Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part by any means (with the exception of short quotations for
the purpose of review) without the permission of the publisher. For information, contact the National Frame
Building Association (NFBA).
NFBA, its members, and its agents make no warranty, either expressed or implied, including but not limited to
any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose regarding these design practices. NFBA shall assume
no responsibility for the sufficiency or completeness of the information contained herein. Any practice de-
scribed in the manual should be applied by the building professional in accordance with the most current profes-
sional standards applicable in the specific situation.
In no event shall NFBA be liable to anyone for special, collateral, incidental, or consequential damages in connec-
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NFBA is not responsible for statements and opinions advanced in its meetings or printed in its publications.
Such statements and opinions represent the view of the individual to whom they are credited and are not binding
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2 Building Regulations
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.3 Building Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
2.4 International Building Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.5 Federal Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2.6 NFBA Sponsored Fire Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
2.7 Zoning Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2.8 Codes and Farm Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
2.9 Significant Design Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
6 Diaphragm Design
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 Structural Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6.3 Frame Stiffness, k. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6.4 Diaphragm Stiffness, Ch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.5 Eave Load, R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.6 Load Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6.7 Component Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
6.8 Rigid Roof Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-29
6.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-30
7 Metal-Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragm Properties
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 Design Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.3 Diaphragm Test Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.4 Building Diaphragm Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.5 Building Shearwall Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.6 Tabulated Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.7 Example Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
8 Post Design
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.2 Post Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.3 Relative Cost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
8.4 Preservative Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
8.5 Corrosion Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8.6 Bending Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8.7 Structural Framing Requirements and Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
8.8 Thermal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
8.9 Post Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
8.10 Reference Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13
8.11 Adjustment Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
8.12 Controlling Design Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-31
8.13 Example Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-32
8.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-35
Acknowledgements
The National Frame Building Association (NFBA) would like to gratefully acknowledge those
who have given generously of their time and talent in the production of this second edition of the
Post-Frame Building Design Manual.
We would like to especially thank NFBA Technical & Research Committee member David R.
Bohnhoff, PhD, PE, professor of biological systems engineering at the University of Wisconsin–
Madison, who served as the author of this manual. Dr. Bohnhoff’s tireless dedication and
commitment to the advancement of the post-frame industry are recognized and appreciated by
NFBA.
NFBA would also like to recognize Harvey Manbeck, PhD, PE, Distinguished Professor
Emeritus of Engineering at Penn State University and a technical advisor to NFBA. Dr. Manbeck
and other members of the NFBA Technical & Research Committee provided expertise in
reviewing and contributing to the Post-Frame Building Design Manual.
Members of the NFBA Technical & Research Committee who contributed to this project were
Paul Boor, PE, John Fullerton, Al Geisthardt, Mark Goble, Ken Guffey, PE, Aaron Halberg, PE,
Ed Lash, Kris Owen, Stan Pissarski, Tim Royer, PE, Al Schambach, Leo Shirek, PE (cochair),
Ron Sutton (cochair), and Doug Thomsen.
vi
.
CHAPTER 1 .
1.1 General
Contents 1.1.1 Building Systems
1.1 General 1–1 A post-frame building system is one of many types of
1.2 ANSI/ASABE S618 Definitions 1–1 framing/support systems. In general, a framing/support
1.3 General Building Terminology 1–13 system is concrete-based, steel-based, wood-based, or a
combination of these three. Even though they may
1.4 History 1–16 contain structural steel or concrete components, post-
1.5 Advantages 1–21 frame building systems fall under the broad category of
1.6 Ideal Structural Applications 1–23 wood-based framing systems. From a structural framing
perspective, a post-frame building system is analogous to
1.7 References 1–34
the typical low-rise metal building system. Conventional
1.8 Acknowledgements 1–35 buildings of both types have two-dimensional primary
frames that are connected with secondary framing
members, and nomenclature for both building systems is
similar. The major difference is that the majority of
framing members in a post-frame building are wood-
based, and the majority of framing members in a low-rise
steel framing building system are steel.
1.1.2 Use
Post-frame buildings are well-suited for many
commercial, industrial, agricultural and residential
applications. Post-frame buildings offer unique
advantages in terms of design and construction flexibility
and structural efficiency.
the top of piers, concrete or masonry walls, or slabs-on- Pole-Frame Building System: A post-frame building
grade. Secondary framing members, purlins in the roof in which all posts are round poles. Commonly referred
and girts in the walls, are attached to the primary framing to as a pole building. See figure 1-3.
members to provide lateral support and to transfer
sheathing loads, both in-plane and out-of-plane, to the 1.2.2 Building Subsystems
posts and roof framing. See figures 1-1 to 1-3.
