.00
100 10000 7.43 7.85 8.28 8.69 9.11 9.51 9.92 10.32 10.72 11.11 11.50 11.88 12.27 12.64
1000 5 2.28 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29
1000 10 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.18 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19
1000 20 4.24 4.29 4.32 4.36 4.38 4.40 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.46 4.47 4.47
1000 50 5.72 5.88 6.02 6.15 6.26 6.36 6.44 6.52 6.59 6.65 6.70 6.74 6.78 6.81
1000 100 6.61 6.87 7.12 7.35 7.57 7.77 7.95 8.12 8.28 8.43 8.56 8.68 8.79 8.89
1000 200 7.20 7.56 7.90 8.23 8.55 8.85 9.14 9.41 9.68 9.93 10.17 10.39 10.61 10.81
1000 500 7.62 8.05 8.48 8.89 9.30 9.70 10.10 10.48 10.86 11.22 11.58 11.93 12.27 12.61
1000 1000 7.78 8.24 8.69 9.15 9.59 10.04 10.47 10.91 11.33 11.75 12.17 12.58 12.99 13.39
1000 10000 7.92 8.41 8.90 9.39 9.87 10.36 10.84 11.33 11.81 12.29 12.77 13.25 13.73 14.20
10000 5 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29
10000 10 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20
10000 20 4.25 4.30 4.34 4.37 4.40 4.42 4.43 4.45 4.46 4.46 4.47 4.48 4.48 4.48
10000 50 5.75 5.91 6.05 6.18 6.29 6.39 6.48 6.56 6.62 6.68 6.73 6.78 6.82 6.85
10000 100 6.64 6.91 7.17 7.40 7.62 7.82 8.01 8.18 8.34 8.49 8.62 8.74 8.86 8.96
10000 200 7.24 7.60 7.95 8.29 8.61 8.92 9.21 9.49 9.76 10.01 10.26 10.49 10.71 10.91
10000 500 7.67 8.11 8.54 8.96 9.38 9.78 10.18 10.57 10.96 11.33 11.70 12.06 12.41 12.75
10000 1000 7.83 8.30 8.76 9.22 9.67 10.12 10.57 11.01 11.44 11.88 12.30 12.72 13.14 13.55
10000 10000 7.98 8.47 8.97 9.46 9.96 10.45 10.94 11.44 11.93 12.42 12.91 13.40 13.89 14.38

Table 6-7. Sidesway Restraining Force Modifier (mD)

Number of frames (endwalls counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
5 5 0.75 0.64 0.52 0.43 0.34 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.05
5 10 0.78 0.69 0.59 0.52 0.44 0.39 0.33 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11
5 20 0.80 0.72 0.64 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19
5 50 0.81 0.74 0.67 0.62 0.56 0.52 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
5 100 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.32
5 200 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.59 0.55 0.52 0.48 0.46 0.43 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.35
5 500 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36
5 1000 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.37
5 10000 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37
10 5 0.83 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.41 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.06
10 10 0.86 0.79 0.70 0.63 0.54 0.48 0.41 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.14
10 20 0.88 0.83 0.76 0.70 0.64 0.58 0.52 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.25
10 50 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.66 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.42 0.39
10 100 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.49 0.46
10 200 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.51
10 500 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54
10 1000 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55
10 10000 0.91 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.58 0.56
20 5 0.87 0.78 0.65 0.56 0.45 0.38 0.30 0.25 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.07
20 10 0.91 0.85 0.76 0.69 0.60 0.54 0.46 0.41 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16
20 20 0.93 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.66 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.30
20 50 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.48
20 100 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.58
20 200 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
20 500 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69
20 1000 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.71
20 10000 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72
50 5 0.89 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.48 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.21 0.17 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.07
50 10 0.93 0.88 0.80 0.73 0.65 0.58 0.50 0.44 0.38 0.33 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18
50 20 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.77 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.55 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.34
50 50 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.59 0.56
50 100 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.69
50 200 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.77
50 500 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83
50 1000 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85
50 10000 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87
100 5 0.90 0.82 0.69 0.60 0.48 0.41 0.32 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
100 10 0.94 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.66 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.39 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.18
100 20 0.97 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.39 0.35
100 50 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.76 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.62 0.59
100 100 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.73
100 200 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.87 0.85 0.84 0.82
100 500 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88
100 1000 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91
100 10000 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93
1000 5 0.91 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.49 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
1000 10 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.67 0.60 0.52 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19
1000 20 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.49 0.45 0.40 0.36
1000 50 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62
1000 100 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.79 0.77
1000 200 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.87
1000 500 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94
1000 1000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97
1000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
10000 5 0.91 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.49 0.42 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
10000 10 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.53 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19
10000 20 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.49 0.45 0.40 0.37
10000 50 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62
10000 100 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.77
10000 200 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.87
10000 500 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95
10000 1000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97
10000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

Table 6-7. Sidesway Restraining Force Modifier (mD), cont.

Number of frames (endwalls counted as frames)
ke / k Ch / k
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
5 5 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
5 20 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04
5 50 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.10
5 100 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15
5 200 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19
5 500 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21
5 1000 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.23
5 10000 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24
10 5 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
10 10 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
10 20 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05
10 50 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15
10 100 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.23
10 200 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30
10 500 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
10 1000 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37
10 10000 0.54 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39
20 5 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
20 10 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
20 20 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06
20 50 0.45 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.19
20 100 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.31
20 200 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.42 0.41
20 500 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50
20 1000 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.55 0.54 0.53
20 10000 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57
50 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
50 10 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
50 20 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07
50 50 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.22
50 100 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38
50 200 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.54 0.52
50 500 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.65
50 1000 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.71
50 10000 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77
100 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
100 10 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
100 20 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08
100 50 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.24
100 100 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41
100 200 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57
100 500 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73
100 1000 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80
100 10000 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86
1000 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
1000 10 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
1000 20 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
1000 50 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25
1000 100 0.74 0.72 0.69 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
1000 200 0.85 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.63
1000 500 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81
1000 1000 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89
1000 10000 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98
10000 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
10000 10 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
10000 20 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
10000 50 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25
10000 100 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45
10000 200 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.64
10000 500 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82
10000 1000 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90
10000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99

6.6.4.1 Example Application of mS and

mD Tables Vh = Chα s[A sinh(α x) + B cosh(α x)] (6-16)
Problem Statement Vh,max = Chα s B (6-17)
For a four bay building with k = 71.5 lbf/inch, ke =2000 y = A cosh(α x) + B sinh(α x) + R/k (6-18)
lbf/inch, Ch = 16,000 lbf/inch, and R = 1111 lbf, use the ymax = A cosh(α L/2) + B sinh(α L/2) + R/k (6-19)
mS and mD Tables to determine: (1) the maximum
diaphragm element shear force, and (2) the sidesway ye = R / [ k (1 – D)] (6-20)
restraining force for the middle (i.e., critical) post frame. Qc = R – ymax k (6-21)
Solution where:
ke / k = 2000 lbf/in. / 71.5 lbf/ in. = 28.0 R = eave load, lbf (N)
Ch / k = 16,000 lbf/in. / 71.5 lbf/in. = 224 s = frame spacing, in. (mm)
By interpolation from Table 6-6, mS is equal to 1.87. By L = distance between endwalls, in. (mm)
interpolation from Table 6-7, mD is equal to 0.91. Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width s of the
diaphragm, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Vh,max = R mS = 1111 lbf (1.87) = 2076 lbf
k = stiffness of interior frames, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Qc = R mD = 1111 lbf (0.91) = 1011 lbf ke = stiffness of endwall frames (or shearwalls),
The input values for this problem are identical to those lbf/in. (N/mm)
used in the example DAFI analysis shown in figure 6- x = distance from endwall, in. (mm)
18. As previously described, the maximum horizontal y = lateral displacement of diaphragm at a distance
diaphragm shear force, Vh,max, based on the DAFI output x from the endwall, in. (mm)
is 2098 lbf. The sidesway restraining force for the ye = lateral displacement of the endwall, in. (mm)
critical frame, Qc, based on the DAFI output is 1027 lbf. ymax = maximum eave displacement, in. (mm)
The Qc value is obtained by subtracting the load of 84.19
= lateral displacement of diaphragm at a distance
lbf resisted by frame 3 (i.e., the critical frame) from the
x = L/2 from the endwall
load of 1111 lbf applied to frame 3.
Vh = diaphragm shear force, lbf (N)
Comparing the Vh,max and Qc values of 2098 lbf and 1027 Vh,max = maximum diaphragm shear force, lbf (N)
lbf obtained using DAFI, to the Vh,max and Qc values of
= diaphragm shear force at x= 0 or x = L
2076 lbf and 1011 lbf obtained using the mS and mD
Tables, illustrates the slight error introduced with Qc = sidesway restraining force for the critical
interpolation of the lower precision numbers in the mS frame, lbf (N)
and mD Tables. sinh = hyperbolic sine
cosh = hyperbolic cosine
(k / Ch )1/2
6.6.5 Simple Beam Analogy Equations α =
s
McGuire (1998) presented the concept of modeling the A = ye – R/k
diaphragm as a simple beam with an applied load
inversely proportional to deflection. This analogy A ( 1 – cosh(α L))
B =
resulted in the following equations for calculating sinh(α L)
diaphragm shear forces and lateral displacements for the ke sinh(α L)
special case when: (1) all diaphragm elements have the D =
α Ch s (1 - cosh(α L))
same stiffness Ch, (2) all interior frame elements have the
same stiffness, k, (3) both exterior frame elements (i.e., Entering simple beam analogy equations into a
the two elements representing the endwalls) have the spreadsheet program provides for quick and precise
same stiffness, ke, and (4) eave load, R, is the same at calculations, and thus is recommended over calculations
each interior frame. requiring interpolation of mS and mD Table values.

6.6.5.1 Example Application of Simple Ch,x = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm element x
Beam Analogy Equations θ i = slope of diaphragm section i
6.6.6.1 Example Calculation
Problem Statement
For a four bay building with s = 120 inches, k = 71.5 Problem Statement
lbf/inch, ke =2000 lbf/inch, Ch = 16,000 lbf/inch, and
Diaphragm element 1 in figure 6-3 consists of three
R = 1111 lbf, use the simple beam analogy equations
diaphragm sections as shown in figure 6-2: roof sections
to determine: (1) lateral displacement of the endwall,
1a and 1b each with a horizontal shear stiffness of 6000
(2) maximum eave displacement, (3) maximum
lbf/inch, and ceiling section 1c with a horizontal shear
diaphragm element shear force, and (4) sidesway
stiffness of 4000 lbf/inch. When diaphragm element 1 is
restraining force for the critical post frame.
subjected to a horizontal shear force Ch1 of 2100 lbf,
Solution what in-plane shear forces are induced in diaphragm
sections 1a, 1b and 1c? Note that both roof sections are
Properties
sloped at 26.6 degrees (6-in-12 slope) and the ceiling
R = 1111 lbf section is horizontal.
s = 120 in.
L = 480 in. Solution
ke = 2000 lbf/in.
Ch1 = ch,1a + ch,1b + ch,1c
k = 71.5 lbf/in.
= 6000 lbf/in + 6000 lbf/in + 4000 lbf/in
Ch = 16,000 lbf/in.
= 16000 lbf/in
Intermediate Calculations Vp,i = (ch,i / Ch1) Vh1 / (cos θi)
α = 0.00055707 in.
-1
Vp,1a = (6000/16000) (2100 lbf) / 0.894 = 881 lbf
cosh(α L) = 1.03496
sinh(α L) = 0.27059 Vp,1b = (6000/16000) (2100 lbf) / 0.894 = 881 lbf
cosh(α L/2) = 1.00895 Vp,1c = (4000/16000) (2100 lbf) / 1.00 = 525 lbf
sinh(α L/2) = 0.13410
D = -14.069 6.6.7 Forces Applied to Frames by
ye = 1.0311 inches Individual Diaphragms
A = -14.507 inches
B = 1.9281 inches The horizontal movement of most building frames is
resisted by roof/ceiling diaphragms. The total horizontal
Calculated Displacements and Forces resisting force applied to an individual frame by the
ye = 1.031 inches roof/ceiling diaphragms attached to both sides of the
ymax = 1.160 inches frame is defined as the sidesway restraining force, Q.
Vh,max = 2062 lbf
Qc = 1028 lbf To accurately model a frame with resisting forces
applied by the roof and ceiling diaphragms, requires that
the sidesway restraining force, Q, first be divided up
6.6.6 In-Plane Shear Force in a Diaphragm between the individual diaphragm (e.g., diaphragms a, b,
Section, Vp and c in figure 6-2b). This is accomplished using the
The analysis tools/methods discussed in sections 6.6.2 following equation:
through 6.6.5 provide horizontal components of Qi = Q (ch,i / Ch) (6-23)
diaphragm element in-plane forces. In most cases, each
element is comprised of two or more diaphragm sections. where:
The in-plane shear force in each of these diaphragm Qi = sidesway resisting force due to diaphragm i, lbf
sections is calculated as: (N)
Vp,i = (ch,i / Ch,x) Vh,x / (cos θ i) (6-22) Q = total sidesway resisting force acting on the
where: frame, lbf (N)
= Qc for the critical frame
Vp,i = in-plane shear force in diaphragm section i, lbf
Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width s of the
(N)
roof/ceiling assembly, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Vh,x = horizontal shear force in diaphragm element x,
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm i with
(from Sections 6.6.2 through 6.6.5), lbf (N)
width s, lbf/in. (N/mm)
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm section
i, lbf/in. (N/mm)

The total sidesway resisting force acting on a frame is Qp,i = Q i / (cos θ i) (6-24)
not output by DAFI directly, but can be obtained by
subtracting the load resisted by a frame (which is output or
by DAFI) from the eave load, R, applied to the frame. qp,i = Q i / (d i cos θ i) (6-25)
Since diaphragm construction typically doesn‘t change where:
from one side of a frame to the other side of the frame,
Ch and ch,i values associated with either of the two Qpi = in-plane force applied to frame by diaphragm
diaphragm elements (that are adjacent to the frame) can i, lbf (N)
be used in equation 6-23. Qi = sidesway resisting force due to diaphragm i,
lbf (N)
Horizontal restraining forces calculated for the three θ i = slope of diaphragm i
diaphragms in figure 6-2(b), are graphically illustrated in qp,i = in-plane force applied to the frame per unit
figure 6-19(a). For post-frame component stress analysis, length of diaphragm i, lbf/ft (N/m)
these restraining forces should be applied as in-plane d i = slope length of diaphragm i, ft (m)
forces as shown in figure 6-19(b). In-plane forces are
calculated from the horizontal forces as follows:
6.7 Component Design
Roof Gravity Loads 6.7.1 General
All building components must be checked to ensure that
actual loads do not exceed allowable design values. In
s x qwr s x qlr this section, special attention is given to components that
are involved in load transfer by diaphragm action.
Qa Qb 6.7.2 Diaphragms
Qc
The maximum shear in a diaphragm section, Vp,i, cannot
exceed the allowable shear strength of the section, va,i,
Ceiling Gravity Loads multiplied by the diaphragm length.
s xqww
s xqlw
Vp,i < va,i di (6-26)

where:
(a)
Vp,i = in-plane shear force in diaphragm section i
from equation 6-22, lbf (N)
va,i = allowable in-plane shear strength of diaphragm
Roof Gravity Loads i (see Section 7.3.3), lbf/ft (N/m)
di = slope length of diaphragm i, ft (m)
s x qwr s x qlr
6.7.3 Diaphragm Chords
In addition to shear forces, a roof/ceiling diaphragm
assembly must also resist bending moment. The
q p,a q p,b magnitude of this bending moment is dependent on a
q p,c number of factors. For design, this bending moment is
assumed to be no greater than:
Ceiling Gravity Loads Md = Vh,max L / 4 (6-27)

s xqww
s xqlw
where:
Md = diaphragm bending moment, lbf-ft (N m)
Vh,max = maximum total shear in roof/ceiling
(b) diaphragm assembly, lbf (N)
L = distance between shearwalls, ft (m)
Figure 6-19. (a) Frame with diaphragm resisting
forces. (b) Resisting forces applied as uniformly Equation 6-27 treats the roof/ceiling assembly as a
distributed in-plane loads for frame component uniformly loaded beam that is simply supported by two
stress analysis. shearwalls spaced a distance L apart. Each shearwall is
assumed to be subjected to a force that is equal to the
maximum total shear in the roof/ceiling assembly, Vh,max.

The maximum total shear in the roof/ceiling assembly, The axial force in an edge chord is dependent on chord
Vh,max can be obtained via plane-frame structural analysis force distribution as indicated by the presence of α in
(Section 6.6.2), DAFI output (Section 6.6.3), or if equation 6-28. The current ANSI/ASAE EP484
applicable, equations 6-14 or 6-17. The uniform load on diaphragm design procedure assumes that edge chords
the roof/ceiling assembly (w in figure 6-20a) is set equal act alone in resisting bending moment (figure 6-20b). For
to 2Vh,max /L. This quantity is multiplied by L2/8 to obtain this case, α is numerically equal to one (1). This is a
Md. conservative approach. Alternatively, many engineers
The bending moment applied to a roof/ceiling diaphragm assume a linear distribution of chord forces as shown in
assembly is resisted by axial forces (a.k.a. chord forces) figure 6-20c. When a linear distribution is assumed, the
in members oriented perpendicular to trusses/rafters. reduction factor α is a function of chord location. If there
This includes roof purlins and analogous framing are an even number of chords and they are evenly
members in the ceiling diaphragm. For bending moment spaced, then α is given as:
calculations, these members are referred to as diaphragm (n – 1 )2
chords (figure 6-20a). Any connection in the chords, α= n/2 (6-29)
either between intermediate chord members or where Σ (n – 2 i + 1)2
i =1
they are connected to the endwalls, must be designed to
resist the calculated axial force. If there are an odd number of chords and they are evenly
If the roof/ceiling assembly behaves as a single beam in spaced, then α is given as:
resisting bending moment, the maximum chord force (n – 1 )2
(which is located in the edge chords) can be calculated α= (n-1)/2 (6-30)
as: Σ (n – 2 i + 1)2
i =1
Pe = Md α / b (6-28)
where:
where:
α = reduction factor when chords are evenly spaced
Pe = axial force in edge chord, lbf (N) and chord forces are linearly distributed as
Md = diaphragm bending moment from equation 6- shown in figure 6-20c
27, lbf-ft (N m) n = number of chord rows, including the two rows
α = reduction factor dependent on chord force of edge chords
distribution
Equations 6-29 and 6-30 were used to calculate the
b = horizontal distance between edge chords, ft (m)
values given in Table 6-8.
b
Vh,max Vh,max
Shearwall Chords Trusses/rafters

(b) (c) (d)
(a)
Figure 6-20. (a) Plan view of a diaphragm under a uniform load, w. Chord force distributions when (b)
moment resisted by edge chords only, (b) chord force distribution is linear, and (c) chord force
distribution is linear, but diaphragm halves assumed to act independently in resisting moment.

two shearwalls. At all other locations, the moment is
Table 6-8 Reduction Factor, α, for Axial Force in lower, and thus use of equation 6-27 to calculate chord
Edge Chords forces at others locations would in theory be
n* α n* α conservative.
2 1.000 22 0.249
Equation 6-27 neglects the resistance to in-plane bending
3 1.000 23 0.239 contributed by sidewalls. Sidewalls help resist (and
4 0.900 24 0.230 thereby reduce) in-plane bending moments in two ways.
5 0.800 25 0.222 First, they brace endwalls and other shearwalls, which
6 0.714 26 0.214 limits rotation of the diaphragm at these shearwalls.
7 0.643 27 0.206 Second, they resist a change in eave length (and hence
8 0.583 28 0.200 changes in eave chord forces) by virtue of their own in-
9 0.533 29 0.193 plane shear stiffness.
10 0.491 30 0.187 Because of the influence of sidewalls, the distribution of
11 0.455 31 0.181 in-plane bending moment will not follow that for a
12 0.423 32 0.176 typical simple-supported beam (i.e., zero moment at the
13 0.396 33 0.171 supports, and maximum moment at midspan). For this
14 0.371 34 0.166 reason, Pollock and others (1996) recommend modeling
15 0.350 35 0.162 the roof/ceiling assembly as a deep beam with fixed
16 0.335 36 0.158 supports. In this case, the maximum bending moment in
17 0.314 37 0.154 the diaphragm is at the shearwalls and is given as
18 0.298 38 0.150 follows.
19 0.284 39 0.146 Md = Vh,max L / 6 (6-32)
20 0.271 40 0.143
where:
21 0.260 41 0.139
* n is the number of chord rows, including the two rows Md = diaphragm bending moment, lbf-ft (N m)
of edge chords Vh,max = maximum total shear in roof/ceiling
diaphragm assembly, lbf (N)
L = distance between shearwalls, ft (m)
If a linear distribution of chord force is assumed (figure
6-20c), and interior chords are evenly spaced, the load in Equations 6-27 and 6-32 both assume that the diaphragm
an interior chord, Pi, is given as: is located between shearwalls with an identical frame
stiffness ke and thus each is subjected to an identical
Pi = 2 Pe x i / b (6-31) shear force Vh, max as shown in figure 6-20a. More often
where: than not, a diaphragm is located between shearwalls with
differing frame stiffness values. In the extreme case, one
Pi = axial force for chord in row i, lbf (N) shearwall attracts all the load, potentially subjecting the
Pe = axial force in edge chord from equation 6-30, lbf diaphragm at that shearwall to a maximum bending
(N) moment given as:
b = horizontal distance between edge chords, ft (m)
x i = horizontal distance from center of diaphragm to Md = Vh,max L / 2 (6-33)
chord row i. Equation 6-33 would be applicable to a building of
6.7.3.1 Additional Considerations length L in which one of the endwalls has a frame
Regarding Chord Forces stiffness similar to that of the interior frames. Typically
in such structures, the sidewalls (i.e., the walls
The axial force induced in an individual chord by applied perpendicular to the applied load) will play a major roll
building loads is a function of many complex, interacting in resisting the moment induced in the diaphragm.
design variables. For this reason, designers have had to Whether or not the diaphragm is subjected to the
rely on simplifying assumptions in order to approximate maximum moment given by equation 6-33 depends on
chord forces. how the sidewalls are connected to the diaphragm and
The assumption inherent in the development of equation the in-plane shear stiffness of the sidewalls.
6-27 is that the roof/ceiling assembly acts as a large deep It is important to realize that even for a known uniformly
beam that is simply supported by two end shearwalls, applied load, the exact distribution of bending moment
and that half the applied load induced in the diaphragm along the length of a diaphragm is a complex function of
goes to each of these shearwalls. The moment calculated diaphragm geometry (e.g. length-to-width ratio),
using equation 6-27 is the moment midway between the diaphragm properties, the geometry and properties of the

endwalls and sidewalls to which the diaphragm is 6.7.4 Shearwalls

connected, and the connections between all these
elements. It will also vary with load level and changes in End and intermediate shearwalls must have sufficient
load direction due to the inherent nonlinear behavior of strength to transmit forces from roof and ceiling
components and connections. diaphragms to the foundation system. In equation form:
Because of uncertainty surrounding variation in in-plane va > Vs / (W – DT) (6-34)

bending moment with building length, engineers will where:
often assign the maximum calculated in-plane bending
moment Md to every location along the length of the va = allowable shear capacity of shearwall, lbf/ft
building. To balance the conservativeness of this (N/m)
assignment, these engineers will use equation 6-32 Vs = force induced in shearwall, lbf (N)
instead of equation 6-27 to calculate Md. W = building width, ft (m)
DT = total width of door and window openings in
Another major assumption that a designer must make the shearwall, ft (m)
involves the distribution of chord forces across a
building. Three different chord force distributions are The allowable shear capacity of end and intermediate
shown in figure 6-20b, 6-20c, and 6-20d. Based on full- shearwalls, va, is obtained from validated structural
scale building tests (Niu and Gebremedhin, 1997; models, or from tests as outlined in ASAE EP558 (see
Bohnhoff and others, 2003) and computer modeling Section 7.5). The total force in the shear wall, Vs, is
(Wright and Manbeck, 1993; Williams, 1999; and obtained via plane-frame structural analysis (Section
Bohnhoff and others, 1999), the actual distribution of 6.6.2), DAFI output (Section 6.6.3), or if applicable,
chord forces appears to be a complex function of equations 6-14 or 6-17 (note that Vs is equal to Vh,max in
numerous variables. In general, it is recommended that buildings for which equations 6-14 and 6-17 are
designers assume the chord force distribution shown in applicable).
figure 6-20c unless there is a major separation between The total width of door and window openings, DT,
two diaphragms in which case a distribution similar to generally varies with height as shown in figure 6-21. At
that shown in figure 6-20d may be more appropriate. locations where DT is the greatest (section b-b in figure
6-21) additional reinforcing may be required to ensure
6.7.3.2 Example Calculations that the allowable shear stress is not exceeded.
Problem Statement
A building with a width of 24 feet and length of 32 feet
has two similar endwalls, a gable roof with slope of 6-in-
12, and nine rows of purlins per slope (i.e., a purlin
spacing of 20 inches). If the maximum total horizontal a a
shear force Vh,max in the roof diaphragm is 2025 lbf, what
is the maximum chord force in the roof diaphragm.
b b
Solution
Using equation 6-32 to calculate diaphragm bending
c c
moment: W
Md = Vh,max L / 6
Figure 6-21. Shearwall showing variations in opening
= 2025 lbf (32 ft)/6 = 10800 ft-lbf width, DT, with height.
If a linear distribution of chord forces is assumed The structural framing over a door or window opening
Pe = Md α / b will act as a drag strut transferring shear across the
opening. The header over the opening shall be designed
= 10800 ft-lbf (0.298)/24 ft = 134 lbf to carry the force in tension and/or compression across
the opening.
If bending moment is assumed to be resisted only by
edge purlins then: Shearwall strength can easily be increased when the
applied load exceeds shearwall capacity. For example,
Pe = 10800 ft-lbf (1.00)/24 ft = 450 lbf
the density of stitch screws can be increased and
additional fasteners can be added in panel flats (on both
sides of each major rib is the most effective). If only one
side of the wall has been sheathed, add wood paneling or

metal cladding to the other side. Metal diagonal braces Vh,max = L (hwr qwr – hlr qlr +
can also be added beneath any wood paneling or hww fw qww – hlw fl qlw) / 2 (6-35)
corrugated metal siding.
where:
6.7.5 Shearwall Connections Vh,max = maximum diaphragm element shear force, lbf
Connections that fasten (1) roof and ceiling diaphragms (N)
to a shearwall, and (2) shearwalls to the foundation L = building length, ft (m)
system, must be designed to carry the appropriate hwr= windward roof height, ft (m)
amount of shear load. The design of these connections hlr = leeward roof height, ft (m)
may be proved by tests of a typical connection detail or hww = windward wall height, ft (m)
by an appropriate calculation method. hlw = leeward wall height, ft (m)
qwr= design windward roof pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
At end shearwalls it is not uncommon to use the truss top qlr = design leeward roof pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
chord to transfer load from roof cladding to endwall qww = design windward wall pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
cladding. Sidewall steel is fastened directly to the truss qlw = design leeward wall pressure lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
chord, as is the roof steel when purlins are inset. In fw = frame-base fixity factor, windward post
buildings with top-running purlins, roof cladding can not fl = frame-base fixity factor, leeward post
be fastened directly to the truss. In such cases, blocking
equal in depth to the purlins is placed between the Inward acting wind pressures have positive signs,
purlins and fastened to the truss. Roof cladding is then outward acting pressures are negative (figure 6-14). As
attached directly to this blocking. previously noted, frame-base fixity factors, fw and fl,
determine how much of the total wall load is transferred
6.7.6 Shearwall Overturning to the eave, and how much is transferred directly to the
Diaphragm loading produces overturning moment in ground. The greater the resistance to rotation at the base
shearwalls. This moment induces vertical forces in of a wall, the more load will be attracted directly to the
shearwall-to-foundation connections that must be added base of the wall.
to vertical forces resulting from tributary loads. In the For symmetrical base restraint and frame geometry,
case of embedded posts, increases in uplift forces may equation 6-35 reduces to:
require an increase in embedment depth, and increases in
downward force may require an increase in footing size Vh,max = L [hr (qwr – qlr) + hw f (qww – qlw)] / 2 (6-36)
(see Chapter 5). where:
hr = roof height, ft (m)
6.8 Rigid Roof Design hw = wall height, ft (m)
6.8.1 General f = frame-base fixity factor for both leeward and
windward posts
When diaphragm stiffness is considerably greater than
the stiffness of interior post frames, the designer may 6.8.3 Application
want to assume that the diaphragm and shearwalls are The Vh,max value calculated using equation 6-35 (or 6-36)
infinitely stiff. Under this assumption, 100% of the is always a conservative estimate of the actual maximum
applied eave load, R, is transferred by the diaphragm to shear force (due to wind) in a diaphragm assembly. This
shearwalls, and none of the applied eave load is resisted estimate becomes increasingly conservative as the
by the frames. Because all eave load is assumed to be amount of load resisted by interior post-frames increases.
transferred to shearwalls, no special analysis tools or Equations 6-35 and 6-36 are most accurate when
design tables are required to determine load distribution diaphragm stiffness is considerably greater than interior
between diaphragms and post-frames. This simplifies the post-frame stiffness. This tends to be the case in
entire diaphragm design process. This simplified buildings that are relatively wide and/or high, and in
procedure is referred to as rigid roof design (Bender and buildings where individual posts offer no resistance to
others, 1991). rotation (i.e., the posts are more-or less pin-connected at
6.8.2 Calculation both the floor and eave lines).
When (1) the shearwalls and roof/ceiling diaphragm Output from a DAFI analysis of a building with
assembly are assumed to be infinitely rigid, (2) the only relatively high diaphragm and shearwall stiffness values
applied loads with horizontal components are due to is presented in figure 6-18. This output shows less than
wind, and (3) wind pressure is uniformly distributed on 6% of the total horizontal eave load being resisted by the
each wall and roof surface, then the maximum shear interior frames.
force in the diaphragm assembly is given as:

Although rigid roof design expedites calculation of McGuire, P.M. (1998). One equation for compatible eave
maximum diaphragm shear forces, the design procedure deflections. Frame Building News, 10(4):39-44.
does not provide estimates of sidesway restraining force
Niu, K.T. & Gebremedhin, K.G. (1997). Evaluation of
for interior post-frame design.
interaction of wood framing and metal-cladding in
roof diaphragms. Transactions of the ASAE,
6.9 References 40(2):465-476.
Pollock, D. G., Bender D. A., and Gebremedhin, K. G.
6.9.1 Non-Normative References (1996). Designing for chord forces in post-frame
Bender, D. A., Skaggs, T. D., & Woeste, F. E. (1991). roof diaphragms. Frame Building News, 8(5):40-44.
Rigid roof design for post-frame buildings. Applied
VA. (2013). Visual Analysis Version 10.0, IES, Inc.,
Engineering in Agriculture, 7(6):755-760.
Bozeman, MT. www.iesweb.com/
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992a). Expanding diaphragm analysis
Williams, G. D. (1999). Modeling metal-clad wood-
for post-frame buildings. Applied Engineering in
framed diaphragm assemblies. Ph.D. diss.,
Agriculture, 8(4):509-517.
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992b). Estimating frame stiffness and
Wright, B. W. & Manbeck, H. B. (1993). Finite element
analysis of wood-framed metal-clad diaphragm
buildings. Trans of the ASAE, 35(3):1043-1054.
panels. Trans of the ASAE, 36(3):895-904.
Bohnhoff, D. R., Boor, P. A., & Anderson, G. A. (1999).
Thoughts on metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm 6.9.2 Normative References
action and a full-scale building test. ASAE Paper
No. 994202, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Shallow post and pier foundation
design
Bohnhoff, D. R., Boor, P. A., & Gadani, M.H. (2003).
UW & LBS full-scale metal-clad wood-frame ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm design of metal-clad
diaphragm study. Report 3: Building load wood-frame rectangular buildings
configurations, load cases and data analysis ASAE EP558.1 Load tests for metal-clad wood-frame
methods. ASAE Paper No. 034004. ASABE, St. diaphragms
Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org

.
CHAPTER 7 .
Metal-Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragm

Properties
7.1 Introduction
Contents 7.1.1 General
7.1 Introduction 7-1 One of the first steps in diaphragm design is to establish
7.2 Design Variables 7-2 in-plane shear strength and stiffness values for each
7.3 Diaphragm Test Assemblies 7-2 identified diaphragm section. In most post-frame
buildings, these diaphragm sections consist of corrugated
7.4 Building Diaphragm Properties 7-5 metal panels that have been screwed or nailed to wood
7.5 Building Shearwall Properties 7-5 framing. Behavior of these metal-clad wood-frame
7.6 Tabulated Data 7-5 (MCWF) diaphragms is complex, and consequently, has
been the subject of considerable research during the past
7.7 Example Calculations 7-12
40 years. In addition to improving overall design, this
7.8 References 7-12 research has led to improved methods for predicting
metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm strength and stiffness.
7.1.2 Predicting Diaphragm Behavior
There are essentially three procedures for predicting the
strength and stiffness of a building diaphragm. First, an
exact replica of the building diaphragm (a.k.a. a full-size
diaphragm) can be built and tested to failure. Second, a
smaller, representative section of the building diaphragm
can be built and laboratory tested. The strength and
stiffness of this test assembly are then extrapolated to
obtain strength and stiffness values for the building
diaphragm. Lastly, diaphragm behavior can be predicted
using finite element analysis software. The latter requires
that the strength and stiffness properties of individual
component (e.g., wood framing, mechanical connections,
cladding) be known.
Of the three procedures for predicting metal-clad wood-
frame diaphragm properties, only the second one -
extrapolation of diaphragm test assembly data - is
commonly used. This is because testing full-size
diaphragms is simply not practical (a new test would
have to be conducted every time overall dimensions
changed), and finite element analysis of MCWF
diaphragms is, for practical purposes, still in a
developmental stage. The later can be attributed to the
fact that the large number of variables affecting
diaphragm structural properties, as well as the nonlinear

behavior of some variables, has thus far precluded the shear stiffness and strength of mechanical connections
development of a quick and reasonably accurate closed-
between wood members and between wood members
form approximation of diaphragm strength and stiffness.
and cladding.
7.1.3 ASAE EP558 and EP484
7.2.5 Mechanical Connections
Construction specifications and testing procedures for
Type (screw or nail), size, and relative location of
diaphragm test assemblies are given in ASAE EP558
mechanical fasteners used to join components
Load Tests for Metal-Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragms
significantly impact diaphragm properties. Fasteners are
(ASABE, 2013). EP558 also gives equations for
primarily defined by what they connect. Major categories
calculating diaphragm test assembly strength and
include purlin-to-rafter, sheet-to-purlin, and sheet-to-
stiffness. These calculations along with construction
sheet (see figure 7-1). Sheet-to-sheet fasteners are more
specifications and testing procedures from EP558 are
commonly referred to as stitch or seam fasteners.
outlined in Section 7.3 Diaphragm Assembly Tests. For
Removing stitch fasteners can dramatically reduce the
additional details and further explanation of testing
shear strength and stiffness of a diaphragm. Sheet-to-
procedures, readers are referred to the ASAE EP558
purlin fasteners are also defined by their location (i.e.,
Commentary (ASABE, 2013).
end, edge, and field). A sheet-to-purlin fastener may be
ANSI/ASAE EP484 Diaphragm Design of Metal-Clad, located in a rib or in the flat of a corrugated metal panel.
Wood-Frame Rectangular Buildings (ASABE, 2012) Locating fasteners in the flat generally produces stronger
contains the equations for extrapolating diaphragm test and stiffer diaphragms. The nonlinear nature of fastener
assembly properties for use in building design. These performance is one of the more complex variables
calculations are presented in Section 7.4 Building affecting diaphragm stiffness.
Diaphragm Properties.
7.2.6 Blocking
7.2 Design Variables When secondary framing members are installed above
primary framing (e.g. top running purlins) or below
7.2.1 General primary framing (e.g. bottom-running ceiling framing),
cladding can only be fastened directly to the secondary
Many variables affect the shear stiffness and strength of
framing (see figure 7-1). In such cases, blocking is often
a structural diaphragm, including: overall geometry,
placed between the cladding and primary framing to
cladding characteristics, wood properties, fastener type
increase shear transfer between the components. This is
and location, and blocking. A short description of each of
commonly done at locations where diaphragms and
these variables follows.
shearwalls intersect.
7.2.2. Geometry
Geometric variables include: spacing between secondary 7.3 Diaphragm Test Assemblies
framing members (e.g. purlins), spacing between primary
7.3.1 Construction
framing members (e.g., trusses/rafters), and overall
dimensions. With respect to overall dimensions, With the exception of overall length and width, a
diaphragm depth is measured parallel to primary frames, diaphragm test assembly is required to be identical to the
diaphragm length is measured perpendicular to primary diaphragm in the building being designed. Specifically,
frames. In most structures, the overall length of a roof frame members must be of identical size, spacing,
diaphragm is equal to the length of the building. species and grade; metal cladding must be identical in
composition, profile and thickness; and fastener type and
7.2.3 Cladding location must be the same. ASAE EP558 has established
Cladding type (e.g., wood, metal, fiberglass, etc.) is a minimum sizes for diaphragm test assemblies to ensure
significant design variable. Coverage (and examples) in that there is not too great a difference between the size of
this design manual is limited to corrugated metal a diaphragm test assembly and the actual building
cladding. Important design characteristics of this type of diaphragm.
cladding include: base metal (e.g., steel, aluminum), base
7.3.2 Test Configurations
metal thickness, panel profile, and individual sheet width
and length. ASAE EP558 allows for two different testing
configurations: a simple beam test (figure 7-2) and a
7.2.4 Wood Framing cantilever test (figures 7-3 and 7-4). In figures 7-2 and 7-
The species, moisture content and specific gravity of 4, variable “a” represents the spacing between
wood used in the framing system will not only affect the rafters/trusses (a.k.a. the frame spacing). This spacing
structural properties of the wood members, but also the

Chapter 7– Metal-Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragm Properties
should be equal to, or a multiple of, the frame spacing in

the building being designed.
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners (Field)
Stitch Fastener Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener
Sheet-to-Purlin Fastener (Edge) Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners (End)
Sidelap Seam Corrugated Metal Cladding
Rake Blocking between purlins Purlin Rafter/Truss Top Chord

Purlin
Figure 7-1. Components of a metal-clad wood-frame roof diaphragm.
Test assembly width, 3a
Applied force, P/2 Applied force, P/2
F Rafter / Truss chord I K G
Purlins
Test assembly length, b
Cladding
corrugations
Direction of
E J L H
2 3
1 4
Deflection gage location and direction of measured deflection (typ.)
Notes:
1. The applied forces may alternately be applied at points J and L
2. Locate gages 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the rafters/ truss chords

Figure 7-2. Simple beam test configuration for roof and ceiling diaphragm test assemblies.
Applied force, P factor λ), can not be used to increase the allowable
design shear strength during building design.
F G Applied force, P
2
Direction of F Rafter / Truss chord G

Corrugations
2
Purlins
Post

Girt Cladding
Girt Post
Corrugations
Direction of
4
E Test assembly width, a H
Deflection gage location
and direction of measured
1 deflection (typ.) 3
Notes:
1. Force P may be alternately applied at point H
2. Locate gages 1, 2 and 4 on the posts
3. Locate gage 3 on the girt 4
E H
Figure 7-3. Cantilever test configuration for shear Test assembly width, a
wall test assemblies.
Deflection gage location
and direction of measured
7.3.3 Shear Strength 1
deflection (typ.) 3
The allowable design shear strength, of a diaphragm test Notes:

assembly is equal to 40% of the ultimate strength of the 1. Force P may be alternately applied at point H
2. Locate gages 2 and 4 on the edge purlins
assembly. In equation form:
3. Locate gages 1 and 3 on the rafter / truss chord
Cantilever test: Figure 7-4. Cantilever test configuration for roof and
va = 0.40 Pu / b (7-1) diaphragm test assemblies.
Simple beam test: 7.3.4 Shear Stiffness

va = 0.40 Pu / (2b) (7-2) The procedure for determining the effective shear
where: modulus of a test assembly begins with calculation of the
adjusted load-point deflection, DT. This value takes into
va = allowable design shear strength, lbf/ft (N/m) account rigid body rotation/translation during assembly
Pu = ultimate strength, lbf (N) test and is calculated as follows:
= total applied load at failure
b = assembly length, ft (m) (see figures 7-2, 7-3 and Cantilever test:
7-4) DT = D3 – D1 – (a/b) (D2 + D4) (7-3)
If one or more of the test assembly failures were initiated Simple beam test:
by lumber breakage or by failure of the fastenings in the
wood, then the allowable design shear stress must be DT = (D2 + D3 – D1 – D4) / 2 (7-4)
adjusted to account for test duration. To adjust from a where:
total elapsed testing time of 10 minutes to a normal ASD
load duration of ten years, divide va by a factor of 1.6. DT = adjusted load point deflection, in. (mm)
When this reduction is not applied (as would be the case D1, D2, D3, and D4 = deflection measurements, in.
when test assembly failure is not initiated by wood (mm) (see figures 7-2, 7-3 and 7-4)
failure), the NDS load duration factor CD (or time effect a = assembly width, ft (m)

b = assembly length, ft (m) bS = slope length of building diaphragm section

being modeled, ft (m)
The effective in-plane shear stiffness, c, for a diaphragm
s = width of the building diaphragm section being
test assembly is defined as the ratio of applied load to
modeled, ft (m)
adjusted load point deflection at 40% of ultimate load.
bh = horizontal span length of building diaphragm
For a cantilever test:
section, ft (m)
c = 0.4 Pu / DT,d (7-5) θ = slope of the building diaphragm section, degrees
For a simple beam test: Implicit in equation 7-8 is the assumption that the total
shear stiffness of a building diaphragm is a linear
c = 0.2 Pu / DT,d (7-6)
function of length.
where:
7.4.4 Horizontal Shear Stiffness
c = effective in-plane shear stiffness for the
diaphragm test assembly, lbf/in. (N/mm) The horizontal shear stiffness, ch, of a building
DT,d = adjusted load-point deflection, DT, at 0.4 Pu, in. diaphragm section is related to its in-plane shear stiffness
(mm) as follows:
The in-plane shear stiffness for the diaphragm test ch = cp cos2(θ) (7-10)
assembly, c, is converted to an effective shear modulus or
for the test assembly, G, as: ch = G bh cos(θ) / s (7-11)
G = c (a/b) (7-7) 7.5 Building Shearwall Properties

where: 7.5.1 General
G = effective shear modulus of the test assembly, The same procedure used to determine the strength and
lbf/in (N/mm) stiffness of building diaphragms is used to determine the
strength and stiffness of building shearwalls. That is,
7.4 Building Diaphragm Properties representative test assemblies are loaded to failure, to
7.4.1 General determine their shear strength and stiffness. These
properties are then linearly extrapolated to obtain
As described in Chapter 6, each building diaphragm is strength and stiffness values for the building
sectioned for analysis. Each of these sections must be shearwall(s).
assigned a horizontal stiffness value, ch, and an allowable
load, va. 7.5.2 Shearwall Test Assemblies
7.4.2 Shear Strength ASAE EP558 also contains guidelines for construction
and testing of shearwall test assemblies. With the
The allowable design shear strength of a building exception of overall length and width, a shearwall test
diaphragm is equal to that calculated for the diaphragm assembly is required to be identical to the shearwall in
test assembly. Consequently, to calculate the total in- the building being designed. Specifically, frame
plane shear load that a building diaphragm can sustain, members must be of identical size, spacing, species and
simply multiply the allowable design shear strength, va, grade; cladding must be identical; and fastener type and
by the slope length of the building diaphragm. location must be the same.
7.4.3 In-Plane Shear Stiffness 7.6 Tabulated Data
The in-plane shear stiffness, cp, of a building diaphragm
section is calculated from the effective shear modulus, G,
7.6.1 Sources
of the diaphragm test assembly using the following Testing replicate samples of diaphragm test assemblies
equation: can get expensive. For this reason, a designer may
G bs choose not to conduct his/her own diaphragm tests,
cp = (7-8)
s relying instead on designs that have been previously
or tested by others. Information on many tested designs is
G bh available in the public domain. Cladding manufacturers
cp = (7-9)
s cos(θ) may have additional test information on assemblies that
where: feature their own products.
G = effective shear stiffness of test assembly, lbf/in 7.6.2 Example Tabulated Data
(N/mm)