Primary Frame: The two-dimensional interior frame
that is formed by the direct attachment of a roof
truss/rafter to its respective posts. Also known as a post-
frame or a main frame. See figures 1-4 to 1-9.
• Single-Span Primary Frame: Primary frame
without any interior supports. Also known as a clear
span primary frame. See figure 1-4.
• Multi-Span Primary Frame: Primary frame with
one or more interior supports. See figures 1-5 to 1-9.
• Solid-Web Primary Frame: Primary frame
assembled without using any open-web trusses. See
figures 1-6 and 1-8.
Figure 1-1. Post-frame building with trusses • Open-Web Primary Frame: Primary frame
supported directly by embedded posts.
fabricated with open-web trusses and no solid-web
members for roof support. See figures 1-4, 1-5 and 1-
7.
• Hybrid Primary Frame: Primary frame assembled
with both open-web trusses and solid-web members
for roof support. See figure 1-9.
• Pole: A round, naturally tapered, unsawn, wood post. o Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss
Poles are sometimes slabbed to aid in fastening (MPCWT): A truss composed of wood members
framing members. joined with metal connector plates (also know as
truss plates). Metal connector plates (MCP) are
• Endwall Post: Post located in an endwall. light-gage, toothed steel plates. The most common
• Sidewall Post: Post located in a sidewall. type of light wood truss.
• Corner Post: Post that is part of both a sidewall and • Heavy Timber Truss: A truss manufactured from
an endwall. wood members whose narrowest dimension is equal
to or greater than 5 nominal inches. Wood members
• Jamb Post: Post that frames the side of a door, include solid-sawn timber, structural composite
window, or other framed opening. lumber, and glulams. Members are generally
Truss: A structural framework, generally two- connected with steel gusset plates that are bolted in
dimensional (i.e. planar), whose members are almost place.
always assembled to form a series of inter-connected • Ganged Wood Truss: A truss designed to be
triangles. Perimeter members of the assembly are called installed as an assembly of two or more individual
truss chords and interior members are called truss webs. light wood trusses fastened together to act as one.
• Light Wood Truss: A truss manufactured from • Girder Truss: Truss designed to carry heavy loads
wood members whose narrowest dimension is less from other structural members framing into it.
than 5 nominal inches. Wood members include solid- Frequently a ganged wood truss.
sawn lumber, structural composite lumber, and
glulams. Members may be connected with metal • Parallel Chord Truss: Truss with top and bottom
connector plates (MCP), bolts, timber connectors, and chords with equal slopes
screwed- or nailed-on plywood gusset plates. • Roof Truss: A truss that directly supports a roof.
Figure 1-11. Section of a post-frame building featuring girder-supported rafters. Although posts of any type can be
used to support girders, this image shows round poles being used as structural wood columns.
Rafter: One of a series of sloped, structural beams that • Spaced Girder: A girder composed of two beams
support a roof. that are separated a fixed distance by special spacers
and/or the girder supports. See figures 1-11 and 1-12.
• Rake Rafter: A rafter located in an end wall. See
figure 1-11. Header: Framing member at the top of a window, door
or other framed opening. In general, any framing
• Fly Rafter: Rafter at the rake overhang that is member that ties together the ends of adjacent framing
supported out from the endwall by rake purlins. See members and may or may not be load bearing. See
figure 1-10. figure 1-12.
• Stacked Rafter: A narrow, deep rafter made by Knee Brace: A diagonally-oriented member used to
placing one rafter on top of another and fastening stiffen and strengthen the connection between a post and
them together. Generally made by fastening the attached roof truss/rafter, or between a post and an
dimension lumber together with metal connector attached girder. See figures 1-8 and 1-11.
plates.
Bearing Block: A relatively short structural support
Girder: A large, generally horizontal, beam. Commonly used to transfer vertical load from one structural member
used in post-frame buildings to support trusses whose to another. Frequently used to transfer load from a girder
bearing points do not coincide with a post. Frequently to a post or a truss to a post.
function as headers over large door and window
openings. Rafter Extension: A framing member attached to the
end of a truss or rafter that extends the effective slope
• Eave Girder: Girder located at the eave of a length of the roof by supporting additional purlins and/or
building. See figure 1-11. subfasica. Rafter extensions are commonly used to help
• Ridge Beam: Girder located at the ridge of a form eave overhangs as well as over shot roofs. See
building. See figure 1-11. figures 1-10, 1-13, 1-14 and 1-15.