Table 7-1 contains design details and engineering shear wall tests assemblies. The information in these
properties for roof diaphragm tests assemblies. Table 7-2 tables represents a small percentage of available data.
contains design details and engineering properties for
Table 7-1. MCWF Roof Diaphragm Test Assembly Data
Test Assembly Number 1 2 3 4
Test Configuration Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever
Cladding
Wick Agri Wick Agri Midwest
Manufacturer/Trade Name Wick Agri Panel
Panel Panel Manufacturing.
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 28 28 29 29
Major Rib Spacing, inches 12 12 12 12
Major Rib Height, inches 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.0
Major Rib Base Width, inches 1.25 1.25 1.25 2.5
Major Rib Top Width, inches 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.5
Yield Strength, ksi 50 50 80 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 9 9 9 6
Length, b , feet 12 12 12 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2 2 2 2
Rafter Spacing, feet 9 9 9 6
Purlin Location Top running Top running Top running Top running
Purlin Orientation On edge On edge On edge On edge
Number of Internal Seams 2 2 2 2
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch
Purlin Species and Grade No.1 & 2 SPF No.1 & 2 SPF No.1 & 2 SPF No.2 SYP
Rafter Species and Grade No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP
Stitch Fastener
Type None Screw Screw EZ Seal Nail
Length, inches 1.0 1.0 2.5
Diameter #10 #10 8d
On Center Spacing, inches 24 24 24
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners
Type Screw Screw Screw EZ Seal Nail
Length, inches 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.5
Diameter #10 #10 #10 8d
Location in Field In Flat In Flat In Flat Major Rib
Location on End In Flat In Flat In Flat In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 12 12 12 12
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 6 6 6 12
60d Threaded 60d Threaded 60d Threaded 60d Threaded
Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener
Hardened Nail Hardened Nail Hardened Nail Hardened Nail
Engineering Properties
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 2140 3390 3220 1930
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 71 113 107 64
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 1625 2720 2720 1590
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 1220 2040 2040 795
Wee &
Reference Anderson, 1989 Anderson, 1989 Anderson, 1989
Anderson, 1990

Table 7-1. cont., MCWF Roof Diaphragm Test Assembly Data

Test Configuration Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever
Cladding
Midwest Walters
Manufacturer/Trade Name Grandrib 3 Grandrib 3
Manufacturing STR-28
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 29 29 29 28
Major Rib Spacing, inches 12 12 12 12
Major Rib Height, inches 1.0 0.75 0.75 0.94
Major Rib Base Width, inches 2.5 1.75 1.75
Major Rib Top Width, inches 0.5 0.5 0.5
Yield Strength, ksi 80 80 80 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 6 9 9 9
Length, b , feet 12 12 12 16
Purlin Spacing, feet 2 2 2 2
Rafter Spacing, feet 6 9 9 9
Purlin Location Top running Top running Top running Top running
Purlin Orientation On edge On edge On edge On edge
Number of Internal Seams 2 2 2 2
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch
Purlin Species and Grade No.2 SYP No.2 DFL No.2 SPF No.2 SYP
Rafter Species and Grade No. 1 SYP No. 2 DFL No. 2 SPF 1950f1.7E SYP
Stitch Fastener
Type EZ Seal Nail None None Screw
Length, inches 2.5 1.5
Diameter 8d #10
On Center Spacing, inches 24 24
Type Screw Screw Screw Screw
Length, inches 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.5
Diameter #12 #10 #10 #10
Location in Field In Flat In Flat In Flat In Flat
Location on End In Flat In Flat In Flat In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 6 12 12 12 and 18
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 6 6 6 12
60d Threaded 1-60d Spike + 1-60d Spike + 60d Threaded
Hardened Nail 2-10d Toenails 2-10d Toenails Hardened Nail
Wee & Lukens & Lukens & Bohnhoff and
Reference
Anderson, 1990 Bundy, 1987 Bundy, 1987 others, 1991


Test Configuration Simple Beam
Cladding
Type Regular Leg Extended Leg Regular Leg Extended Leg
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 29
Major Rib Spacing, inches 9
Major Rib Height, inches 0.62
Major Rib Base Width, inches 1.75
Major Rib Top Width, inches 0.75
Yield Strength, ksi 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 36
Length, b , feet 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2
Rafter Spacing Pair of rafters every 12 feet (each pair spaced 6 in. apart)
Purlin Location Top running and lapped Inset
Purlin length, ft 13.2 and 12.0 11.25
To special blocking nailed between
Purlin Attachment To joist hanger attached to rafters
each pair of rafters
Purlin Orientation On edge
Number of Internal Seams 11
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 6-inch
Purlin Species and Grade No.2 DFL and 1650f DFL
Rafter Species and Grade No. 2 DFL
Stitch Fastener*
Type None Screw* None Screw*
Length, inches 1.5 1.5
Diameter #10 #10
On Center Spacing, inches 24 24
Type Screw
Length, inches 1.5
Diameter #10
Location in Field In Flat
Location on End In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 9
Avg. On–Center Spacing on End, in. 9
Reference NFBA, 1996
* Because of the extended leg, screws installed in the flat at overlapping seams function as stitch fasteners.


Test Assembly Number 13 14 15
Test Configuration Simple Beam Simple Beam Simple Beam
Cladding
Metal Sales Pro Panel McElroy Metal
Manufacturer/Trade Name Metal Sales Pro Panel II
II Max Rib
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 30 30 29
Major Rib Spacing, inches 9.0 9.0 9.0
Major Rib Base Width, inches 1.75
Major Rib Top Width, inches
Yield Strength, ksi 104 104 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 24 24 24
Length, b , feet 12 12 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2.33 2.33 2
Pair of rafters every 12 Pair of rafters every
Rafter Spacing, feet feet (each pair spaced 6 12 feet (each pair 8
in. apart) spaced 6 in. apart)
Purlin Location Top running Top running Top running
Purlin Orientation On edge On edge NA
Number of Internal Seams 8 8 7
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 6-inch 2- by 6-inch Mac-Girt steel hat
section: 1.5 in. tall,
Purlin Species and Grade 1650f 1.5E SPF 1650f 1.5E SPF
3.2 in. wide, 18 ga.
Rafter Species and Grade 1650f 1.5E SPF 1650f 1.5E SPF 2250f 1.9E SP
Stitch Fastener
Type Screw None None
Length, inches 0.625
Diameter #12
On Center Spacing, inches 9
Type Screw Screw Screw
Length, inches 1.5 1.5 1.0
#10 in field
Diameter #10 #14
#14 in ends
Location in Field In Flat In Flat In Flat
Location on End In Flat In Flat In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 9 9 18 (3 screws/sheet)
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 4.5 4.5 9 (4 screws/sheet)
Two - #12 x 1.6 in.
screws/joint
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 9600 6600 8645
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 160 110 144
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 7680 7100 10700
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 7680 7100 7130
Reference Townsend, 1992 Townsend, 1992 Myers, 1994


Test Configuration Simple Beam
Cladding
Manufacturer/Trade Name Fabral Grandrib 3
Major Rib Base Width, inches
Yield Strength (measured), ksi 83
Overall Design
Width, feet 24
Length, b , feet 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2
Rafter Spacing, feet 8 (center bay), 7.88 (outer two bays)
Fully recessed
Purlins-on-edge with blocking between all purlins.
in Simpson ST
Purlin Location Each block connected with two 60d hardened ring
PFD24 and
shank nails
PF24A hangers
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 4-inch
Purlin Species and Grade SPF 1650 Fb-1.5E
Rafter Species and Grade Doug Fir (N) Select Structural
Stitch Fastener
Type Screw Screw Screw Screw
Length, inches 1.5 0.75 1.5 0.75
Diameter #12 #12 #12 #12
On Center Spacing, inches 24 8 24 8
Type Screw
Length, inches 1.0
Diameter #10
Location in Field In Flat
Location on End In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 9
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 4.5
Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener One 60d hardened ring-shank nail
Simpson CS 16,
Eight 3 in. x Twelve 3 in. x Eight 3 in. x
CS14 and CS20
0.131 in. smooth 0.131 in. 0.131 in.
Tension Chord Reinforcement straps with
shank nails per smooth shank smooth shank
numerous 8d
lap nails per lap nails per lap
nails
Reference CMEC, 2013

Table 7-2. MCWF Shearwall Test Assembly Data

Test Assembly Number 1 2 3 4 5
Test Configuration Cantilever
Cladding
Manufacturer/Trade Name Fabral Grandrib 3
Major Rib Base Width, inches
Yield Strength, ksi 72 (measured, 0.2% offset)
Overall Design
Width (wall height), a, feet 12
Length, b, feet 16
Girt/Splash Plank Spacing, feet 3 2 3
Post Spacing, feet 8
Girt/Splash Plank Type Exterior
Post Type 3-ply, spliced, nail-laminated
Between Between
Blocking None girts on outer None girts on
posts outer posts
Wood Properties
Girts 2- by 4-inch, 1650 Fb-1.5E Spruce-Pine-Fir
Splash Plank 2- by 8-inch, No.2, PPT (Pressure Preservative Treated), Hem Fir
Same as
Blocking NA Same as girts NA
girts
Posts Base: 2x6 in., No.2 PPT Hem Fir. Top: 2x6 in., SS Doug Fir-Larch
Stitch Fastener
Type None Screw
Length, inches NA 0.75
Diameter NA #12
On Center Spacing, inches NA 8 24 18
Sheet-to-Girt Fasteners
Type Screw
Length, inches 1.0
Diameter #10
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 7.2 9
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 4.5
Three 3.5 in. x 0.162 in. diameter ring shank nails (galvanized in PPT lumber)
Girt-to-Post Fasteners
in each girt end and in each post-girt lap. Same for splash plank.
Four 3.5 in. x 0.162 in. dia. ring shank nails
Blocking-to-Post Fasteners NA
per block
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 4020 5810 9650 5700 5880
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 100 145 240 140 145
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 7400 9500 19000 10100 14500
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 5500 7100 14000 7600 11000
Reference CMEC (2012)

7.7 Example Calculations
Bohnhoff, D. R., Anderson, G. A. & Boor, P.A. (1991).
Problem Statement Influence of insulation on the behavior of steel-clad
wood frame diaphragms. Applied Engineering in
A designer wishes to find ch and va for roof diaphragm
Agriculture 7(6):748-754.
sections in a gable-roofed building with roof slopes of 4-
in-12. Distance between eaves is 36 feet, and post-frame CMEC. (2012). Development of design data for steel-
spacing, s, is 10 feet. clad, wood-framed shear walls. CMEC Technical
Report 12-004. Composite Materials & Engineering
A cantilever test of a representative diaphragm test
Center (CMEC), Washington State University,
assembly with a width, a, of 10 feet and a length, b, of
Pullman, WA. www.cmec.wsu.edu.
12 feet, yields an ultimate strength, Pu of 3900 lbf and an
effective in-plane stiffness, c, of 4000 lbf/in. The test CMEC. (2013). Development of design data for steel-
assembly failure was not wood related, therefore the clad, wood-framed diaphragms. CMEC Technical
ultimate strength was not adjusted for load duration. Report 12-030. Composite Materials & Engineering
Center (CMEC), Washington State University,
Solution
Pullman, WA. www.cmec.wsu.edu.
Equation 7-1: va (test assembly) = 0.40 Pu / b
Lukens, A. D., & Bundy. D. S. (1987). Strength and
va = 0.40 (3900 lbf) /12 ft = 130 lbf/ft stiffnesses of post-frame building roof panels.
ASAE Paper No. 874056. ASABE, St. Joseph, MI.
Equation 7-7: G = c (a/b)
www.asabe.org.
G = (4000 lbf/in) (10 ft/12 ft) = 3333 lbf/in.
Myers, N.C. (1994). McElroy Metal Post-Frame Roof
Equation 7-11: ch = G bh cos(θ) / s Diaphragm Test. Test Report 94-418. Progressive
Engineering, Inc., Goshen, IN.
ch = (3333 lbf/in) (36 ft / 2) (cos 18.4°) / 10 ft
NFBA. (1996). 1996 diaphragm test. National Frame
ch = 5690 lbf/in. Building Association (NFBA), Chicago, IL.
The horizontal stiffness, ch of 5690 lbf/in represents a www.nfba.org.
single diaphragm section that runs from eave to ridge Townsend, M. (1992). Alumax test report: diaphragm
and has a width of 10 feet. loading on roofs and end wall sections. Alumax
va (diaphragm) = va (test diaphragm) Building Products, Perris, CA.
va (diaphragm) = 130 lbf/ft Wee, C.L. & Anderson, G.A. (1990). Strength and
stiffness of metal clad roof section. ASAE Paper No.
904029. ASABE, St. Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org.
7.8 References 7.8.2 Normative References
7.8.1 Non-Normative References ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm design of metal-clad,
Anderson, G.A. (1989) Effect of fasteners on the wood-frame rectangular buildings.
stiffness and strength of timber-framed metal-clad ASAE EP558 Load tests for metal-clad wood-frame
roof sections. ASAE Paper No. MCR89-501. ASAE, diaphragms
St. Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org.

.
CHAPTER 8
Post Design
Contents 8.1 Introduction
8.1 Introduction 8-1 Wood posts are the identifying characteristic of a post-
8.2 Post Definitions 8-1 frame building system, and thus post-frame building
design is largely centered around post design.
8.3 Relative Cost 8-2
8.4 Preservative Treatment 8-3 A designer has many different post types from which to
choose. These different types were introduced in
8.5 Corrosion Potential 8-4 Chapter 1. Section 8.2 repeats and expounds on these
8.6 Bending Characteristics 8-4 definitions.
8.7 Structural Framing Requirements and Options 8-6 Section 8.2 is followed by six sections intended to assist
8.8 Thermal Considerations 8-8 designers in post type selection. These six sections
8.9 Post Analysis 8-9 address relative cost, preservative treatment, corrosion
potential, bending characteristics, structural framing
8.10 Reference Design Values 8-13
requirements and options, and thermal requirements.
8.11 Adjustment Factors 8-20 Given that selection criteria can change throughout a
8.12 Controlling Design Equations 8-31 building, it is not uncommon for more than one post type
8.13 Example Calculations 8-32 to be featured in the same building.
8.14 References 8-35 Section 8.9 covers determination of post forces; Section
8.10 contains reference design values for different post
types; Section 8.11 addresses adjustment factors for
reference design values; Section 8.12 overviews
controlling design equations; and Section 8.13 provides
example post design calculations.
8.2 Post Definitions

Posts are defined by basic type, direction of applied
bending load, base support, and where they are
positioned within a building.
8.2.1 Basic Post Types
Basic wood post types include solid-sawn, structural
composite lumber, glue-laminated, mechanically-
laminated and poles. These post types were defined in
Section 1.2.3 as:
 Solid-sawn post: Post comprised of a single piece
of sawn lumber.
 Structural composite lumber post (SCL post):
Post comprised of a single piece of structural
composite lumber. Structural composite lumber
(SCL) includes, but is not limited to: parallel strand
lumber (PSL), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), and
laminated strand lumber (LSL).

 Glued-laminated post (or glulam post): Post Vertically-Laminated Post: A mechlam or glulam post
consisting of suitably selected sawn lumber primarily designed to resist bending loads applied
laminations joined with a structural adhesive. parallel to the planes of contact between the individual
layers (figure 8-1(d)).
 Mechanically-laminated post (or mechlam post):
Post consisting of suitably selected sawn lumber
laminations or structural composite lumber (SCL)
laminations joined with nails, screws, bolts, and/or
other mechanical fasteners.
 Pole: A round, naturally tapered, unsawn, wood
post. Poles are sometimes slabbed to aid in
attaching other framing members to the pole.
Mechlam posts are further categorized by the type of (a) (b)
mechanical fastener used to join individual wood layers.
Nail-laminated (or nail-lam) posts are mechlams that
only use nails, and screw-laminated (or screw-lam)
posts are mechlams that only use screws. Although not Y X
covered in Chapter 1, a mechanically laminated post can
also be formed by bolting together individual wood
layers.
Individual layers in glulam and mechlam posts often X X Y Y
contain end joints. Such end joints can have a significant
impact on assembly behavior and thus require special
design consideration. An unspliced post is one in which
all laminations behave as unspliced members. A Y X
lamination behaves as an unspliced member when it does
(c) (d)
not contain any end joints, or when the end joints it
contains are certified structural glued end joints. A Figure 8-1. (a) plank loading, (b) beam loading, (c)
spliced post is one in which individual laminations are horizontally-laminated, (d) vertically laminated.
fabricated by end-joining shorter wood members without
the use of certified structural glued end joints. These end
joints are generally either unreinforced butt joints, 8.2.3 Base Support
mechanically-reinforced butt joints, or they are glued Wood posts anchored in the soil are defined as
scarf joints and glued finger joints that do not meet the embedded posts, whereas those supported by concrete
strength criteria to be designated as certified structural piers, slabs and walls are defined as non-embedded
glued end joints. posts. Embedded posts are further classified as
constrained and non-constrained. A constrained
8.2.2 Direction of Loading
embedded post is one that is restrained from significant
Post bending strength must frequently be calculated for horizontal movement at or near the ground surface,
bending about one or both post axes. Depending upon typically by a concrete slab, whereas a non-constrained
which axis a post is being bent for the calculation at embedded post has no such lateral restraint at or near the
hand, one of the following definitions will apply. ground surface.
Plank Loading: An LVL post with a bending load 8.2.4 Post Location
applied perpendicular to individual plies (figure 8-1(a)),
or an LSL or PSL post with a bending load applied As defined in Section 1.2.3, a post is frequently defined
perpendicular to the wide faces of strands. by its location within a structural frame as either an
endwall, sidewall, corner, jamb or interior post. Post
Beam Loading: An LVL post with a bending load location generally dictates boundary conditions relating
applied parallel to individual plies (figure 8-1(b)), or an to lateral support and post end fixity.
LSL or PSL post with a bending load applied parallel the
wide faces of strands.
8.3 Relative Cost
Horizontally-Laminated Post: A mechlam or glulam
post primarily designed to resist bending loads applied Proper cost comparison of posts requires that material,
perpendicular (or normal) to the interlayer planes (figure fabrication, storage, handling, transportation, and
8-1(c)). erection costs be considered.