• Truss Girder: A truss that functions as a girder. Tie-Down Block: A framing member used to attach a
Top and bottom chords of a truss girder are generally roof truss/rafter to a girder. See figure 1-12.
parallel.
Eave trim
Truss Purlin-on-edge
Eave strut
Tie-down block Truss Figure 1-15. Overshot ridge with rafter extension
supported by a two-ply rafter extension support. One
Spaced girder ply is located between the rafter extension and truss
Wall sheathing
top chord; the second ply extends along the sides of
Door header the rafter extension and truss chord.
Door trim
Weather seal
Figure 1-12. Cross-sectional view through an
overhead door in the sidewall of a building without an
eave overhang.
Eave strut
Notched girt
Bookshelf girts
Inset girts
• Interior Girt: A girt located entirely on the inside of • Purlin-Laid-Flat: A purlin that rests on top of roof
posts. Generally used to support interior wall trusses/rafters with its wide face in contact with the
sheathing in buildings with exterior girts. See figure trusses/rafters. See figures 1-11 and 1-17.
1-16.
• Recessed Purlin: A purlin located entirely between
• Notched Girt: A girt that is notched to facilitate adjacent trusses/rafters. Single-span components that
attachment to a post. Notching places a portion of the are typically held in place with special metal hangers.
girt between adjacent posts, with the remainder Also known as an inset purlin or dropped purlin. See
located outside or inside the posts. See figure 1-16. figure 1-17.
• Bottom Girt: The lowest girt. This could be a o Fully Recessed Purlin: Recessed purlin whose
regular girt, grade girt, or a splash plank. See figures top edge aligns with or is below the top edge of the
1-24 and 1-25. trusses/rafters to which it is connected. See figure
1-17.
o Grade Girt: A bottom girt located at grade. May
also function as a splash plank. See figures 1-22 o Partially Recessed Purlin: Recessed purlin
and 1-24. whose top edge is above the top edge of the
trusses/rafters to which it is connected. See figure
• Splash Plank: Any decay and corrosion resistant 1-17.
girt that is in soil contact or located near the soil
surface, that remains visible from the building exterior • Notched Purlin: A purlin that is notched to fit over
upon building completion, and is 2 to 4 inches in roof trusses/rafters. See figure 1-17.
nominal thickness. Frequently, multiple rows of
• Lapped Purlins: Two non-recessed purlins (i.e.,
tongue and groove (T&G) splash plank are used along
purlins-on-edge, purlins-laid-flat, or notched purlins)
the base of a wall. See figures 1-10, 1-11 and 1-24.
that bypass each other where they are connected to the
• Top Girt: The highest girt. A top girt to which both same truss/rafter. See figures 1-10 and 1-17.
roof and wall sheathing are attached is known as an
• Rake Purlin: A purlin that overhangs the endwall of
eave strut. See figures 1-10, 1-11, 1-13 and 1-14.
a building. See figure 1-10.
• Bookshelf Girt: A girt with its wide faces
• Ridge Purlin: A purlin adjacent to the building
horizontally oriented thus enabling it to effectively
ridge. See figures 1-10 and 1-11.
function as a shelf when left exposed. See figure 1-
16. • Eave Purlin: A purlin located at the eave line of a
building. An eave purlin to which both wall and roof
sheathing are attached is known as an eave strut. See
figure 1-13
• Fascia Purlin: A purlin that helps form the fascia of
a building. Also known as an edge purlin. See
figures 1-13 and 1-14.
• Edge Purlin: A purlin in the most outer row of
purlins. All fascia purlins are edge purlins but not all
edge purlins are fascia purlins. The edge purlins
shown in figure 1-11 are not fascia purlins as they do
not help form the fascia of the building.
• Beveled Purlin: A purlin with an edge that has been
cut at an angle, generally to facilitate cladding
Figure 1-17. Purlin types.
attachment. See figures 1-12, 1-13 and 1-14.