Chapter 8. Post Design
8.3.1 Material Costs posts, Use Category UC4B or better treatment extend a
minimum of 16 inches (40 cm) above the ground or
With respect to material costs, the most expensive posts waterline. Posts that are located above ground, but are
are SCL posts and posts laminated using SCL materials. exposed to all weather cycles, including prolonged
The relative high cost of SCL can be attributed to the wetting, should be treated in accordance with AWPA
cost of SCL manufacturing facilities, as well as the Use Category UC4A ore better.
limited number of such facilities which increase the cost
of transporting material to and from the facilities. Retention levels for Use Categories UC4A and UC4B
are provided in Section 6 of AWPA U1. Section 6
The total material cost associated with glulam and categorizes retention levels by commodity. AWPA U1
mechlam posts fabricated from dimension lumber is Commodity Specification A covers solid-sawn posts and
almost always less than that of solid-sawn posts, even post fabricated from dimension lumber; AWPA U1
when the cost of adhesive, fasteners and joint reinforcing Commodity Specification F covers posts comprised of
is included. This is because laminated posts are pieced structural composite lumber.
together from smaller, shorter, less expensive dimension
lumber. As laminated post length increases, material cost AWPA U1 retention levels are considered minimums
per foot of post stays relatively constant. Conversely, and are tabulated in units of lbm/ft3 and kg/m3. In
solid-sawn posts become increasingly more expensive addition to Use Category, minimum retention levels are a
(on a unit length basis) in lengths over 16 ft (4.9 m). function of preservative type. In some cases, wood
Additional savings in material costs, specifically in wood species and component size can also influence the
preservative, may be realized if spliced posts are used minimum required retention level.
when only one post end requires treatment. As an example of the difference between Use Categories
8.3.2 Fabrication Costs UC4A and UC4B, the minimum required retention level
for CCA-treated dimension lumber of any wood species
Whether or not it is feasible to use glulam and mechlam is 0.40 lbm/ft3 for Use Category UC4A, and 0.60 lbm/ft3
posts is largely dependent on labor and equipment costs for Use Category UC4B.
associated with post fabrication. Glulam post assembly
involves planing operations to prepare surfaces for Because use of certain treatments in certain SCL
gluing and then to remove excess glue. Equipment for materials is associated with a reduction in design
clamping layers together is essential in glulam post strengths, consult manufacturer’s literature for
fabrication and is often used in the fabrication of appropriate treatment adjustment factors.
mechlam posts. If metal plate connectors will be used to 8.4.2 Uniformity of Treatment
reinforce end joints in mechlam posts, equipment with
the capacity to embed the plates is also required. The Uniformity of treatment is dependent on wood species,
initial cost of equipment is highly dependent on the presence of heartwood, and incising. Although incising
degree to which the assembly process will be automated. is associated with a reduction in strength, it is commonly
Machines specifically built to manufacture nail- used prior to treatment of non-Southern Pine species.
laminated posts are in use. With or without incising, preservative penetration depth
is limited in all species. For this reason, it is not
8.3.3 Miscellaneous Costs uncommon for the center of a large, solid-sawn post to
Costs associated with storage, handling, transportation, be void of preservative (figure 8-2(b)). This becomes
and erection influence post selection to a lesser degree. problematic when the untreated center is exposed by
Maintaining a large inventory of SCL or solid-sawn drilling, sawing, or the formation of a primary check.
posts in a variety of lengths adds to overhead costs. Thus Since thinner lumber will be more uniformly treated
builders who predominately use laminated posts are able through its entire cross-section, use of laminated posts
to reduce their inventory of posts. fabricated from layers of preservative treated lumber
(figure 8-2(a)) minimizes the situation illustrated in
figure 8-2(b). For this reason, individual laminations of
8.4 Preservative Treatment a treated glulam post are generally preservative-treated
8.4.1 Requirements before they are glued together.
Any post or portion thereof that is in ground contact or in 8.4.3 Treating Option for Spliced Posts
freshwater should be pressure preservative-treated in Laminated posts in which each layer consists of treated
accordance with AWPA U1 Use Category UC4B or wood that has been end-jointed to non-treated wood can
better. ANSI/ASAE EP559 requires that for mechlam be used where only one post end requires preservative
treatment (frequently the case with embedded posts).

Although this practice saves preservative treatment, the 8.6 Bending Characteristics
cost savings of using less preservative treated wood must
be weighed against: (1) the additional manufacturing 8.6.1 Uni- Versus Biaxial Bending Strength
costs associated with splicing, and (2) the reduction in
Post selection is largely dictated by post bending
post strength and stiffness that may be required
properties. In some cases, post bending strength and
depending on the type of end joints used.
stiffness about a single axis is important. For other
applications, post bending strength about both axes is
important.
Solid-sawn, SCL and glulam posts that are square will
have similar bending properties about both axes. This is
not the case for mechlam posts, and thus mechlam posts
are typically not an optimal choice where an application
requires similar bending strength about both posts axes.
This is frequently the case with a post that is not laterally
supported in any direction between its base and its top.
(a) (b)
Figure 8-2. (a) Cross section of a glulam post with
preservative that penetrates 100% of each piece of
dimension lumber, and (b) cross section of a nominal
6- by 6-inch member with poor envelope penetration
of preservative.
8.5 Corrosion Potential

The environment in which a post is placed will dictate
the extent to which corrosion potential will influence
material selection.
8.5.1 Fasteners Located Above Grade
ANSI/ASAE EP559 requires that mechanical fasteners
used above grade to join waterborne preservative-treated (a) (b) (c)
lumber be of AISI type 304 or 316 stainless steel, silicon
bronze, or copper, or contain a coating applied in Figure 8-3. Posts bent about axis X-X showing: (a)
interlayer rigidity of a horizontally glued laminated
accordance with the treated wood or fastener
post, (b) interlayer slip of a horizontally mechanically
manufacturer recommendations for AWPA Use Category laminated post, (c) delamination of a horizontally nail-
UC4A treatment levels for sawn lumber products. In the laminated post
absence of manufacturer’s recommendations, a minimum
ASTM A153 Class D zinc coating (average 1.00 ounce 8.6.2 Effect of Interlayer Slip
per square foot) or equivalent, must be used.
The significantly different bending properties that a
8.5.2 Fasteners Located Below Grade mechlam post can exhibit under strong and weak axis
ANSI/ASAE EP 559 also requires AISI type 304 or 316 bending (when compared to a glulam post) are
stainless steel mechanical fasteners below grade to assure attributable to interlayer slip. If an unspliced mechlam is
compatibility of deformation between treated laminates. subjected to bending about axis Y-Y (figure 8-1(d)),
there is negligible slip between layers. If the same
8.5.3 Highly Corrosive Environments unspliced post is subject to bending about axis X-X
In environments that are especially corrosive, it is often (figure 8-1(c)), there often is considerable slip between
best to avoid use of mechlam posts. This may include layers (figure 8-3(b)). In some mechlam posts, this slip
for example: moist, unvented manure storage areas; salt can be so large that for all practical purposes, the
storage structures; and certain water treatment facilities. individual layers act independently to resist the applied
loads. For this reason, mechanically laminated posts are

oriented and designed to resist the highest bending considered along with the relative increase in post
moments in bending about axis Y-Y. When this is done, strength. Reinforcing in most laminated posts consist of
the posts are classified as vertically laminated 16 to 24 gauge: steel sheets, nail plates, or metal plate
assemblies. connectors. This type of joint reinforcing would be
considered "light". Heavier reinforcement is generally
8.6.3 Effect of End Joint Type not cost effective.
The bending strength of a spliced mechlam post about
8.6.4 Relative Bending Strength
the Y-Y axis is highly dependent on the type of end
joints used in the assembly. When end joints are If solid-sawn, SCL, glulam, unspliced mechlam, and
structural glued end joints, the post behaves and can be spliced mechlam posts of equal size were fabricated
treated as an unspliced post (i.e., a post that does not using material from the same log and then compared on
contain end joints) as shown in figure 8-4(a). At the the basis of bending strength about their strongest axis,
other end of the spectrum are spliced mechlams with the rating (from strongest to weakest) would be:
unreinforced butt joints. Such joints increase interlayer
1. SCL and glulam
slip and significantly reduce post bending strength in the
vicinity of the joints (figure 8-4(b)). In fact, the bending 2. Unspliced mechlam and spliced mechlam with
strength about axis Y-Y in the splice region of a certified structural glued end joints
mechlam post with unreinforced butt joints will typically
be less than one-half the bending strength about axis Y-Y 3. Solid-sawn
in the unspliced regions of the same post. This reduction 4. Spliced mechlam without certified structural glued
due to splicing is even worse if the splice region is not end joints
laterally supported when the post is bent about the Y-Y
axis. Without lateral support, lateral torsional buckling If the same posts were compared on the basis of bending
will increase the likelihood of delamination (figure 8- about their weak axis, the rating (from strongest to
3(c)), especially in nail-laminated assemblies. weakest) would be:
1. SCL and glulam
2. Solid-sawn
3. Unspliced mechlam and spliced mechlam with
Vertical certified structural glued end joints
Finger 4. Spliced mechlam without certified structural glued
Joint
end joints
The main advantage that SCL, mechlam and glulam
Horizontal
Finger
posts have over solid-sawn posts is that they have more
Joint uniform strength and stiffness properties. This is because
laminating spreads out natural and seasoning defects and,
consequently, they are not concentrated in a particular
area to the extent that they are in solid-sawn posts. This
characteristic translates into greater reliability and
(a) (b) therefore higher design stresses are justified for SCL and
glulam posts.
Figure 8-4. Mechanically-laminated posts bent about
axis Y-Y showing: (a) negligible interlayer slip at a 8.6.5 Face Plates
glued finger joint, and (b) significant interlayer slip
and a higher required fastener density at an Where bending strength of a mechlam about the X-X
unreinforced butt joint. axis is important, or where a mechlam requires greater
stability for bending about the Y-Y axis, face plates can
8.6.3.1 Butt-Joint Reinforcement be added to the post as shown in figure 8-5. In many
cases this is a less expensive option than switching to a
In between unspliced mechlams and spliced mechlams solid-sawn, SCL or glulam post.
with unreinforced butt joints, are spliced mechlams with
butt-joint reinforcement. The main objective when In most cases, face plates must extend the full length of
designing butt joint reinforcement is to obtain a the post (Bohnhoff and Gadani, 2002) to be effective.
significant increase in bending strength about axis Y-Y Face plates must also be properly attached. Typical
without substantially increasing assembly cost. Because attachment consists of 12d to 16d nails driven into every
of this, the cost of adding reinforcement must always be mechlam layer on a one- to two-foot spacing.

8.6.7 Steel Columns

Where tall interior columns without lateral support are
Face Plate required or desired (e.g., interior roof supports for some
dairy freestall barns), many designers have used round or
square steel tubes in lieu of wood posts. In some cases
the decision is based on wood versus steel prices. In
Mechlam Post other cases the decision is based on overall weight/size.
It is not uncommon for steel columns and wood posts to
be used in the same post-frame.
Face Plate
8.7 Structural Framing
Figure 8-5. Face plates added to a mechlam post to
increase bending strength about the X-X axis and Requirements and Options
lateral stability for bending about the Y-Y axis. Structural framing requirements and options that
influence post selection include such variables as total
8.6.6 I-Posts post length, post end fixity, laterally unsupported length,
An excellent post for applications where bi-axial bending and girt and bracing attachment.
strength is important, is an I-section fabricated by 8.7.1 Total Post Length
attaching dimension lumber flanges to a laminated strand
lumber (LSL) web with screws and polyurethane Total post length influences post cost and often limits
adhesive (figure 8-6). Testing by Holstein and Bohnhoff post type options. Solid-sawn posts and dimension
(2013) has shown that the combination of screws and lumber become increasingly expensive on a board-foot
polyurethane adhesive produces an assembly that basis as overall length increases. Additionally, solid-
exhibits near complete composite action. Use of an LSL sawn posts and dimension lumber are typically
web helps insure a straight, non-twisted post, and unavailable in lengths over 24 feet. Probably the greatest
provides a flat and dry, oil-free surface for adhesive advantage of splicing and laminating lumber (i.e.
bonding. Screws serve three purposes; they provide fabricating mechlams and glulams with end joints) is that
interlayer shear strength, flanges tight to the web, and continuous members of any length can be built. This has
hold the assembly together while the adhesive cures, and enabled the construction of buildings requiring sidewall
thus enable on-site fabrication of the assemblies. In posts upward of 30 ft and endwall posts of even greater
exterior walls, I-shaped sections provide more room for length.
insulation, and are associated with reduced thermal Total post length is largely dictated by eave height and
bridging. When placed in an interior space, the area post end fixity. Post end fixity refers to the manner in
between the flanges provides a space for electrical, which the bottom of the post is held in place and how the
plumbing and ductwork runs. top of the post is attached to a truss or girder.
Embedding a post typically adds 4 to 5 feet to overall
post length. Extending a post to the top chord of a truss
or girder is commonly done to add stability and rigidity
Y to a post-to-truss/girder connection, thereby increasing
total post length.
Solid-Sawn Flange
8.7.2 Mechlam-to-Truss/Rafter Attachment
Mechlam posts provide more, and in many cases, better
LSL Web
truss/rafter attachment options. First and foremost, a
X X truss/rafter can be sandwiched between the outer layers
of a mechlam post. This is accomplished by leaving out
a portion of the layer upon which the truss/rafter will
bear. If the post is embedded, the exact height at which
Solid-Sawn Flange the truss/rafter will bear on the post can not be
determined until the post is fixed in place. Once the post
has been fixed in place, the location of the bottom of the
Y truss/rafter is marked on the post, thereby enabling an
Figure 8-6. I-section post.
accurate determination of the length of the missing piece
upon which the truss will bear. This piece only functions

as blocking and should not be more than one to two feet entirely or partially fabricated at the job site. In
in length. This process is illustrated in figure 8-7 for a applications where spliced posts are being embedded, the
three-layer post used to support the end of a truss. The lower (treated) portion of the post can be fabricated and
same method is frequently used with double trusses and set in place before the top half is assembled. This has
four-layer mechlams. Gaps are reduced by setting the two advantages. First, it is often easier to set only the
truss/rafter on the block, using C-clamps to draw the lower part of the post. Second, the length of the bottom
outside layers tight to the truss/rafter and block, and then portion of each post can be adjusted prior to fabrication
fastening the truss/rafter and block in place. to account for differing elevations of the embedded
portions (figure 8-8). This procedure eliminates the need
for additional adjustments for truss attachment after the
top of the post has been erected (e.g., blocking as
illustrated in figure 8-7 is no longer needed).
Block Level line of sight

Block
Height
1. Post set, 2. Truss set 3. Block fastened

bottom of truss on block and into place and
marked, and block fastened into top of post
height measured. place. trimmed off.
Figure 8-7. Assembly procedure that enables a (a) (b) (c)

truss/rafter to be sandwiched between the outer
layers of a mechlam post whose height can not be Figure 8-8. (a) Treated portions of 3-layer spliced
adjusted because it has been embedded in the soil. posts are embedded in the soil. (b) Top of treated
portions cut so that tops at same elevation. (c)
Untreated post portions spliced to treated portions.
The primary advantage of sandwiching a truss/rafter
between outer posts layers (instead of resting it on an
Figure 8-9 illustrates an alternative application of the
outside layer or on attached blocking) is that the
concept shown in figure 8-8. In this case, the untreated
fasteners used to attach the truss/rafter to the post can be
upper portion of the post is an I-section. The embedded
placed in double shear. Relative to other attachment
“stub post” is a 3-layer preservative-treated mechlam. In
methods, sandwiching a truss/rafter between outer post
this design, the web of the I-section rests on the shorter,
layers tends to make it more difficult to rotate the
middle ply of the stub post or on a short block that is
truss/rafter off the post, and it reduces weak-axis bending
placed on the middle ply to increase the height of the I-
moments induced in the post by vertically- and
section. The outer plies of the stub posts are fastened to
eccentrically-applied truss loads.
both the web and flanges of the I-section.
A disadvantage of sandwiching a truss between outer
post layers is that bolt holes can not be drilled in the truss
8.7.4 Lateral Support
prior to placement. This has become less of an issue Since lateral support dictates effective buckling length
with the increased use of self-drilling screws for post-to- and hence load capacity, the ability to provide lateral
truss connections. Predrilling of bolt holes in trusses is support often controls post selection. When a post is
an option anytime a truss/rafter is placed (1) on the outer used in an application where it is free standing (e.g., not
layer of a mechlam post, (2) in a notch cut into an SCL, located within a wall) and is not laterally supported in
glulam or solid-sawn post, or (3) on a bearing block any manner, it usually requires similar bending strength
attached to the side of the post. about both axes. Use of lateral support may be restricted
where it interferes with building use (e.g. forklift traffic,
8.7.3 Onsite Splicing pallet racks), interior finishes, and/or mechanical
An option with mechlam posts is that they can be systems.

primarily done to facilitate girt attachment and post

spacing during construction. Girts were cut so that they
would fit between the tongues of adjacent posts as shown
in figure 8-10. Such posts, are commonly referred to as
tongued columns.
Tongued column
Inset girt
Figure 8-10. Use of a tongued column to facilitate

use of an inset girt. Tongued columns are not
recommended as they use wood inefficiently.
Tongued columns do not use wood very efficiently and

are not recommended. In fact, if you have a mechlam
post fabricated from three 2- by 6-inch pieces of lumber
and you replace the middle layer with a 2- by 8-inch
member of the same grade and species of wood, you will
likely obtain a post with a lower overall bending
strength. This is because the 2- by 8-inch member is
stiffer than the 2- by 6-inch members and thus will
fracture before the 2- by 6-inch members are loaded to
capacity. Once the 2- by 8-inch member fractures, you
are effectively left with a 2-layer post that is more likely
to have a lower bending strength that a post fabricated
from three 2- by 6-inch pieces.
8.7.7 Quality Control in Manufacturing
There is a need for quality control during fabrication of
laminated posts. Inconsistencies in the placement of
fasteners in mechanically laminated posts, or poor
Figure 8-9. Use of a thee-layer preservative treated surface preparation and glued joints in glued-laminated
stub post to support a wood I-section. assemblies, can substantially reduce post strength.
Quality control of mechlams is more challenging when
8.7.5 Girt Attachment fabrication is done at the job site. Glulam posts must be
fabricated in an AITC or EWP-APA certified facility.
Any post type can be used in a building that only
requires exterior girts. If interior girts are added to Manufacturing requirements for mechlam posts are
facilitate an interior finish, then a post with constant (not provided in ANSI/ASAE EP599. Requirements for the
tapered) cross-section is generally desired. In manufacture and quality control of glulam posts are
applications where both exterior and interior sheathing contained in ANSI/AITC A190.1 Standard for Wood
materials will be attached to inset girts, it is desirable for Products - Structural Glued Laminated Timber.
inset girt depth and post depth to match. For this reason,
it should be noted that the depth of many vertically-
laminated glulam posts is slightly less than that of the
8.8 Thermal Considerations
dimension lumber from which they were fabricated A thermal bridge is any component in an insulated
because of planing operations conducted after the pieces assembly that (1) has a higher thermal conductivity than
have been glued together. the insulation, and (2) effectively short circuits the
insulation. A more efficient thermal envelope is
8.7.6 Tongued Columns obtained by selecting a post that minimizes air
infiltration and/or thermal bridging. Air infiltration
A number of older post-frame buildings were constructed through posts is typically only a concern with mechlam
using vertically mechanically laminated posts featuring posts. This concern is minimized by placing caulk or a
nominal 2- by 8-inch inner layers with nominal 2- by 6- construction adhesive between post layers.
inch outer layers, or with nominal 2- by 10-inch inner
layers with nominal 2- by 8-inch outer layers. This was It is advantageous to minimize post width where
minimization of heat transfer is a primary objective.

From purely a minimization of heat transfer perspective, Forces are generally only determined in posts that are
an I-section assembly (figures 8-6 and 8-9) is the best part of the critical post-frame (i.e., the post-frame with
post option. the greatest horizontal eave displacement). This frame
should be evaluated for each applicable load combination
8.9 Post Analysis from ANSI/ASCE 7-10 (Section 3.5).
Roof Gravity Loads
Post analysis refers to determination of the bending
moments, shear forces and axial forces induced in a post
by the applied structural loads. This is accomplished
with the aid of (1) a plane-frame structural analysis s x qwr s x qlr
program, or (2) direct application of equations of static
equilibrium. These two methods are overviewed in
Sections 8.9.1 and 8.9.2, respectively.
8.9.1 Post Forces by Plane-Frame
Structural Analysis Q
The simplest and most direct way to determine the forces Ceiling Gravity Loads
s x qww
s x qlw
induced in posts by applied structural loads is to conduct
a plane-frame structural analysis. The frame analog used
for this analysis is very similar to that used to determine
eave load, R (see Section 6.5.2 and figure 6-17). The
only difference is that the vertical roller support used to (a)
determine R is replaced by the total sidesway restraining
force, Q (figure 8-11(a)). Alternatively, the vertical
roller support can be replaced by a series of distributed Roof Gravity Loads
forces applied to the frame such that they align with the
plane of each diaphragm (figure 8-11(b)).
Restraining force Q accounts for the resistance to s x qwr s x qlr
movement provided by diaphragm action, and thus
equals zero (0) for a frame that does not receive
diaphragm support. Various methods for determining Q q p,a q p,b
are covered in Section 6.6.6. q p,c
Of the two options presented in figure 8-11, application
of the single force Q is easier to implement, but would be
s x qww
considered less accurate than spreading the load out as
s x qlw
shown in figure 8-11(b). In general, the biggest relative
difference between the two analogs in figure 8-11 would
be in predictions of post axial forces.
(b)
Force Q can be converted to a series of distributed in-
plane forces (q p,i values) with the following equation Figure 8-11. Example structural analogs for
which is based on equations 6-23, 6-24 and 6-25. determination of post forces using (a) a single
sidesway restraining force, and (b) uniformly
q p,i = Q (c h,i / Ch ) / b i (8-1) distributed in-plane forces to model the resisting
where: influence of diaphragms.
q p,i = in-plane force applied to the frame per unit 8.9.2 Post Forces by Equations of Static
length of diaphragm section i, lbf/ft (N/m) Equilibrium
Q = total sidesway resisting force acting on the
frame, lbf (N) Determination of post forces via application of static
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm section equilibrium equations is a two step process:
i with width s, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Step 1: Determine post shear forces and post bending
Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width s of the
moments for all posts in the critical frame. This step
roof/ceiling assembly, lbf/in. (N/mm)
requires knowledge of (1) the load(s) applied to the side
bi = horizontal span (distance measured parallel to
of each post, and (2) the horizontal eave displacement
the frame) of diaphragm section i, ft (m)
(from diaphragm analysis) of the critical post-frame.

Step 2: Determine axial post forces. This step requires displacement of the top of the post, then both w and 
knowledge of (1) all loads acting on the critical post- must be input with the same sign.
frame, and (2) shear forces and bending moments (from
Step 1) in each post of the critical frame. Calculation of shear forces and bending moments for
embedded posts requires that the rotation of the post at
8.9.2.1 Step 1: Determination of Shear grade θb first be calculated. For non-constrained
Force and Bending Moment embedded posts, this rotation calculation must be
followed with a calculation of the horizontal movement
Table 8-1 contains equations for calculating shear forces of the post at grade Δb. All calculations associated with
and bending moments at any above-grade location in a embedded posts require calculation of the dimensionless
post. Equations are provided for the eight post fixity variable C which is a measure of soil stiffness relative to
cases illustrated in figure 8-12. The last four of these post bending stiffness. When calculating C it is
cases are applicable to posts embedded in soil whose important to use a consistent set of units so the resulting
modulus of elasticity increases linearly with depth. value is indeed dimensionless.
Equations apply only to posts with a constant flexural
rigidity EI. The embedded post equations assume that No truss/rafter is capable of completely preventing
the below-grade portion of the posts has infinite flexural rotation of the top of a post. For this reason, Table 8-1
rigidity EI. equations for fixity cases 2, 4, 6 and 8 will produce
results that may significantly differ from those obtained
In addition to post and soil properties, application of the from a plane-frame structural analysis (PFSA) of the
Table 8-1 equations requires knowledge of the wind entire post-frame. Conversely, when posts are assumed
pressure w tributary to the post (generally equal to zero to be pin-connected to a truss/rafter (fixity cases 1, 3, 5
for posts that are not part of an exterior wall), frame and 7), Table 8-1 equations will produce values nearly
spacing s, and the horizontal eave displacement  of the identical to those obtained from a PFSA of the entire
critical post-frame. In all cases, the wind load is post-frame. The one exception is that for PFSA output to
assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire match values obtained using Table 8-1 equations for
height H. fixity cases 5 and 7, the embedded portion of the posts
Figure 8-13 illustrates positive sign conventions for the would have to be modeled with completely rigid links.
variables defined and used in Table 8-1. The important The error introduced by assuming an infinitely rigid post
rule of thumb to follow is that things moving in the same below grade was demonstrated and discussed in Section
direction have the same sign. Thus if wind pressure is 5.3.5.
acting in the same direction as the horizontal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Free Non- Free Non- Free Non- Free Non-
Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational
Grade
Line
Pinned Pinned Fixed Fixed

d
Non- Non- Surface Surface

Constrained Constrained Constrained Constrained
Figure 8-12. Post end fixity conditions covered in Table 8-1.

Table 8-1. Equations for Post Shear Forces and Bending Moments (a)(b)
Post Top
Fixity Base
Restrained from Applicable Equations (d)
Case (c) Connection (c) (c)
Rotating
Vy = sw(H/2-y)
1 Pinned at y = 0 No
My = swy(H-y)/2
Vy = 3EIΔ/H3 + sw(3H/8 - y)
2 Pinned at y = 0 Yes
My = 3EIΔy/H 3 + swy(3H/8 - y/2)
Vy = 3EIΔ/H 3 +sw(5H/8 - y)
3 Fixed at y = 0 No
My = 3EIΔ(y - H)/H 3 - sw(H 2 - 5Hy + 4y2)/8
Vy = 12EIΔ/H 3 + sw(H/2 - y)
4 Fixed at y = 0 Yes
My = 6EIΔ(2y - H)/H 3 - sw(H 2/6 - Hy + y2)/2
(9+6d/H)Δ/H + swH(6H 2 + 20dH – 12d 2/C)/(16EI)
θb =
C + 4.5(d/H)2 + 12d/H + 9
Embedded, Non-
5 No Δb = [θb(3d + 4H) + swH 3d/(2EIC)]/(4 + 6H/d)
Constrained
Vy = 3EI(Δ - Δb - θb H)/H 3 + sw(5H/8 - y)
My = 3EI(y - H)(Δ - Δb - θb H)/H 3 - sw(H 2 - 5Hy + 4y2)/8
(18 + 24d/H)Δ/H + swH(H 2/4 + dH - d 2/C)/(EI)
θb =
C + (d/H)2(18 + 6/C) + 24d/H + 12
Embedded, Non-
6 Yes Δb = [θb(3d + d/C + 2H) + swH 3d/(6EIC)]/(4 + 3H/d)
Constrained
Vy = 6EI(2Δ - 2Δb - θb H)/H 3 + sw(H/2 - y)
My = 6EI[(Δ-Δb)(2y/H-1) + θb (2H/3-y)]/H 2 - sw(H 2/6-Hy+y2)/2
Embedded, θb = [swH 3/(24EI) + Δ/H]/(1+C)
7 Surface- No Vy = 3EI(Δ - θb H)/H 3 + sw(5H/8 - y)
Constrained My = 3EI(y - H)(Δ - θb H)/H 3 - sw(H 2 - 5Hy + 4y2)/8
Embedded, θb = [swH 3/(36EI) + 2Δ/H]/(4/3+C)
8 Surface- Yes Vy = 6EI(2Δ - θb H)/H 3 + sw(H/2 - y)
Constrained My = 2EI(6yΔ/H - 3Δ + 2θb H - 3yθb)/H 2 - sw(H 2/6 - Hy + y2)/2
(a) Equations for embedded posts assume post has an infinite flexural rigidity (EI) below grade and a constant EI above
grade. Soil modulus of elasticity ES is assumed to increase linearly with depth z as ES = AE z.
(b) From Bohnhoff (1992)
(c) See figure 8-12 for graphical depiction of the eight fixity cases.
(d) Definitions (see figure 8-13 for sign convention).
Vy = shear at height y, (0 < y < H).
My = moment at height y, (0 < y < H).
θb = rotation at grade (i.e., groundline).
y = distance above grade.
H = distance from grade to the post-to-truss/rafter connection.
Δb = horizontal displacement of post at grade.
Δ = horizontal displacement of post at y = H (assumed equal to eave displacement) from post-frame structural
analysis (Section 6.6.2 or 6.6.3).
s = frame spacing.
w = uniform wind pressure tributary to the side of the post. Positive if in same direction as Δ.
C = d 4AE H /(6 EI)

 Roof + Ceiling Gravity Loads
+My s x qwr s x qlr

+Vy
H q p,a q p,b
sw
q p,c
y
b
+Vy
s x qww
+My
s x qlw
b
d Vbl Vbr
Mbl Mbr
Figure 8-13. Positive sign convention for variables Pl Pr

defined and used in Table 8-1.
(a)
8.9.2.1 Step 2: Determination of Axial Force Roof + Ceiling Gravity Loads
Where there are no more than two posts per frame, free
body diagrams can be used to accurately determine post
s x qwr s x qlr
axial forces. When drawing these diagrams, posts are
typically "cut" at grade (figure 8-14(a)) or at the post-to-
truss connection (figure 8-14(b)). Shear forces and
q p,a q p,b
bending moment determined using the Table 8-1
equations are applied to the cut ends, and the two q p,c
unknown axial forces are determined by (1) summing Vt l Vt r
moments around one of the cut ends, and then (2) Mt l
summing forces in the vertical direction. Mt r
When a post-frame is comprised of more than two posts,

there must be an additional equation of static equilibrium
for each additional post in order to determine all post Pl Pr
axial forces. For example, it is possible to determine the (b)
three unknown axial forces for the three posts in Figure Figure 8-14. Free body diagrams (FBDs) used to
8-15(a) because the hinge between the two rafters determine axial post forces.
provides an additional equation (i.e., the moment in the
structure at the hinge is numerically equal to zero). Note P 0V
Hinge
that by drawing a free body diagram of the structure to
the right of the hinge (figure 8-15(b)), and summing
moments about the hinge, the axial force in the right post Cut at
can be determined. Once this is done, the axial forces in hinge
the other two posts can be determined by returning to the
free body diagram of the entire structure (figure 8-15(a))
and summing moments around the base of the left post to
obtain the axial force in the center post, and then Vbl Vbc Vbr Vbr
summing forces in the vertical direction to obtain the Mbl Mbc Mbr Mbr
axial force in the left post.
Classical methods of structural analysis exist for Pl Pc Pr Pr
approximating post axial forces in frames that are (a) (b)
statically indeterminate. These methods depend on
Figure 8-15. (a) Post-frame comprised of three
simplifying assumptions which tend to be frame
posts and two rafters hinged to each other (b)
dependent. With the advent of plane-frame structural FBD of the right rafter and right post only.

analysis programs, use of these classical method of laminates, veneers or strands, the statistical probability of
structural analysis is virtually unheard of. In other having a strength-reducing characteristic (such as a knot)
words, use a plane-frame structural analysis program as running through the entire cross section is greatly
outlined in Section 8.9.1 to determine forces in post- diminished. Consequently, such built-up posts have more
frames comprised of more than two posts. uniform strength and stiffness properties than solid-sawn
posts. This increased reliability results in higher
8.10 Reference Design Values allowable design values.
Compiled in this section are reference design values for 8.10.1 Solid-Sawn Posts
commonly used solid-sawn posts, structural composite Reference design values for solid-sawn posts common to
lumber (SCL) posts, glulam posts, round timber poles, post-frame building construction are given in Table 8-2.
and mechlam posts. These design values are applicable for members that fall
Reference design values and the applicable adjustment into the size category of “posts and timbers” which
factors in Section 8.11 are included in this manual includes rectangular lumber 5 inches or more in nominal
primarily for comparison purposes (i.e., to enable thickness with a width that is not more than 2 inches
designers to quickly ascertain strength differences greater than it thickness. The species combination
between post types, species and grades) . For a complete Douglas Fir-Larch includes both Douglas Fir and
compilation of reference design values, see the National Western Larch; Northern Pine includes Jack Pine,
Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction Norway (Red) Pine and Pitch Pine; and Southern Pine
(ANSI/AWC, 2012). includes Loblolly Pine, Longleaf Pine, Shortleaf Pine
and Slash Pine.
When a post is fabricated using individual wood
Table 8-2. Reference Design Values for Solid-Sawn Posts (a)(b)(c)

Modulus of Elasticity
Tension Shear Compression Compression
(103 lbf/in2)
Species (or Species Bending Parallel to Parallel to Perpendicular Parallel to
For
Combination) and (lbf/in2) Grain Grain to Grain Grain Mean
Stability
Grade (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
Calcs.
Fb Ft Fv Fc Fc E Emin
Douglas Fir-Larch (Specific Gravity = 0.50)
Sel Str 1500 1000 170 625 1150 1600 580
No. 1 1200 825 170 625 1000 1600 580
No. 2 750 475 170 625 700 1300 470
Northern Pine (Specific Gravity = 0.42)
Sel Str 1150 800 135 435 900 1300 470
No. 1 950 650 135 435 800 1300 470
No. 2 500 375 135 435 375 1000 370
Ponderosa Pine (Specific Gravity = 0.43)
Sel Str 1000 675 130 535 800 1100 400
No. 1 825 550 130 535 700 1100 400
No. 2 475 325 130 535 325 900 330
Southern Pine (Specific Gravity = 0.55)
Sel Str 1500 1000 165 375 950 1500 550
No. 1 1350 900 165 375 825 1500 550
No. 2 850 550 165 375 525 1200 440
(a) From the National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction. Values are for visually graded timber in the
size classification of “Posts and Timbers”.
(b) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by
factors specified in Section 8.11 where applicable.
(c) For rectangular, solid-sawn wood members whose minimum dimension is 5 nominal inches or greater.

8.10.2 Structural Composite Lumber Posts

A structural composite lumber (SCL) post was
previously defined as a post comprised of a single piece
of structural composite lumber. Posts that are comprised
of multiple pieces of SCL that have been mechanically-
fastened together fall under the category of mechlam
posts and must be designed as such.
Shown in figures 8-16, 8-17 and 8-18 are three types of
structural composite lumber: laminated veneer lumber
(LVL), parallel strand lumber (PSL) and laminated stand
lumber (LSL).
Tables 8-3 and 8-4 contain dimensions and reference
design values, respectively, for structural composite
lumber manufactured by three major United States Figure 8-18. Timberstrand LSL.
companies. The dimensions given in Table 8-3 are sizes
that appear in product literature. Reference design Table 8-3 dimensions are actual dry dimensions. Not all
values are from the ICC-ES Evaluation Reports listed in sizes listed in Table 8-3 are commonly stocked, and sizes
Table 8-3. These reports are available at http://www.icc- other than those listed can generally be special ordered.
es.org/Evaluation_Reports/index.shtml. Regardless of type, SCL is typically available in lengths
up to (and in some case exceeding) 60 foot.
Reference design values in Table 8-4 were established in
accordance with ASTM D5456, Standard Specification
for Evaluation of Structural Composite Lumber
Products.
8.10.3 Glulam Posts
Glulam posts used in post-frame buildings typically
consist of three or four laminations of identical size,
species and grade. They are nearly square in shape
having a cross-sectional aspect ratio typically less than
1.5. Because they are nearly square, and because the
same grade and species of lumber is used throughout,
such assemblies are efficient at resisting axial loads as
well as bending forces applied to either face. In almost
all cases, the assemblies are oriented (and hence
Figure 8-16. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL).
designed) so the larger bending loads are applied parallel
to interlayer planes as shown in figure 8-19(a).
No. 2D Tension Lam

No. 2 No. 1
No.2 No. 2
No.3 No. 3
No. 3 No. 3
No.1
No.1
No.1
No. 3 No. 3
No. 2 No. 2
No. 1 No. 1
Tension Lam Tension Lam
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8-19. Glulam assemblies (a) vertical lamination
(b) horizontal lamination with an unbalanced layup,
Figure 8-17. Parallam PSL. and (c) horizontal lamination with a balanced layup.

In contrast to the relatively square glulams used as posts, the NDS (ANSI/AWC, 2012).
deep glulam beams (e.g. door headers, girders) are
Fabrication procedures for glulams must conform to
generally designed to only handle bending loads about
ANSI/AITC A190.1 (AITC, 2007) which covers
one axis. These assemblies are designed as horizontally
physical construction issues as well as quality control,
laminated components with higher grade lumber in outer
testing and marking procedures. The rigorous
laminates where bending stresses are higher (figures 8-
requirements outlined in this standard essentially
19(b) and 8-19(c)).
eliminate the possibility of on-site fabrication of glulams.
Reference design values for glulams fabricated with a
Several companies now manufacture and market glulams
single species and grade of softwood lumber are
specifically for use in post-frame buildings. These posts
compiled in Table 8-5. The values in this table are for
are intended for soil embedment, with pressure
glulams primarily loaded parallel to the wide face of
preservative treated wood on one end, and non-treated
laminations, or stressed primarily in axial tension or
wood on the other. Fabrication of such posts requires
compression. Table 8-5 values and layups and
special resins and procedures for joining and laminating
associated design values for horizontally-laminated
treated wood to non-treated wood.
glulams are compiled in AITC 117 (AITC, 2004) and in
Table 8-3. Dimensions of Selected Commercially-Available Structural Composite Lumber

IIC-ES
Available
Evalua-
SCL Product Thick-
Manufacturer tion Grade Available Depths, inches
Type Name nesses,
Report
inches
No.
Weyerhaeuser 1.55E 1-¾, 3-½ 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8, 14, 16
TimberStrand 1387
iLevel 1.3E 3-½ 3-½, 4-3/8. 5-½, 7-¼, 8-5/8, 9-¼, 11-¼
LSL
Louisiana- 1-½, 1-¾, 3-½, 4-3/8, 5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼,
SolidStart 2403 All
Pacific 3-½ 11-7/8, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24
1.4E 1800Fb 1-¼ 5, 9-½,11-7/8, 14, 16
3-½, 5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8,
1.7E 2400Fb 1-5/16, 1-½
14, 18
5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8, 14,
2.0E 2800Fb 1-¾, 2-5/8
16, 18
3-½, 5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8,
2.0E 3100Fb 1-¾
14, 16, 18, 24
5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8, 14,
Boise 2.0E 3100Fb 3-½
Versa-Lam 1040 16, 18, 20
Cascade 5-¼, 5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8,
2.0E 3100Fb 5-¼
14, 16, 18, 20, 24
LVL 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8, 14, 16, 18, 20,
2.0E 3100Fb 7
24
1.7E 2650Fb 1-½ 3-½,5-¼,7
1.7E 2650Fb 3-½ 3-½,5-¼,7
1.7E 2650Fb 5-¼ 5-¼,7
1.7E 2650Fb 7 7
1.5E, 1.9E, 1-½, 1-¾, 3-½, 5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-7/8, 11-
Louisiana- and 2.0E 3-½ ¼, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23-7/8
SolidStart 2403
Pacific 3-½, 5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-7/8, 11-
2.0E 3-½, 5-¼, 7
¼, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23-7/8
Weyerhaeuser 5-½, 7-¼, 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8, 14,
Microlam 1387 1.9E 1-¾
iLevel 16, 18, 20
1.8E 3-½ 3-½. 5-¼, 7
Weyerhaeuser 1.8E 5-¼ 5-¼, 7
PSL Parallam 1387
iLevel 1.8E 7 7
2.0E 3-½, 5-¼, 7 9-¼, 9-½, 11-¼, 11-7/8, 14, 16, 18

(a)
Table 8-4. Reference Design Values for Structural Composite Lumber (SCL)
Modulus
Compression
of elasticity
(lbf/in2)
Tension Shear (103 lbf/in2) Shear
Bending parallel parallel For Modulus Specific
SCL Product Orien- (lbf/in2) to grain to grain Perpen- Parallel Beam (103 Gravity
Grade
Type Name tation(b) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) dicular to Mean and lbf/in2)
to grain grain Column
Stability
Fb Ft Fv Fc Fc E Emin G SG
SolidStart 1730Fb-1.35E Beam 1730 1300 410 750 1650 1350 686 84.4 0.50
SolidStart 1730Fb-1.35E Plank 1910 1300 155 440 1650 1350 686 84.4 0.50
LSL
Timberstrand 1.3E Beam 1700 1075 400 680 1400 1300 661 81.3 0.50
Timberstrand 1.3E Plank 1900 1075 150 435 1400 1300 661 81.3 0.50
Timberstrand 1.55E Beam 2325 1600 400 800 2050 1550 788 96.9 0.50
Timberstrand 1.55E Plank 2615 1600 150 485 2050 1550 788 96.9 0.50
Microlam 1.9E Beam 2600 1555 285 750 2510 1900 966 118.8 0.50
Microlam 1.9E Plank 3075 1555 190 480 2510 1900 966 118.8 0.50
Versa-Lam 1.7E 2650Fb Beam 2650 1650 285 750 3000 1700 881 106.3 0.50
Versa-Lam 1.7E 2650Fb Plank 2400 1650 190 450 3000 1700 881 106.3 0.50
LVL
Parallam 1.8E Beam 2500 1755 230 600 2500 1800 915 112.5 0.50
Parallam 1.8E Plank 2400 1755 190 425 2500 1800 915 112.5 0.50
PSL
Parallam 2.0E Beam 2900 2025 290 750 2900 2000 1016 125.0 0.50
Parallam 2.0E Plank 2900 2025 210 525 2900 2000 1016 125.0 0.50
(a) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by factors specified in
Section 8.11 where applicable.
(b) Beams are members loaded parallel to the wide faces of strands (see figure 8-1b). Planks are members loaded perpendicular to the wide
faces of strands (see figure 8-1a).