Purlin: A member attached (typically at a right angle) to
roof trusses/rafters. Purlins laterally support Eave strut: An eave purlin to which both wall and roof
trusses/rafters and transfer load between roof sheathing sheathing are attached or a top girt to which both wall
and roof trusses/rafters. See figures 1-10, 1-11 and 1-17. and roof sheathing are attached. Simultaneous
attachment of an eave strut to both wall and roof
• Purlin-on-Edge: A purlin that rests on top of roof sheathing generally provides the strut with effective
trusses/rafters with its narrow face in contact with the continuous lateral support to resist bending about both
trusses/rafters. See figures 1-10 and 1-17. primary axes. See figures 1-12 and 1-16.
Base Plate: A corrosion and decay resistant member Bracing: Axially-loaded structural members used to
that is attached to the top of a concrete floor or wall. A help stabilize other structural components. The
base plate is generally located between posts and may definitions in this section pertain to permanent bracing.
function like a bottom girt. Unlike a girt, primary Additional temporary bracing is generally required
attachment of a base plate is to the concrete and not the during construction
posts. See figures 1-21 and 1-25.
• Continuous Lateral Restraint (CLR): An
Sill Plate: A corrosion and decay resistant member that uninterrupted row of structural framing members
is attached to the top of a concrete foundation wall, and connecting a series of trusses. The row is
upon which posts are attached. perpendicular to truss members and thus provides
lateral support to the truss members it connects. See
figures 1-18 and 1-19.
o Bottom Chord Continuous Lateral
Restraint: A row of structural framing members
that provides lateral support to the bottom chords
of adjacent trusses. See figure 1-19.
o Web Member Continuous Lateral Restraint:
A row of structural framing members that provides
lateral support to the web members of adjacent
trusses. See figure 1-18.
• Diagonal Brace. A framing member that runs at an
angle to other framing members, and with other
framing members generally forms a structurally-stable
triangular assembly.
Figure 1-18. Components of a continuous lateral o Web plane diagonal brace: A diagonal brace
restraint system for web members. For larger truss that lies in the plane formed by the web members
spacing, individual web member reinforcement may of adjacent trusses. The brace generally runs from
be more economical for lateral bracing of webs than the roof plane to the ceiling plane, and is required
a continuous lateral restraint system.
in truss web planes that contain continuous lateral
restraints to keep the CLR from shifting. See
figure 1-18.
o Bottom chord diagonal brace: A diagonal
brace that lies in the plane formed by the bottom
chords of adjacent trusses (a.k.a.., the ceiling
plane). The braces are used to prevent bottom
chord continuous lateral restraints from shifting.
o X-brace: A pair of diagonal braces that cross each
other thus forming an “X”. Generally, one brace
will be in axial tension while the other brace is
loaded in axial compression.
o V-brace: A pair of diagonal braces that meet at
one of their ends, thus forming a “V”. Generally,
one brace will be in axial tension while the other
brace is loaded in axial compression.
o Endwall diagonal brace: A framing member
used to transfer load from an endwall to the roof
Figure 1-19. Endwall diagonal brace used to transfer plane. Generally used above large endwall
endwall forces into roof diaphragm and to keep openings or where an endwall post is not
bottom chord continuous lateral restraint from continuous from grade to the rake (e.g., an endpost
shifting. is terminated near the bottom chord of an endwall
truss). See figure 1-19.
Structural Ridge Cap: A component that covers the Footing: Foundation component at the base of a post,
ridge of a building and is capable of transferring shear pier or wall that provides resistance to vertical downward
force between diaphragms located on opposite sides of forces. When a footing is located below grade and
the ridge. properly attached to a post, pier or wall, it aids in the
resistance of lateral and vertical uplift forces. See figures
1-22 to 1-25.
Exterior girt Uplift Anchor: Any element mechanically attached to
Exterior wall an embedded post or pier to increase the uplift resistance
cladding Post of the foundation. Common uplift anchors include
Flashing concrete footings, concrete collars, preservative-treated
Inset girt wood blocks, steel angles, and concrete backfill. See
Sheathing Slab-to-post figures 1-22 to 1-24.
connecting bracket
Brick veneer Collar: Foundation component attached below grade to
Base plate an embedded post or pier, and that moves with it to resist
Slab-on- lateral and vertical loads. See figure 1-23.
grade
Grade beam foundation
Grade Beam: A corrosion and decay resistant beam
located on the soil surface. Also a long, thickened, and
more heavily-reinforced portion of a slab-on-grade
Figure 1-21. Slab-on-grade foundation. foundation. See figure 1-21.