(a)(b)
Table 8-5. Reference Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Timber
All Loadings Axially Loaded
Modulus of Elasticity Tension
Compression
Compression Parallel to
For Beam and Parallel to Grain
ID Perpendicular Grain
Grade (c) Mean Column
Number to Grain 2 or More 4 or More 2 or 3
(103 lbf/in2) Stability (103 (lbf/in2) Laminations Laminations Laminations
lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
E Emin Fc Ft Fc Fc
Douglas Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
1 L3 1500 780 560 900 1550 1200
2 L2 1600 830 560 1250 1950 1600
3 L2D 1900 980 650 1450 2300 1850
4 L1CL 1900 980 590 1400 2100 1900
5 L1D 2000 1040 650 1600 2400 2100
Hem Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
14 L3 1300 670 375 800 1100 980
15 L2 1400 730 375 1050 1350 1300
16 L1 1600 830 375 1200 1500 1450
17 L1D 1700 880 500 1400 1750 1700
Southern Pine – Visually Graded Laminations
47 N2M14 1400 730 650 1200 1900 1150
48 N2D14 1700 880 740 1400 2200 1350
49 N1M16 1700 880 650 1350 2100 1450
50 N1D14 1900 980 740 1550 2300 1700
Douglas Fir – E-Rated Laminations
27 1.9E-2 1800 930 560 900 1750 1200
28 2.1E-2 2000 1040 650 1100 2000 1400
29 2.3E-2 2200 1140 650 1250 2250 1550
30 1.9E-6 1800 930 560 1550 2100 1700
31 2.1E-6 2000 1040 650 1800 2400 1950
32 2.3E-6 2200 1140 650 1800 2400 2200
62 2.2E-2 2100 1090 650 1150 1850 1500
63 2.2E-6 2100 1090 650 1950 2300 2000
Hem Fir – E-Rated Laminations
33 1.6E-2 1500 780 375 800 1050 950
34 1.9E-2 1800 930 500 900 1500 1200
35 2.1E-2 2000 1040 500 1100 1550 1400
36 1.6E-4 1500 780 375 1200 1450 1350
37 1.9E-6 1800 930 500 1550 1950 1700
38 2.1E-6 2000 1040 500 1800 2400 1950
Southern Pine – E-Rated Laminations
54 2.1E-2 2000 1040 740 1100 2300 1400
55 2.3E-2 2200 1140 740 1250 2400 1550
56 1.9E-6 1800 930 650 1550 1850 1700
57 2.1E-6 2000 1040 740 1800 2300 1950
58 2.3E-6 2200 1140 740 1800 2400 2200
(a) For: (1) assemblies primarily loaded parallel to the wide face of laminations (i.e., vertically-laminated assemblies,
assemblies bent about axis Y-Y), (2) assemblies stressed primarily in axial tension or compression, and (3) two- and
three-layer assemblies bent about axis X-X.
(c) See AITC 117-2004 Annex C (AITC, 2004) for AITC Grading Handbook for Laminating Lumber.

Table 8-5. (Cont.) Reference Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Timber
Bending About X-X Axis
Bending About Y-Y Axis
Loaded Perpendicular to
Loaded Parallel to Wide Faces of Laminations
Wide Faces of Laminations
ID Bending, 4 or Bending, Shear Bending,
Grade Bending, 3 Shear Parallel
Number More 2 Parallel to 2 Laminations to
Laminations (d)(e)(f) (g) to Grain (c)
Laminations 2 Laminations Grain 15 in. Deep
(lbf/in ) (lbf/in2)
(lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
Fby Fby Fby Fvy Fbx Fvx
Douglas Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
1 L3 1450 1250 1000 230 1250 265
2 L2 1800 1600 1300 230 1700 265
3 L2D 2100 1850 1550 230 2000 265
4 L1CL 2200 2000 1650 230 1900 265
5 L1D 2400 2100 1800 230 2200 265
Hem Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
14 L3 1200 1050 850 190 1100 215
15 L2 1500 1350 1100 190 1450 215
16 L1 1750 1550 1300 190 1600 215
17 L1D 2000 1850 1550 190 1900 215
Southern Pine – Visually Graded Laminations
47 N2M14 1750 1550 1300 260 1400 300
48 N2D14 2000 1800 1500 260 1600 300
49 N1M16 1950 1750 1500 260 1800 300
50 N1D14 2300 2100 1750 260 2100 300
Douglas Fir – E-Rated Laminations
27 1.9E-2 1450 1250 1000 230 1250 265
28 2.1E-2 1650 1450 1150 230 1500 265
29 2.3E-2 1900 1650 1350 230 1700 265
30 1.9E-6 2400 2400 2100 230 1800 265
31 2.1E-6 2400 2400 2400 230 2100 265
32 2.3E-6 2400 2400 2400 230 2400 265
62 2.2E-2 1800 1550 1250 230 1800 265
63 2.2E-6 2400 2400 2400 230 2200 265
Hem Fir – E-Rated Laminations
33 1.6E-2 1200 1050 850 190 1100 215
34 1.9E-2 1450 1250 1000 190 1300 215
35 2.1E-2 1650 1450 1150 190 1850 215
36 1.6E-4 2100 1900 1700 190 1400 215
37 1.9E-6 2400 2400 2100 190 1800 215
38 2.1E-6 2400 2400 2400 190 2100 215
Southern Pine – E-Rated Laminations
54 2.1E-2 1650 1450 1150 260 1500 300
55 2.3E-2 1900 1650 1350 260 1700 300
56 1.9E-6 2400 2400 2100 260 1800 300
57 2.1E-6 2400 2400 2400 260 2100 300
58 2.3E-6 2400 2400 2400 260 2400 300
(d) Fvy shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.84 or 0.95 for members with 2 or 3 laminations, respectively.
(e) Multiply Fvy by 0.4 for members with 5, 7 or 9 laminations manufactured from multiple piece laminations (across
width) that are not edge bonded. Multiply Fvy by 0.5 for all other glulams comprised of multiple piece laminations
with unbonded edge joints. This reduction shall be cumulative with the adjustments in footnotes (d) and (f).
(f) Multiply Fvx and Fvy by 0.72 for non-prismatic members, notched members, and all members subject to impact or
cyclic loading. Use the reduced design value for glulam connections that transfer shear by mechanical fasteners.
(g) For members greater than 15 inches deep and without special laminations, multiply Fbx by 0.88. This factor shall not
be applied cumulatively with the adjustment in footnote (g).

8.10.4 Round Timber Poles

The modern post-frame building evolved from pole
buildings – structures in which the main support
members were obtained by simply peeling (figure 8-20)
and preservative treating logs. Although use of naturally
round and tapered construction poles in post-frame
buildings is relatively infrequent in the United States
today, reference design values for them are given in
Table 6B of the NDS (AWC, 2012). NDS Table 6B is
included here as Table 8-6.
The values in Table 8-6 were established in accordance
with ASTM D3200 Establishing Recommended Design
Stresses for Round Timber Construction Poles (ASTM,
2012c). ASTM D3200 is a short document as it simply
adopts (by reference) specifications for round timber
piles as established in ASTM D25 Specification for
Round Timber Piles (ASTM, 2012a), and ASTM D2899
Practice for Establishing Allowable Stresses for Round
Timber Piles (ASTM, 2012b).
The values in Table 8-6 can be applied as long as the
quality, length, size, sapwood, cutting, trimming, peeling
(shaving), straightness, twist of grain, knot, holes, scars,
check, shake and split requirements outlined in ASTM Figure 8-20. Logs prior to peeling (top) and during
D25 and the taper requirements tabulated in ASTM peeling (bottom) at Frontier Builders Inc., Land O'
D3200 are met. Lakes, WI.
(a)(b)
Table 8-6. Reference Design Values for Round Timber Construction Poles
Modulus of Elasticity
Shear Compression Compression (103 lbf/in2)
Bending Parallel Perpendicular Parallel to For Specific
Species (lbf/in2) to Grain to Grain Grain Mean Stability Gravity
(lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
Calcs.
Fb Fv Fc Fc E Emin G
Douglas Fir 2050 160 490 1300 1700 690 0.50
Lodgepole Pine 1275 125 265 825 1100 430 0.42
Ponderosa Pine 1200 175 295 775 1000 400 0.43
Red Pine 1350 125 270 850 1300 520 0.42
Southern Pine 1950 160 440 1250 1500 600 0.55
Western Hemlock 1550 165 275 1050 1300 560 0.47
Western Larch 1900 170 405 1250 1500 660 0.49
Western Red Cedar 1250 140 260 875 1000 360 0.34
(a) Naturally round and tapered members graded per ASTM D3200. Tabulated values are from Table 6B of the
National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction.

8.10.5 Mechlam Posts

Mechlam posts are fabricated from either dimension adjusted when the designed post is used under different
lumber or structural composite lumber. Reference conditions.
design values for structural composite lumber were
Tables 8-10 and 8-11 contain adjustment factors
presented in Table 8-4. Reference design values for
applicable to reference design values for each post type
selected grade and species of dimension lumber are
covered in Section 8.10. Table 8-10 contains
compiled in Table 8-7 for visually grades, and in Tables
adjustments for ASD and Table 8-11 those for LFRD.
8-8 and 8-9 for machine graded lumber. The latter
includes both machine stressed rated (MSR) lumber and Only adjustment factors that are applicable to common
machine evaluated lumber (MEL). post-frame building posts are listed in Tables 8-10 and 8-
11. For example, the tables do not contain adjustment
Mechlam posts, especially spliced mechlam posts, are
factors that are applicable to only curved glulam beams.
complex structural assemblies, with many unique design
provisions as outlined in ANSI/ASAE EP559 (ASABE, Unless noted, modification factors are cumulative; for
2010). These provisions are presented in Chapter 9. example, the ASD adjusted design shear stress for
dimension lumber is Fv' = Fv CD CM Ct Ci.
8.11 Adjustment Factors
Adjustment factors are discussed further in the
Reference design values tabulated in Section 8.10 apply referenced section number listed in row 3 of Tables 8-10
for a very specific set of conditions and thus must be and 8-11.
Table 8-7. Reference Design Values for Visually Graded Dimension Lumber (a)(b)(c)
Compression Modulus of elasticity
Tension Shear
Perpendi- 5th pct
Nomi- Bending parallel parallel Parallel Mean
cular to divided by
Grade nal (lbf/in2) to grain to grain to grain (103
2 2 grain 2 2 1.66
Width (lbf/in ) (lbf/in ) (lbf/in ) lbf/in )
(lbf/in2) (103 lbf/in2)
Fb Ft Fv Fc Fc E Emin
Douglas Fir-Larch (Specific Gravity = 0.50)
Select Structural 2 inches 1500 1000 180 625 1700 1900 690
No. 1 and 1000 675 180 625 1500 1700 620
No. 2 wider 0900 575 180 625 1350 1600 580
Hem-Fir (Specific Gravity = 0.43)
Select Structural 2 inches 1400 925 150 405 1500 1600 580
No. 1 and 975 625 150 405 1350 1500 550
No. 2 wider 850 525 150 405 1300 1300 470
Southern Pine (Specific Gravity = 0.55)
Select Structural 5 to 6 2100 1450 175 565 1800 1800 660
No. 1 inches 1350 875 175 565 1550 1600 580
No. 2 wide 1000 600 175 565 1400 1400 510
Select Structural 2300 1350 175 565 1700 1800 660
8 inches
No. 1 1950 800 175 565 1500 1600 580
wide
No. 2 925 550 175 565 1350 1400 510
Select Structural 10 1700 1150 175 565 1650 1800 660
No. 1 inches 1050 700 175 565 1450 1600 580
No. 2 wide 800 475 175 565 1300 1400 510
Select Structural 12 1600 1100 175 565 1650 1800 660
No. 1 inches 1000 650 175 565 1400 1600 580
No. 2 wide 750 450 175 565 1250 1400 510
(a) From the National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction (ANSI/AWC, 2012)
(c) Dimension lumber includes rectangular, solid-sawn wood members whose minimum dimension is greater or equal to
2 nominal inches but less than 5 nominal inches.

Table 8-8. Reference Design Values for Machine Graded Lumber (a)(b)(c)
Tension Comp. Modulus of elasticity
Bending parallel to parallel to 5th pct divided
2 Mean
Grade name (lbf/in ) grain grain by 1.66 Grading Rules Agency
(103 lbf/in2)
(lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (103 lbf/in2)
Fb Ft Fc E Emin
Machine Stress Rated (MSR)
1350f-1.3E 1350 750 1600 1300 660 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
1450f-1.3E 1450 800 1625 1300 660 NLGA, WCLIB, WWPA
1800f-1.8E 1800 1200 1750 1800 910 WCLIB, WWPA
1950f-1.7E 1950 1375 1800 1700 860 NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
2550f-2.1E 2550 2050 2025 2100 1070 NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
2850f-2.3E 2850 2300 2150 2300 1170 NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
Machine Evaluated Lumber (MEL)
M-10 1400 800 1600 1200 560 NLGA, SPIB
M-11 1550 850 1675 1500 700 NLGA, SPIB
M-14 1800 1000 1750 1700 790 NLGA, SPIB
M-19 2000 1300 1825 1600 750 NLGA, SPIB
M-21 2300 1400 1950 1900 890 NLGA, SPIB
M-23 2400 1900 1975 1800 840 NLGA, SPIB
M-24 2700 1800 2100 1900 890 NLGA, SPIB
(a) From the National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction (ANSI/AWC, 2012) .
(c) Design values for shear and for compression perpendicular to grain for mechanically graded lumber are species
dependent and shall be obtained from Table 8-9.
Table 8-9. Reference Design Values for Machine Graded Lumber(a)(b)(c)

Modulus of Shear parallel to Compression
Specific
elasticity grain perpendicular to grain
Species gravity Grading rule agency
(103 lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
E G Fv Fc
Douglas Fir-Larch 1000 or higher 0.50 180 625 WCLIB, WWPA
Hem-Fir 1000 or higher 0.43 150 405 WCLIB, WWPA
1000 and higher 0.55 175 565 SPIB
Southern Pine
1800 and higher 0.57 190 805 SPIB
(a) From the National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction (ANSI/AWC, 2012).
(b) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by factors
specified in Section 8.11 where applicable.
(c) Values are for MSR and MEL lumber. For species or species groups not shown above, the G, Fv and Fc, values for
visually graded lumber may be used. Higher G values may be claimed when (a) specifically assigned by the rules
writing agency or (b) when qualified by test.

Table 8-10. Applicable Adjustment Factors for ASD of Post

Symbol  CD CM Ct Ci Cfu CF CV Cr CL Cb CP Cct Ccs
Condition Treatment Factor

Repetitive Member Factor
Column Stability Factor
Critical Section Factor

Beam Stability Factor
Load Duration Factor
Bearing Area Factor

Temperature Factor
Wet Service Factor
Flat Use Factor

Incising Factor
Volume Factor
Size Factor
Description 
Section 8.11.X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Fb’ = Fb x CD - Ct - - CF - CL - - - -
Solid-Sawn Posts
(Post & Timber
Ft’ = Ft x
Size Category)
CD - Ct - - - - - - - - -
F v’ = F v x CD - Ct - - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct - - - - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - - Ct - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - - Ct - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - -
Ft’ = Ft x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Glulam Posts
Vertically-
Laminated
F v’ = F v x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - -
Ft’ = Ft x CD CM Ct - - - CV - - - - - -
Lumber Posts
Composite
Structural
F v’ = F v x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD - Ct - - CF - - - - - Cct -
Construction
F v’ = F v x CD - Ct - - - - - - - - Cct -
Round
Fc’ = Fc x
Poles
- - Ct - - - - - - Cb - Cct -
F c’ = F c x CD - Ct - - - - - - - CP Cct Ccs
E’ = E x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD CM Ct Ci Cfu CF CV Cr CL - - - -
Laminated Posts
Ft’ = Ft x
Mechanically-
CD CM Ct Ci - CF CV - - - - - -
Unspliced
F v’ = F v x CD CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct Ci - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct Ci - CF - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - -

Table 8-11. Applicable Adjustment Factors for LRFD of Posts

Symbol  λ CM Ct Ci Cfu CF CV Cr CL Cb CP Cct Ccs KF 
Condition Treatment Factor
Format Conversion Factor

Repetitive Member Factor
Column Stability Factor
Critical Section Factor

Beam Stability Factor
Bearing Area Factor

Temperature Factor
Wet Service Factor
Time Effect Factor
Resistance Factor
Flat Use Factor
Incising Factor
Volume Factor
Size Factor
Description 
Section 8.11.X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 - -
Fb’ = Fb x λ - Ct - - CF - CL - - - - 2.54 0.85
Solid-Sawn Posts
(Post & Timber
Ft’ = Ft x λ
Size Category)
- Ct - - - - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
F v’ = F v x λ - Ct - - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct - - - - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - - Ct - - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
Fb’ = Fb x λ CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - - 2.54 0.85
Ft’ = Ft x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
Glulam Posts
Vertically-
Laminated
F v’ = F v x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
Fb’ = Fb x λ CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - - 2.54 0.85
Ft’ = Ft x λ CM Ct - - - CV - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
Lumber Posts
Composite
Structural
F v’ = F v x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
Fb’ = Fb x λ - Ct - - CF - - - - - Cct - 2.54 0.90
Construction
F v’ = F v x λ - Ct - - - - - - - - Cct - 2.88 0.75

Round
Fc’ = Fc x
Poles
- - Ct - - - - - - Cb - Cct - 1.67 0.90

F c’ = F c x λ - Ct - - - - - - - CP Cct Ccs 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
Fb’ = Fb x λ CM Ct Ci Cfu CF CV Cr CL - - - - 2.54 0.85
Laminated Posts
Ft’ = Ft x λ
Mechanically-
CM Ct Ci - CF CV - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
Unspliced
F v’ = F v x λ CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct Ci - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct Ci - CF - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85

8.11.1 Load Duration and Time Effect 8.11.2 Wet Service Factor, CM
Factors, CD and  Wood strength and stiffness decrease as wood moisture
Wood has the property of carrying significantly greater content increases. Since reference design values are
maximum loads for short durations of loading. In ASD, applicable to seasoned (dry) wood, they must be reduced
this relative increase in strength is accounted for with the in accordance with Table 8-14 when exposed to a high
load duration factor (Table 8-12). In LRFD, this increase moisture environment for an extended time period.
is accounted for with the time effect factor (Table 8-13) Specific wet service factors are not tabulated for
structural composite lumber as such factors may be
Table 8-12 Load Duration Factor, CD (a) influenced by adhesives and fabrication techniques used
Load Duration CD Typical Design Loads in product manufacture - adhesives and manufacturing
Permanent 0.9 Dead load techniques which have not been standardized for these
Ten year 1.0 Occupancy live load products. Tabulated reference design values for round
Two months 1.15 Snow load construction poles are applicable to both wet and dry
Seven days 1.25 Construction load service conditions, and thus CM does not apply to poles.
Ten minutes 1.60 Wind/earthquake load Table 8-14 Wet Service Factors, CM
Impact (a) 2.0 Impact load
Material
(a) Load duration factors greater than 1.60 shall not Reference Design
(In Service CM
apply to connections or structural members Property
Moisture Content)
pressure-treated with waterborne preservatives or
Fb (when Fb•CF <
fire retardant chemicals 1.00
1.150 kips/in2)
Fb (when Fb•CF >
Table 8-13 Time Effect Factors,  (a) 1.150 kips/in2)
0.85
Time Ft 1.00
LRFD Load Combination (b) Effect Dimension Lumber Fc (when Fc•CF <
Factor,  (greater than 19%) 0.750 kips/in2)
1.00
1.4·D 0.6 Fc (when Fc•CF >
1.2·D + 1.6 H + 0.5·(Lr or S or R) 0.6 0.80
0.750 kips/in2)
1.2·D + 1.6·L + 0.5·(Lr or S or R) (c) Fv 0.97
1.2·D + 1.6·(Lr or S or R) + (x·L or 0.5·W) 0.8 F c 0.67
1.2·D + 1.0·W + x·L + 0.5·(Lr or S or R) 1.0 E, Emin 0.90
1.2·D + 1.0·E + x·L + 0.2·S 1.0 Fb, Ft, Fv, E, Emin 1.00
0.9·D + 1.0·W 1.0 Solid Sawn Timber
Fc 0.91
0.9·D + 1.0·E 1.0 (greater than 19%)
F c 0.67
(a) Time effect factors, , greater than 1.0 shall not Fb 0.80
apply to connections or to structural members Ft 0.80
pressure-treated with water-borne preservatives or Fv 0.875
Glulams
fire retardant chemicals.
(16% or greater) F c 0.53
(b) x = 1.0 for garages, areas of public occupancy, and
Fc 0.73
values of L greater than 100 lbf/ft2. When L is less
than or equal to 100 lbf/ft2, set x equal to 0.5. E, Emin 0.833
(c) 0.7 when L is from storage; 0.8 when L is from Structural
See manufacturer
occupancy; 1.25 when L is from impact. Composite Lumber
recommendations
(16% or greater)
When induced stresses are due to a combination of loads,
the ASD load duration factor associated with the shortest 8.11.3 Temperature Factor, Ct
duration load in the combination should be applied for As wood is cooled below normal temperatures, its
that load combination since the combined load will only strength increases; when heated, its strength decreases.
be acting as long as the load with the shortest duration is This temperature effect is dependent on wood moisture
present. content. Up to 150F, the effect of temperature is
The time effect factor  differs from the load duration assumed by design codes to be reversible. Prolonged
factor CD in that it is linked to specific load combinations heating to temperatures above 150F can cause
via the reliability of the various loads in the combination. permanent loss of strength. For structural members and
The time effect factor also differs from the load duration connections exposed to temperatures less that 150F,
factor in that the baseline load duration for  is 10 reference design values are multiplied by the factors in
minutes, whereas that for CD is 10 years. Table 8-15. No adjustment is needed unless temperatures