Slab-on-grade
Grade girt
1.2.7 Foundations Types
Floor level
Grade line This section defines foundation types that are commonly
Ground used to support post-frame building systems.
surface
Post Preservative-treated
Post Foundation: A foundation consisting of an
embedment wood post embedded post and all attached below-grade elements,
depth which may include a footing, uplift resistance system,
Foundation and collar. See figures 1-22 and 1-23.
depth Uplift anchor
(preservative-treated Pier Foundation: A foundation consisting of an
wood blocking) embedded pier and all attached below-grade elements,
Isolated footing which may include a footing, uplift resistance system,
and collar. See figure 1-24.
Figure 1-22. Post foundation featuring a preservative-
treated wood blocks for uplift anchorage. • Pier and Beam Foundation: A pier foundation
that supports a grade beam.
Slab-On-Grade Foundation: A reinforced concrete
1.2.6 Foundation Components slab that rests on the soil surface. Slab areas located
directly beneath structural columns or walls are generally
This section contains descriptions of foundation
thicker and more heavily reinforced. Long, thickened
components that are used to define foundation types in
Section 1.2.7. and reinforced portions are generally referred to as grade
beams. See figure 1-21.
Embedded Pier: A relatively short column embedded
Stem Wall Foundation: A foundation consisting of a
in the soil to provide support for an above-grade post,
continuous wall that may be placed on a continuous
beam, wall, or other structure. Piers include members of
footing. The base of the foundation is generally located
any material with assigned structural properties such as
below expected frost penetration depths. See figure 1-
solid or laminated wood, steel, or concrete. Embedded
25.
piers differ from embedded posts in that they seldom
extend above the lowest horizontal framing element in a
structure, and when they do, it is often nor more than a
foot. See figure 1-24.
Figure 1-24. Pier foundation featuring steel angles for uplift anchorage.
Frame Spacing: On-center horizontal spacing of Board-Foot (BF): A measure of lumber volume based
primary frames. Frame spacing may vary within a on nominal dimensions. To calculate the number of
building. (a.k.a., bay width). board-feet in a piece of lumber, multiply nominal width
in inches by nominal thickness in inches by length in feet
Clear Span: Horizontal distance from the face of one
and divide by 12.
support to the face of the opposite support.
Butt Joint: The interface at which the ends of two
Building Width: Horizontal distance between the
members meet in a square cut joint.
outside face of the girts in one sidewall and the outside
face of the girts in the opposite sidewall. Camber: A predetermined curvature designed into a
structural member to offset the anticipated deflection
Building Length: Horizontal distance between the
when loads are applied.
outside face of the girts in one endwall and the outside
face of the girts in the opposite endwall. Check: Separation of the wood that usually extends
across growth rings (i.e., a split perpendicular-to-growth
Eave Overhang Distance: Horizontal distance from
rings). Commonly results from stresses that build up in
the eave line to the outside of the subfacia.
wood during seasoning.
Rake Overhang Distance: Horizontal distance from
Cladding: The exterior and interior coverings fastened
the rake line to the outside of the fly rafter.
to framing.
Girt Spacing: On-center vertical spacing of girts.
Components and Cladding: Elements of the
Purlin Spacing: On-center spacing of purlins. building envelope that do not qualify as part of the main
wind-force resisting system as defined in ASCE/SEI 7.
In post-frame buildings, this generally includes
1.3 General Building Terminology individual purlins and girts, and cladding.
The following terms and abbreviations are not specific to Diaphragm Action: The transfer of load by a
post-frame buildings, and thus are defined outside of diaphragm.
ASABE S618 Post-Frame Building System
Nomenclature. Diaphragm Design: Design of roof and ceiling
diaphragm(s), wall diaphragms (shearwalls), primary and
AF&PA: American Forest & Paper Association secondary framing members, component connections,
(formerly National Forest Products Association). and foundation anchorages for the purpose of
transferring lateral (e.g., wind) loads to the foundation
AITC: American Institute of Timber Construction.
structure via diaphragm action.
ALSC: American Lumber Standard Committee.
Dimension Lumber: Wood members from two (2)
ANSI: American National Standards Institute nominal inches to but not including five (5) nominal
inches in thickness, and 2 or more nominal inches in
APA: The Engineered Wood Association (formerly the
width.