exceed 100F for extended periods of time. For example, 8.11.6 Size Factor, CF
the adjustments are not required in applications where
The relative size of a wood member has an effect on its
diurnal temperatures occasionally exceed 100F.
unit strength. This general behavior is known as the size
Table 8-15. Temperature Factors, Ct effect. There are two adjustment factors used to adjust
Reference End-Use for member size: the size factor and the volume factor.
Ct (a)
Design Moisture The size factor applies to visually-graded dimension
Value Content 100<T< 125 125<T<150 lumber and timber. The volume factor is used for glulam
members and structural composite lumber.
Ft, E, Emin, Dry or Wet 0.9 0.9
F b , F v, F c, Dry 0.8 0.7 Reference design stresses for bending, tension, and
compression parallel-to-grain for all visually graded
F c , Wet 0.7 0.5 dimension lumber except Southern Pine between 2 and
(a) T = sustained temperature, F 4-inchs in nominal thickness are multiplied by the size
factors in Table 8-18. These factors are from equations
8.11.4 Incising Factor, Ci appearing in ASTM D1990 and are based on the in-grade
testing program. The reason for exempting Southern
Reference design values for dimension lumber shall be Pine between 2 and 4-inches in nominal thickness from
multiplied by the appropriate incising factor, Ci, from the adjustment in Table 8-18 is because the tabulated
Table 8-16 when the lumber is incised to increase reference design values appearing in the NDS for
penetration of treatments with incisions cut parallel to Southern Pine in these thicknesses already include a size
grain with a maximum depth of 0.40 inches, a maximum adjustment. This explains why the values for Southern
length of 0.375 inches, and a maximum density of 1100 Pine appearing in Table 8-7 are a function of width
per square foot. Incising factors shall be determined by whereas those appearing in Table 8-7 for other species
test for incising patterns exceeding these limits. The are not a function of width.
incising factor does not apply to solid-sawn posts,
glulams, round poles or structural composite lumber. Table 8-18. Size Factors, CF, For Nominal Two-
Inch Thick Dimension Lumber (a)
Table 8-16. Incising Factors for Dimension
Lumber, Ci Nominal Width,
Grade Fb (b)and Ft Fc
Reference Design Value Ci inches
E, Emin 0.95 4 and less 1.5 1.15
Select 5 1.4 1.1
Fb, Ft, Fc, Fv 0.80 Structural,
6 1.3 1.1
F c 1.00 No.1 &
8 1.2 1.05
Btr., No.1,
10 1.1 1.0
8.11.5 Flat Use Factor, Cfu No. 2, No.
3 12 1.0 1.0
With respect to post design, the flat use factor only 14 and wider 0.9 0.9
applies to mechlam posts fabricated from dimension (a) For nominally two-inch thick Southern Pine, the
lumber. In such posts, the factors in Table 8-17 are used value of CF is 1.0 for all properties and all sizes 12
to increase the bending strength of individual laminates inches in width and less. For mechanically graded
when they are being bent about the post’s X-X axis (see dimension lumber (Table 8-8), the value of CF is
figure 8-1(c)). 1.0 for all properties and all sizes.
(b) For bending about the strong axis only.
Table 8-17. Flat Use Factors for Nominal Two-
Inch Thick Dimension Lumber, Cfu
For visually graded timbers (reference design values in
Nominal Width, inches Cfu
Table 8-2) whose actual depth, d, exceeds 12 nominal
6 1.15
inches, multiply Fb by CF where CF is given as: CF =
8 1.15
(12/d)1/9. CF is equal to 1.0 for all other visually graded
10 and wider 1.20
timber properties.
While there is a flat use adjustment factor for glulams, it
does not apply to the reference design values for bending
8.11.7 Volume Factor, CV
in Table 8-5, as the effect that orientation has on bending The volume factor CV is used to account for the size
strength has already been effectively incorporated into effect in structural glued-laminated timber and structural
the tabulated reference design values in Table 8-5. composite lumber. Historically, the size effect in
glulams was accounted for by multiplying the reference

design value for bending stress by the same size factor as

used for visually grade timber (CF = (12/d)1/9). This
changed after research showed the glulam size effect to Table 8-19. Volume Factor for SCL Bending
be a function of all three dimensions and not just depth. CV for Bending(a)
SCL Product Orien-
The end result of this research was the volume factor, Type Name tation d > 3.5 d < 3.5
which is used to adjust Fbx (i.e., the reference bending inches inches
design value for bending about axis X-X) when the Beam (12/d)0.143 1.19
SolidStart
glulam is loaded perpendicular to the wide face of the Plank 1.00 1.00
laminations. In equation form, the volume factor given LSL
Beam (12/d)0.092 1.12
as: Timberstrand
Plank 1.00 1.00
CV = (21/L)1/x(12/d)1/x(5.125/b)1/x < 1.0 Beam (12/d) 0.136
1.18
Microlam
where: Plank 1.00 1.00
Beam (12/d)0.143 1.15
L = length of bending member between points of LVL SolidStart
Plank 1.00 1.00
zero moment, feet
Beam (12/d)0.111 1.15
d = depth of bending member, inches Versa-Lam
b = width (breadth) of bending member. For Plank 1.00 1.00
0.111
multiple piece width layups, b = width of Beam (12/d) 1.15
PSL Parallam
widest piece in the layup, inches Plank (12/d)0.111 1.15
x = 20 for Southern Pine (a) d is depth in inches. Depth is the dimension of the
x = 10 for all other species member in the same direction of (i.e. parallel to) the
applied load.
The CV equation is used to adjust Fbx whenever the
glulam is other than 12 inches in depth, 5.125 inches in
breadth and/or the distance between points of zero
bending moment is not 21 feet. The different "x" values Table 8-20. Volume Factor for SCL Tension
account for the volume factor being less pronounced in SCL Product
CV for Tension(a)
glulams fabricated from Southern Pine than glulams Type Name
fabricated from other species. The volume factor for (3/L)0.092 for L> 3 ft
SolidStart
glulams is not to be applied simultaneously with the LSL 1.00 for L<3 ft
beam stability factor, CL. Therefore apply only the lesser Timberstrand 1.00
of the two factors. Microlam 1.00
Reference design values for bending (Fb) and tension (Ft) (3/L)0.111 for L> 3 ft
SolidStart
LVL 1.00 for L<3 ft
for structural composite lumber must be multiplied by
the volume factor, CV, in Tables 8-19 and 8-20, (4/L)0.125 for L>4
Versa-Lam
respectively. These values are from the ICC-ES 1.00 for L<4 ft
Evaluations Reports listed in Table 8-3 for the products. PSL Parallam 1.00
In these reports, the volume factor for bending is often (a) L is member length in feet
listed as a size factor and the volume factor for tension is
listed as a length factor. Use herein of the term volume
When both a flexible and a stiff member are forced to
factor is consistent with the NDS and ASTM D5456.
deflect the same amount by a load-distributing element,
When CV for bending is less than 1.0, the factor shall not
the stiffer member will resist more load. This is
apply simultaneously with the beam stability factor CL,
advantageous given the probability that the stiffer
and therefore the lesser of these adjustment factors shall
member is more likely to be the stronger member. It
apply. However, when CV for bending is greater than
follows that the total amount of load that such a "load-
1.0, the factor shall apply simultaneously with the beam
sharing system" will be able to support without failure is
stability factor CL.
more than would be predicted based on the strength of
8.11.8 Repetitive Member Factor, Cr the weaker members in the group. To account for this
increase in overall strength due to load-sharing, the
The reference bending design value for a given group of reference bending design value is multiplied by the
structural framing members (e.g., lumber of the same repetitive member factor, Cr.
species, grade and size) is based on the weakest members
in the group. These same weak members tend to be less The magnitude of the repetitive member factor depends
stiff and thus deflect more than stronger members in the on the variation in bending stiffness and bending strength
same group when both the weak and strong members are of the components within a group. The variation in
subjected to the same load. bending stiffness controls the magnitude of load that a

load distributing element transfers between the Table 8-22. Minimum Required Interlayer Shear
individual components. The less variation in bending Capacities for Mechlams Bent About Axis Y-Y
stiffness, the lower the magnitude of load that is (Figure 7-1)(a)
transferred, and the lower will be the repetitive member
Minimum required interlayer shear
factor. The less variation in bending strength between
Actual face capacity per interface per unit length of
individual members, the less there is to be gained from
width of assembly, lbf/in.
load-sharing, and thus the lower will be the repetitive
laminations, Load and
member factor as well. Allowable Stress
inches Resistance Factor
Design (ASD)
The ultimate in load-sharing occurs between layers in (LRFD) Design
vertically-laminated assemblies (figure 8-1(d)) especially 5.5 12 16
when individual layers contain numerous strength- 7.25 15 20
reducing knots. For glulams, this load sharing is already 9.25 19 26
incorporated into the reference bending design strength 11.25 24 32
Fby and thus no further increase for repetitive member (a) For unspliced mechlams, mechlams with either
use is allowed. For mechanically-laminated assemblies, common glued end joints and/or certified structural
multiply Fb for bending about the Y-Y axis by the glued end joints, and unspliced regions of mechlams
applicable repetitive member factor from Table 8-21. with butt joints.
Table 8-21 Repetitive Member Factors for

Mechlams Bent About Axis Y-Y (a) Table 8-23. Minimum Fastener Spacings for
Number of laminations Mechlams Bent About Axis Y-Y (Figure 7-1)
Laminate Material
3 4 Dimension Nail/screw diameters
Visually graded Edge distance 10
1.35 1.40
dimension lumber End distance 15
Mechanically graded Spacing (pitch) between
1.25 1.30 20
dimension lumber fasteners in a row
Structural composite Spacing (gage) between rows
1.04 1.04
lumber (SCL) of fasteners
(a) For mechlams with minimum interlayer shear - in-line 10
capacity as specified in Table 8-22. - staggered 5
The factors in Table 8-21 are from ANSI/ASAE EP559

Design Requirements and Bending Properties for 8.11.9 Beam Stability Factor, CL
Mechanically-Laminated Wood Assemblies. These Anytime a member is subjected to bending forces, a
values apply when the actual thickness of each portion of the member is in compression, and there is a
lamination is between 1.5 and 2.0 inches (38 and 51 tendency for this portion of the member to buckle
mm), all laminations have the same depth (face width), laterally. This buckling results in both a lateral
faces of adjacent laminations are in contact and joined displacement and twist of the member as shown in figure
with connections that meet the requirement in Table 8-22 8-21 and thus is referred to as lateral-torsional buckling.
and 8-23, all laminations are of the same material (e.g., The tendency for this buckling to occur increases as (1)
grade and species of lumber), and the centroid of each member thickness decreases, (2) member depth
lamination is located on the centroidal axis of the increases, and/or (3) the distance between points of
assembly (axis Y-Y in figure 8-1(d)), that is, no lateral support increases.
laminations are offset.
To ensure that lateral torsional buckling does not take
As long as the interlayer shear capacities in Table 8-22 place, the reference bending design strength is reduced
are met, the mechanical connections joining the by multiplying it by the beam stability factor, CL (this
individual layers in a mechanically-laminated wood effectively reduces the amount of moment that can be
assembly function as an effective load distributing induced in the member where lateral torsional buckling
element between the layers, and thus no other "external" is likely). Where it is highly unlikely that a member will
load distributing element is needed to apply the factors in laterally displace under load, CL is equal to 1.00. This
Table 8-21. The capacities in Table 8-22 are expressed would include situations where member depth, does not
in units of force per unit length of the assembly. exceed effective member thickness, as well as situations

where the compressive edge of the member is supported

throughout its length to prevent lateral displacement.
Y Y
Lu
Actual member thickness, b,

for bending about axis Y-Y Lu
Member thickness
Twist
Member depth Actual member depth, d, for
(b) Loaded
bending about axis Y-Y
position near
midspan Figure 8-22. Variable definitions for post bending
(a) Unloaded position
about its Y-Y axis.
Lateral movement
Conservative estimates of Le are provided by the
Figure 8-21. Perspective view (top) and cross-
following equations.
sectional view (bottom) of lateral-torsional buckling
of a mechlam assembly loaded in bending about its Le = 2.06·Lu for Lu /d < 7 (8-3)
Y-Y axis.
Le = 1.63·Lu + 3·d for 7 < Lu /d < 14.3 (8-4)
The first step in calculating CL is to establish the Le = 1.84·Lu for Lu /d > 14.3 (8-5)
slenderness ratio, RB, which is given as:
For posts that are both loaded (in bending) and laterally
RB = (Le·d/be2)1/2 < 50 (8-2) supported by girts or other horizontal members that are
where: uniformly spaced, the effective span length can be
obtained using the equations in Table 8-24. For in-depth
RB = Slenderness ratio, dimensionless information on calculation of Le see Designing for
be = Effective member thickness, inches (mm) Lateral-Torsional Stability in Wood Members (AWC,
= b for all posts except mechlam posts 2003).
= 0.60 b for mechlam posts
b = Actual member thickness, inches (mm) Table 8-24. Effective Span Length for Posts With
d = Actual member depth, inches (mm) Bending Loads Applied by Girts (a)
Le = Effective span length, inches (mm) Number of Uniformly-Spaced Girts
Le (c)
ANSI/ASAE EP559 requires effective member thickness Between Top and Bottom of Post (b)
be to be set equal to 60% of actual total assembly 1 1.11 Lu
thickness. This reduced effective thickness accounts for 2 1.68 Lu
the interlayer slip (i.e. lack of complete composite 3 1.54 Lu
action) shown in figure 8-21 that occurs as the laminates 4 1.68 Lu
work to resist lateral movement. 5 1.73 Lu
6 1.78 Lu
The effective span length Le in equation 8-2 is a function 7 or more 1.84 Lu
of the laterally unsupported length Lu which is the actual
(a) Girts assumed to provide adequate lateral support at
distance between supports that prevent lateral
their point of attachment, and all loads applied to the
displacement under the applied bending load. In figure
side of the post are assumed to occur at these points
8-22, Lu is equal to the girt spacing when the post is
of attachment.
being bent out of the plane of the wall (i.e., being bent
(b) Do not count girts at very top and bottom of post.
about mechlam post axis Y-Y) and the girts themselves
(c) Girts uniformly spaced an amount Lu.
are prevented from shifting horizontally.

In accordance with equation 8-2, RB can not exceed 50. supports as shown in figure 8-23, the effective buckling
If it does, either member depth must be decreased, length between each set of supports may need to be
member thickness increased, and/or the distance between calculated unless it is obvious which one is the largest,
points of lateral support decreased. and hence will control buckling in the direction in
question.
Once the slenderness ratio has been determined, the
beam stability factor can be calculated as: Table 8-25. Effective Length Factors for Wood
Column Design
1 + b (1 + b) 2
b 1/2
(8-6)
CL = - -
2·c 4·c2 c
where:
FbE 1.20·Emin’
b = =
Fb* Fb*·RB2
c = 0.95
Fb* = Fb multiplied by all applicable adjustment
factors except Cfu, CV and CL, lbf/in2
FbE = Critical buckling design stress, lbf/in2
= 1.20·Emin’/ RB2 Theoretical Ke
Emin’ = Adjusted minimum modulus of elasticity, , value
0.5 0.7 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0
lbf/in2
RB = Slenderness ratio from equation 8-2 Recommended
design Ke when
8.11.10 Bearing Area Factor, Cb ideal 0.65 0.80 1.2 1.0 2.10 2.4
conditions are
The reference strength values for compression
approximated
perpendicular-to-grain, Fc, apply to bearings of any
length at the ends of a member, and to all bearings 6
inches or more in length at any other location. For
bearings less than 6 inches in length and not nearer than
3 inches to the end of the member Fc can be multiplied
Ke = 1.0 Lu Ke = 1.0
by the following bearing area factor, Cb:
Cb = (Lb + 0.375) / Lb (8-7) Ke = 1.0 Lu
where Lb is the bearing length measured parallel-to-grain Lu Ke = 1.0
in inches. For round bearing areas such as washers, Ke = 1.0 Lu
bearing length Lb, is taken as the diameter of the bearing
area.
Ke = 1.0 Lu Ke = 1.0
8.11.11 Column Stability Factor, CP
The column stability factor is used to reduce Fc values so Ke = 1.0 Lu Ke = 0.8
that buckling (instability) failures do not occur. When a
compression member is supported throughout its length
to prevent lateral displacement in all directions, CP = 1.0.
The first step in calculating CP is to calculate the
slenderness ratio, Le /d, for the column. Le is the Figure 8-23. Effective buckling length Le = Ke Lu will
effective column length of a compression member. It is vary along a post as Lu and Ke change. The
the distance between two points along the member length maximum value will control buckling for the direction
at which the member is assumed to buckle in the shape in question.
of a sine wave.
To calculate effective column length Le multiply the For all posts the slenderness ratio, Le /d, is taken as the
actual column length (or the length of the column larger of the ratios Ke·L1 /d1 and Ke·L2 /d2 as defined in
between lateral supports), Lu, by the appropriate effective figure 8-24. The slenderness ratio for solid columns,
buckling length factor, Ke from Table 8-25. Where a post Le/d, is not allowed to exceed 50, except during
has multiple inflection points due to multiple lateral construction when Le /d is not allowed to exceed 75.

The ability of an individual post-frame to sidesway

determines the effective length of the posts that are part
of the post-frame. In buildings that rely on diaphragm
action, sideway is prevented for all practical purposes,
and the effective length factor Ke is assumed to never
exceed 1.0 (see figures 8-25(a) and 8-25(b)).
Conversely, in buildings that do not rely on diaphragm
action, sidesway is largely dependent on the flexural
d2 L2 L2 stiffness of the posts, and this sidesway can be
significant. In such buildings, if the post is embedded
and pin-connected to the truss/rafter, Ke is taken as 2.1
L1 L1
(Table 8-25) as shown in figure 8-25(c).
d1 d1 Properly embedded posts provide significant resistance
d2 to base rotation, especially when restrained at grade by a
concrete slab. With respect to determination of effective
length, it is general practice to model all embedded posts
with fixed supports, and all non-embedded posts with pin
supports.
Once the slenderness ratio has been determined, the
Figure 8-24. Solid post (left) and mechlam post column stability factor for all posts except mechlams is
(right) under an axial compressive load. For calculated as:
mechlam posts L1 and L2 are the distances between
1 + c (1 + c)2  ½
points of lateral support in a direction parallel and CP = - - c (8-8)
perpendicular to interlayer planes, respectively, d1 is 2·c 4·c2 c
the face width of an individual lamination and d2 is where:
the thickness of the assembly.
FcE 0.822·Emin’
c = =
Fc * Fc*·(Le/d)2
c = 0.80 for solid sawn posts
= 0.85 for round poles
= 0.90 for glued laminated posts and posts
fabricated from a single piece of structural
composite lumber
F c* = Fc multiplied by all applicable adjustment
Lu factors except CP, lbf/in2
FcE = Critical buckling design stress, lbf/in2
= 0.822·Emin’/(Le/d)2
Ke = 1.0 Ke = 0.8 in Ke = 2.1 where
buildings posts alone Emin’ = Adjusted minimum modulus of elasticity, ksi
with must resist LE/d = Slenderness ratio for column
diaphragm sidesway = Maximum of Ke L1 /d1 and Ke L2 /d2
Pin action
connection
For mechlam posts, column stability factor CP is
calculated using the procedure outlined in Section 15.3.2
Embedded
post of the NDS as:
1 + c (1 + c)2  ½
(a) (b) (c) CP = K f - - c (8-9)
2·c 4·c2 c
Figure 8-25. Ke for out-of-wall-plane buckling
associated with common post support conditions. In where:
all three of the above cases, the post is assumed pin- c = FcE / Fc*
connected to the truss/rafter.
c = 0.80 for dimension lumber laminates
= 0.90 for SCL laminates

Fc* = reference compression design value parallel- 8.12 Controlling Design Equations
to-grain for a single laminate multiplied by all
applicable adjustment factors except CP (see Of the major NDS equations for checking component
equation 21 definitions) strength, there are typically only three that are utilized
FcE = 0.822·Emin’/(Le/d)2 when sizing post-frame building posts. These include
Emin’ = Adjusted minimum modulus of elasticity for a equation 8-11 for shear, equation 8-12 for axial
single laminate compression without bending, and equation 8-13 for
Kf = 0.60 for nail- and screw-laminated assemblies axial compression with uniaxial bending.
where Le /d is equal to Ke L2 /d2
fv < Fv’ (8-11)
= 0.75 for bolt-laminated assemblies where Le /d
is equal to Ke L2 /d2 fc < Fc’ (8-12)
= 1.0 for mechlams where Le /d is equal to
( fc /Fc’ )2 + f b/{Fb’ [1 – ( fc / FcE)]} < 1.0 (8-13)
KeL1/d1
Le /d = Slenderness ratio for the assembly where:
= Maximum of Ke L1 /d1 and Ke L2 /d2 fv = actual shear stress
where: = 1.5 V/(bd) for rectangular members
Ke = Buckling length coefficient from Table 8-25 fc = actual compressive stress
L1 = Distance between supports running parallel to = P/(bd) for rectangular members
interlayer planes (see figures 8-23 and 8-24) fb = actual bending stress
L2 = Distance between supports running normal to = 6M/(bd 2) for rectangular members
interlayer planes (see figures 8-23 and 8-24) F v’ = adjusted shear design value
d1 = Face width of an individual laminate (see F c’ = adjusted compressive design value parallel-to-
figures 8-23 and 8-24) grain
d2 = Laminated assembly thickness (see figure 8- F b’ = adjusted bending design value
24) FcE = critical buckling design value for compression
= 0.822 Emin’/ ( Le / d )2
The Kf factors of 0.60 and 0.75 require that d = post dimension measured parallel to plane of
nailing/screwing and bolting are performed in bending (see figure 8-26)
accordance with the provisions of NDS 15.3.3 and b = post dimension measure perpendicular to
15.3.4, respectively. In lieu of meeting the plane of bending (see figure 8-26)
nailing/screwing requirements in NDS 15.3.3, the more Le = effective buckling length
conservative provisions in Table 8-23 can be followed. = Ke Lu where Lu is depicted in figure 8-26
8.11.12 Condition Treatment Factor, Cct
Reference design values for round construction poles are
based on air-dried conditioning. If either kiln-drying,
steam-conditioning, or boultonizing are used prior to
treatment, then the reference design values must be
reduced. This is accomplished by multiplying the design
values by a Cct of 0.90 for kiln-drying, 0.95 for boulton b
drying, 0.80 for normal steaming, and 0.74 for marine
steaming.
Lu
8.11.13 Critical Section Factor, Ccs
Reference compression design values parallel-to-grain d
for round construction poles, Fc, are based on the
strength at the tip of the pole. To increase this value at
other locations along the post, Fc can be multiplied by
the critical section factor Ccs calculated as:
Ccs = 1.0 + 0.004 Lc (8-10)
where Lc is the distance in feet from the tip of the pile to
the point at which Fc is being determined. This increase
for location cannot exceed 10% (Ccs < 1.10).
Figure 8-26. Variable description for axial
compression with uniaxial bending.

NDS equations for axial tension, axial tension combined

with bending, and bi-axial bending with compression are
35.6 lbf/ft2
not given here as they are either not applicable to, and/or
they will not control post-frame building post design.
Equation 8-13 is the governing equations for uniaxial
bending and compression. Seldom is a post in a post- 7 lb
f/f t2 f/ft 2
frame building subjected to high bending forces about 3 lb
both axes. This is because posts that are subjected to
measureable bending forces are typically well supported 12
in the plane normal to the direction that they are being 6
bent.
For design of a post without any bending, equations 8-11
and 8-12 govern the design. Design of a post with 5 lbf/ft2
bending moments is governed by equations 7-11 and 7- Nominal 6- by 6-inch
5 lbf/ft2
8 lbf/ft2
15 ft No. 2 SP posts
13. Typically the only time that bending moments are
not induced in a post is when it is both pin-connected on 24 ft
each end and not part of a wall. Frames spaced 8 ft on center

Although equations 8-11, 8-12, and 8-13 must be met
along the entire length of the post, they are typically only 3.5 ft
checked at the locations of maximum positive and 6 in. thick, 14 in. diameter
maximum negative bending moment. detached concrete footing
Figure 8-27. Interior post-frame of example 4 bay

8.13 Example Calculations building.
8.13.1 Critical Frame Analysis
1111 lbf. The difference of 1027 lbf between these two
forces (1027 = 1111 – 84) is the total sidesway
Problem Statement restraining force Q, which can be looked at as the load
Determine the forces in both posts of the critical frame applied to the frame by the diaphragms, or as the eave
of a 4 bay building with interior post-frames described load transferred away from the frame by the diaphragms.
and loaded as shown in figure 8-27. The posts are After total sidesway restraining force Q is determined, it
nominal 6- by 6-inch No. 2 Southern Pine, that are can be applied at the same location as the eave load
embedded 3.5 feet. Posts are not attached to the footing (figure 8-28(a)), or it can be converted to a series of
upon which they bear. A slab-on-grade restricts inward uniformly distributed forces (q p,i values) applied along
post movement, but does not restrict movement away diaphragm-to-frame attachment lines as shown in figure
from the slab. Trusses are pin-connected to the posts. 8-28(b). The Q to qp,i conversions are accomplished
Truss chords are nominal 2- by 6-inch No. 1 SP. Truss using equation 8-1 as follows:
webs are nominal 2- by 4-inch No. 2 SP. Both backfill
and surrounding soil are best classified as a loose, silty qp,i = Q (c h,i / Ch ) / b i
fine-grained sand. The water table is located several feet
qp,roof = 1027 lbf (6000/16000) /12 ft = 32.1 lbf/ft
below the footing. Each roof slope has a horizontal
diaphragm stiffness of 6000 lbf/inch, the ceiling has a qp,ceiling = 1027 lbf (4000/16000) /24 ft = 10.7 lbf/ft
horizontal diaphragm stiffness of 4000 lbf/in, and both
Post forces resulting from plane-frame structural
endwalls have a frame stiffness of 2000 lbf/inch.
analyses of the analogs in figures 8-28(a) and 8-28(b)
Solution 1: Post Forces by Plane-Frame are shown in figures 8-29(a) and 8-29(b), respectively.
Structural Analysis Although the two analogs provide virtually identical
The post-frame shown in figure 8-27 was previous results for post shear and bending moments, there is
analyzed in Chapter 6. Calculated interior frame almost a 5% difference in post axial forces. This is
stiffness k and eave load R were 71.5 lbf/inch and 1111 because the center of action for the forces uniformly
lbf, respectively. DAFI output (figure 6-18) shows that distributed along the diaphragms is higher than it is for
the frame with greatest eave displacement (i.e., the force Q when Q is applied at the eave. This higher
critical frame) is the frame at the center of the building. center of action produces a greater “total building”
This frame has a horizontal eave displacement of 1.18 overturning moment which increases axial force in the
inches, and resists 84 lbf of the applied eave load of left post and decreases axial force in the right post.

284.8 lbf/ft
3885 lbf 3525 lbf
56 0 ft-lbf 0 ft-lbf
ft lbf/
lbf/ ft
24
329 lbf 218 lbf
12
6
Q Left Post
64 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
15 ft 15 ft
Right Post
40 lbf/ft
64 lbf/ft
631 lbf 382 lbf

2262 ft-lbf 1236 ft-lbf
3885 lbf 3525 lbf

(a)
(a)
284.8 lbf/ft
4078 lbf 3332 lbf
0 ft-lbf 0 ft-lbf
56 329 lbf
lb f/ft 218 lbf
f/ ft
24 lb
f/ft 32.
1
1 lb lbf/
32. ft Left Post
10.7
64 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
lbf/ft
15 ft 15 ft
Right Post
40 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
64 lbf/ft
631 lbf 382 lbf

2265 ft-lbf 1233 ft-lbf
4078 lbf 3332 lbf

(b)
Figure 8-29. Results of the plane structural analyses

with (a) the sidesway restraining force Q applied at
(b) the eave, and (b) uniformly distributed restraining
forces applied along diaphragm-to-frame attachment
Figure 8-28. Structural analogs for determination of lines.
post forces featuring (a) direct application of the
sidesway restraining force Q, and (b) replacement of
Q with uniformly distributed loads acting in the plane
of the diaphragms.

Solution 2: Post Forces by Equations of Static The loads on the FBD in figure 8-30 include those for a
Equilibrium total sidesway restraining force of 1027 lbf, which
induces the in-plane diaphragm forces shown in Figure
As an alternative to using a plane-frame structural
8-28(b). With these loads, the axial forces match within
analysis program, post fixity factors were used to
round-off error (as expected) those shown in figure 8-
determine frame stiffness and eave load values, DAFI was
29(b). Using the 961 lbf sideway restraining force from
then used to determine eave displacements, and the
Analysis 1 in Table 8-26 results in axial forces of 4062
equations in Table 8-1 were used to determine shear force
lbf and 3349 lbf for the left and right posts, respectively.
and bending moments in the posts of the critical frame.
These are only 0.3% different from those in figure 8-30.
Two separate analyses were conducted. For the first
Roof dead + snow = 6835.2 lbf
analysis, posts were assumed to be fixed at grade and pin-
connected to trusses (i.e., post fixity case 3 in Tables 6-1, Vertical component of windward Vertical component of leeward
6-5 and 8-1). For the second analysis, the left post was roof pressure = 288 lbf roof pressure = - 672 lbf
treated as a surface-constrained embedded post pinned to + +
Vertical component of diaphragm Vertical component of diaphragm
the truss (post fixity case 7) and the right post was restraining force = 192.6 lbf restraining force = -192.6 lbf
modeled as a non-constrained embedded post pinned to
the truss (fixity case 5). Results of these two analyses are Horizontal component Horizontal component
of windward of roof of leeward of roof
summarized in Table 8-26. Color coding in this table pressure = 144 lbf pressure = -366 lbf
represents different steps in the analysis. Pink, green and + +
blue represent application of the equations in Tables 6-1, Horz. component of Horz. component of
diaphragm restraining diaphragm restraining
6-5 and 8-1, respectively. Yellow identifies values from forced = -385.2 lbf forced = 385.2 lbf
DAFI.
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft 6 ft
Table 8-26. Results for Analyses

3 ft
Utilizing Post Fixity Factors(a)
3 ft
Analysis Vtw Vtl
1 2
Property
(fixed- (embedded-
pinned) pinned)
P = 4074 lbf P = 3337 lbf
Stiffness of left post, lbf/in 47.0 46.4
Stiffness of right post, lbf/in 47.0 40.5 Ceiling dead load = 960 lbf
Interior frame stiffness, k, lbf/in 94.1 86.9
Eave load, R, lbf 1065 1083 Ceiling diaphragm restraining force = 256.8 lbf
Eave displacement of middle (i.e.,
1.11 1.13 Figure 8-30. Free body diagram of the truss used to
critical) frame, Δ, inches
Load resisted by critical frame, lbf 104.3 98.5 determine post axial forces.
Total sidesway restraining force
960.7 984.5
for critical frame, Q, lbf 8.13.2 Post Design Check
Groundline shear, left post, lbf 652.2 651.1
Goundline shear, right post, lbf 427.2 406.2 Problem Statement
Top shear, left post, lbf -307.8 -308.9
Using allowable stress design, determine if the windward
Top shear right post, lbf -172.8 -193.8
post in the previous problem (Section 8.13.1) is
Moment at grade, left post, ft-lbf -2582 -2566
adequate.
Moment at grade, right post, ft-lbf -1907 -1594
(a) For s = 8 ft; H = 15 ft; d = 3.5 ft; E = 1,200,000 lbf/in2; Solution
I = 76.25 in4; AE = 73.33 lbf/in2; C = 74.81; qww = 8
lbf/ft2, qlw = -5 lbf/ft2, qwr = 3 lbf/ft2; qlr = -7 lbf/ft2. For a nominal 6- by 6-inch timber:
b = 5.5 inches
To obtain post axial forces, a free body diagram of the d = 5.5 inches
truss was drawn (figure 8-30). Moments were summed A = 30.25 in2
around the top of the left post to obtain the force in the S = 27.73 in3
right post. Forces were then summed in the vertical I = 76.25 in4
direction to obtain the force in the left post.

For No. 2 Southern Pine timber, the tabulated reference For an c of 0.689, CP from equation 8-8 is equal to
design values from Table 8-2 are: 0.552, and Fc’ = Fc* CP = 423 lbf/in2
Fb = 850 lbf/in.2 Actual stresses are based on maximum forces, which for
Fv = 165 lbf/in.2 the loading in Section 8.13.1 (figure 8-27b) are:
Fc = 525 lbf/in.2
E = 1,200,000 lbf/in.2 Mneg (at base) = 2265 ft-lbf = 27180 in-lbf
Emin = 440,000 lbf/in.2 Mpos (119 inches from base) = 10148 in-lbf
V (at base) = 631 lbf
Applicable adjustment factors for these design values P = 4078 lbf
from Table 8-10 are:
Actual maximum stresses:
Fb’ = Fb CD Ct CF CL
Fv’ = Fv CD Ct fb (at base) = M/S =27180 in-lbf/27.73 in3 = 980 lbf/in2
Fc’ = Fc CD CM Ct CP fb (at 119 in.) = 10148 in-lbf/27.73 in3 = 366 lbf/in2
E’ = E Ct fv = 1.5 V/A = 1.5(631 lbf)/ 30.25 in2 = 31.3 lbf/in2
Emin’ = Emin Ct fc = P/A = 4078 lbf/30.25 in2 = 135 lbf/in2
where: Check of controlling equation 7-11:
CD = 1.60 since the shortest duration load in the fv = 31.3 lbf/in2 < Fv’ = 264 lbf/in2 (O.K.)
combination of loads is wind Check of controlling equation 7-13 for combined loading
Ct = 1.00 for use under normal temperatures at the base of post (CP = 1.0 and Fc’ = 765 lbf/in2). In
CM = 0.91 for wood located near the soil surface this case, Le is taken to be very small because of
CF = 1.00 for nominal 6- by 6-inch No.2 Southern surrounding support (and thus the “fc/FcE” term in the
Pine equation approaches zero) and equation 8-13 becomes:
CL = 1.00 since post is square
CP = 1.00 at the base of the post where support is ( fc /Fc’ )2 + f b/Fb’ < 1.0
provided in both directions (135/765)2 + 980/1360 = 0.031+0.720 < 1.0 (O.K.)
CP = less than 1.00 between points of lateral
support. Calculated using equation 8-8 Check of controlling equation 8-13 for combined loading
at the point of maximum positive moment:
Substituting in known values yields:
( fc /Fc’ )2 + f b/{Fb’ [1 – ( fc / FcE)]} < 1.0
Fb’ = 850 lbf/in2(1.60)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0) = 1360 psi
Fv’ = 165 lbf/in2(1.60)(1.0) = 264 lbf/in2 (135/423)2 + 366/{1360[1-(135/527)]} =
Fc’ = 525 lbf/in2(1.60)(0.91)(1.0)CP = 765 CP psi 0.102 +0.362 = 0.463 < 1.0 (O.K.)
E’ = 1,200,000 lbf/in.2 (1.0) = 1,200,000 lbf/in.2
Emin’ = 440,000 lbf/in.2(1.0) = 440,000 lbf/in.2
For calculation of the column stability factor, Lu is taken
as the post height of 180 inches, and Ke is set equal to 8.14 References
0.80 resulting in an Le value of 144 inches and an Le/d 8.14.1 Non-Normative References
ratio 26.2. This value is assumed to far exceed the value
for buckling within the plane of the wall because of AWC. (2003). Designing for lateral-torsional stability in
lateral support provided in the plane of the wall by girts. wood members. Technical Report 14. American
Wood Council, Washington, DC. www.awc.org
Once the slenderness ratio is known, the critical buckling
design value for compression FcE can be calculated as: Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992). Estimating frame stiffness and
FcE = 0.822·Emin’/(Le/d)2 buildings. Trans of the ASAE, 35(3):1043-1054.
= 0.822(440,000)/(26.2)2 = 527 lbf/in2
Bohnhoff, D. R. & Gadani, M.. (2002). Effect of
c is then calculated as FcE/Fc* where Fc* is the reference mechanically-attached face plates on strong axis
design value for compression multiplied by all factors bending of posts. Presented at the 2002 ASAE
except CP, or: Annual International Meeting, Chicago, IL. ASAE
c = FcE/Fc* = 527 lbf/in2/ 765 lbf/in2 = 0.689 Paper No. 024003. ASAE, St Joseph, MI.

Holstein A. J., & Bohnhoff., D. R. (2013). Bending ASTM D3200 Establishing recommended design
properties of wood I-sections fabricated with screws stresses for round timber construction poles. ASTM
and polyurethane adhesive. J. Struct. Eng., 139(11): International, West Conshohocken, PA.
2019-2027. www.astm.org
8.14.2 Normative References ASTM D5456 Standard specifications for evaluation of
structural composite lumber products. ASTM
AITC 117-2004 Standard specification for structural International, West Conshohocken, PA.
glued laminated timber of softwood species. www.astm.org
ANSI/AITC A190.1-2007 Structural glued laminated AWPA U1-13 User specification for treated wood.
timber. American Wood Protection Association,
ANSI/ASAE EP559.1 Design requirements and bending Stevensville, MD.
properties for mechanically laminated wood IIC-ES Evaluation Report ESR-1387. Evaluation
assemblies. Subject: Structural Composite Lumber:
ANSI/AWC NDS-2012 ASD/LRFD National Design Timberstrand® Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL),
Specification for Wood Construction. Parallam® Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL), And
Microllam® Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL);
ASTM A153 Standard specification for zinc coating Timberstrand® LSL Rim Board; And TJ® Rim
(hot-dip) on iron and steel hardware. ASTM Board. Report Holder: Weyerhaeuser. International
International, West Conshohocken, PA. Code Council Evaluation Service. www.icc-es.org
www.astm.org
IIC-ES Evaluation Report ESR-2403. Evaluation
ASTM D25 Specification for round timber piles. ASTM Subject: LP® Solidstart® Laminated Strand Lumber
International, West Conshohocken, PA. (LSL) and Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL). Report
www.astm.org Holder: Louisiana Pacific Corporation. International
ASTM D1990 Standard practice for establishing Code Council Evaluation Service. www.icc-es.org
allowable properties for visually-graded dimension IIC-ES Evaluation Report ESR-1040. Evaluation
lumber from in-grade tests of full-size specimens. Subject: Versa-Lam® and Versa-Rim® Laminated
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. Veneer Lumber. Report Holder: Boise Cascade
www.astm.org Wood Products, LLC. International Code Council
ASTM D2899 Practice for establishing allowable Evaluation Service. www.icc-es.org
stresses for round piles. ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org

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POST-FRAME

BUILDING DESIGN MANUAL

National Frame Building Association

1 Introduction to Post-Frame Buildings

3 Structural Load and Deflection Criteria

5 Post and Pier Foundation Design

Introduction to Post-Frame Buildings

1.2 ANSI/ASABE S618 Definitions

National Frame Building Association 1-1

Figure 1-2. Post-frame building mounted on a

Figure 1-4. A single-span, open-web primary frame.

Figure 1-3. Post-frame building featuring girder

1-2 National Frame Building Association

Diaphragm: A structural assembly comprised of

National Frame Building Association 1-3

Figure 1-10. Typical corner framing.

1-4 National Frame Building Association

National Frame Building Association 1-5

Purlin-on-edge Rafter extension Fascia trim

Exterior girt Interior girt

Figure 1-16. Girt types.

Figure 1-13. Cross-sectional view through an eave

1-6 National Frame Building Association

National Frame Building Association 1-7

1-8 National Frame Building Association

Track Board: A member to which a sliding door track

1.2.5 Diaphragm Components

National Frame Building Association 1-9

1-10 National Frame Building Association

Air infiltration/water barrier Vapor retarder in cold climates

Edge and under slab insulation

Steel reinforcing bar

Figure 1-23. Post foundation featuring a cast-in-place concrete collar for

National Frame Building Association 1-11

Figure 1-25. Stem wall foundation.

1.2.8 Dimensions Foundation Depth: Vertical distance from the grade

1-12 National Frame Building Association

National Frame Building Association 1-13

1-14 National Frame Building Association

Rake: The part of a roof that projects over the endwalls.

Roof Overhang: Roof extension beyond the

National Frame Building Association 1-15

Figure 1-28. Frame of pole building barrack erected in

Figure 1-27. Timber-frame building designed by

1-16 National Frame Building Association

National Frame Building Association 1-17

1-18 National Frame Building Association

National Frame Building Association 1-19

revision to ASAE EP486. Approved in 2012, the 1.4.19 Glulam Posts

1-20 National Frame Building Association

1.5 Advantages relative cost of most post-frame buildings is attributable

National Frame Building Association 1-21

Figure 1-32. Post-frame boys and girls club with steel

1-22 National Frame Building Association

Figure 1-40. Large, equally spaced windows suit

National Frame Building Association 1-23

1-24 National Frame Building Association

Figure 1-44. This building is typical of many dairy

1.6.4 Bulk Storage Buildings

National Frame Building Association 1-25

1.6.5 Buildings with Open Walls

Wood posts in open-front buildings are often

Figure 1-49. Hay storage facility with all-around