American Plywood Association)
Eave: The part of a roof that projects over the sidewalls.
ASABE: The American Society of Agricultural and
In the absence of an overhang, the eave is the line along
Biological Engineers.
the sidewall formed by the intersection of the wall and
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers. roof planes.
ASD: Allowable Stress Design Fascia: Flat surface (or covering) located at the outer
end of a roof overhang or cantilever end.
AWC: American Wood Council. The wood products
division of the American Forest & Paper Association Flashing: Sheet metal or plastic components used at
(AF&PA). major breaks and/or openings in walls and roofs to insure
weather-tightness in a structure.
AWPB: American Wood Preservers Bureau.
Gable: Triangular portion of the endwall of a building
Bearing Point: The point at which a component is directly under the sloping roof and above the eave line.
supported.
Gable Roof: Roof with one slope on each side. Each
Board: Wood member less than two (2) nominal inches slope is of equal pitch.
in thickness and one (1) or more nominal inches in
width.
Gambrel Roof: Roof with two slopes on each side. wind-force resisting systems in post-frame buildings
The pitch of the lower slope is greater than that of the include the individual post-frames, diaphragms and
upper slope. shearwalls.
Hip Roof: Roof which rises by inclined planes from all Manufactured Component: A component that is
four sides of a building. assembled in a manufacturing facility. The wood trusses
and laminated columns used in post-frame buildings are
IBC: International Building Code.
generally manufactured components.
ICC: International Code Council.
MBMA: Metal Building Manufacturers Association.
Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL): A structural
NDS: ANSI/AWC NDS-2012 ASD/LRFD National
composite lumber (SCL) assembly comprised of wood
strands bonded with resins under heat and pressure. Design Specification for Wood Construction. American
Strand fibers are primarily oriented along the length of Wood Council, Leesburg, VA www.awc.org
the member. The least dimension of the strands shall not Metal Cladding: Metal exterior and interior coverings,
exceed 0.10 in. (2.54 mm) and the average length shall usually cold-formed aluminum or steel sheet, fastened to
be a minimum of 150 times the least dimension. the structural framing.
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL): A structural NFBA: National Frame Building Association.
composite lumber (SCL) assembly manufactured by
gluing together wood veneer sheets. Each veneer is NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.
oriented with its wood fibers parallel to the length of the Nominal Size: The named size of a member, usually
member. Individual veneer thickness does not exceed different than its actual size (as with lumber).
0.25 inches.
Oriented Strand Board (OSB): Structural wood
Loads: Forces or other actions that arise on structural panels manufactured from reconstituted, mechanically
systems from the weight of all permanent construction, oriented wood strands bonded with resins under heat and
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, pressure.
differential settlement, and restrained dimensional
changes. Oriented Strand Lumber (OSL): A structural
composite lumber (SCL) assembly comprised of wood
• Dead Loads: Forces induced by the gravitational strands bonded with resins under heat and pressure.
attraction between the earth and the mass of the Strand fibers are primarily oriented along the length of
building components. the member. The least dimension of the strands shall not
exceed 0.10 in. (2.54 mm) and the average length shall
• Live Loads: Loads resulting from the use and
be a minimum of 75 times the least dimension.
occupancy of a building.
OSB: See Oriented Strand Board.
• Seismic Load: Forces induced in a structure due to
the horizontal acceleration and deacceleration of the Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL): Structural composite
building foundation during an earthquake. lumber (SCL) manufactured by cutting 1/8-1/10 inch
thick wood veneers into narrow wood strands, and then
• Snow Load: Forces induced by the gravitation gluing and pressing the strands together. Individual
attraction between the earth and any snow that strands are up to 8 feet in length. Prior to pressing,
accumulates on the building. strands are oriented so that they are parallel to the length
• Wind Loads: Loads caused by the wind blowing of the member.
from any direction. Pennyweight: A measure of nail length, abbreviated
Lumber Grade: The classification of lumber in regard by the letter d.
to strength and utility in accordance with the grading Plywood: A wood panel comprised of wood veneers.
rules of an approved (ALSC accredited) lumber grading The grain orientation of adjacent veneers are typically 90
agency. degrees to each other.
LRFD: Load and Resistance Factor Design Pressure Preservative Treated (PPT) Wood:
LVL: see Laminated Veneer Lumber. Wood pressure-impregnated with an approved
preservative chemical under approved treatment and
Main Wind-Force Resisting System: An quality control procedures.
assemblage of structural elements assigned to provide
support and stability for the overall structure. Main PSL: See Parallel Strand Lumber.
Bow
roof planes.
Ridge: Highest point on the roof of a building which
describes a horizontal line running the length of the
building.
Ring Shank Nail: See threaded nail. Crook
Siphon Break: A small groove to arrest the capillary WCLIB: West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau
action of two adjacent surfaces. WTCA: Wood Truss Council of America.
Soffit: The underside covering of roof overhangs. WWPA: Western Wood Products Association.
SPIB: Southern Pine Inspection Bureau.
1.3.1 Heavy Timber Construction
Structural Composite Lumber (SCL):
Reconstituted wood products comprised of several Post-frame buildings are frequently and incorrectly
laminations or wood strands held together with an referred to as post and beam buildings or as timber frame
adhesive, with fibers primarily oriented along the length buildings. Much of the confusion between the framing
of the member. Examples include LVL and PSL. systems occurs because they are all generally designed
around two-dimensional (2-D) frames. In post-frame
Threaded Nail: A type of nail with either annual or buildings these 2-D frames are referred to as primary
helical threads in the shank. Threaded nails generally are frames, post-frames or main frames. In post and beam
made from hardened steel and have smaller diameters buildings and timber frame buildings they are commonly
than common nails of similar length. referred to as bents. The key to understanding the
Timber: Wood members five or more nominal inches in difference between the three building systems is to focus
the least dimension. on these 2-D frames. If the main member(s) connecting
the posts within a 2-D frame fall into the timber category
TPI: Truss Plate Institute. (timbers are defined as members larger than 5 nominal
Wane: Bark, or lack of wood from any cause, on the inches in the least dimension), the building would be
edge or corner of a piece. classified as a post and beam building or a timber frame
building.
According to the Timber Frame Business Council or 1-29 was erected on the site in 2011. Appearing behind
TFBC (http://timberframe.org/faq.html), a timber framed the barrack in figures 1-28 and 1-29 is a replicate section
building is a specialized version of post and beam of the palisade which was constructed by embedding
building that utilizes wood joinery such as mortise and wood poles (i.e., pales) alongside each other.
tenon, held in place with wooden pegs as shown in figure
1-27. According to this definition, it is not proper to
refer to a post and beam building as a timber-frame
building when timbers are connected with special metal
fasteners, metal plates and other metal connectors.
1.4 History
A condensed history of the post-frame building system
follows. Early history is based on an accounting
provided by James T. Knight (1989) who served as
executive director of the National Frame Building
Association (NFBA) for nearly three decades.
1.4.1 Ancient History
The concept of pole-type structures is not new.
Figure 1-29. Close-up of the barrack shown in figure
Archeological evidence exists in abundance that pole
1-28. Embedded poles support a girder which in turn
buildings have been used for human housing for supports rafters. Note the similarities between this
thousands of years in many areas of the world. Although construction and that shown in figure 1-3.
ancient pole buildings have long since disappeared from
the landscape, their size and original location are easily The most significant of the pole buildings located in
determined by the variations in soil color (i.e. soil James Fort was the church erected in 1608. Although
staining) that occurs when embedded wood poles decay this was the second church built at the site (the first burnt
inside the surrounding soil. down soon after construction), it is considered the first
1.4.2 Pole Buildings at Jamestown, VA major Protestant church building in North America. It is
famous for housing the wedding of Pocahontas and
The very first buildings constructed by English settlers in tobacco planter John Rolfe during the spring of 1614.
North America were pole buildings constructed inside The exact location of the church was discovered in 2010
the James Fort palisade (i.e. fort wall) at Jamestown, VA. by archeologists who uncovered its postholes (Kelso,
These buildings were erected within a few weeks of the 2011). Overall building size was found to exactly match
settlers May 13, 1607 arrival on James Island. In an the 24 x 60 foot size recorded in 1610 by William
effort to duplicate methods used in construction of these Strachey who was the secretary of the colony. Postholes
buildings, the barrack’s frame shown in Figures 1-28 and
were located exactly 12-foot on center. Their locations 1.4.4 Bernon Perkins
are now permanently marked at the site with stub posts
(figure 1-30). Bernon George Perkins was hired by DAS as a farm
manager in the mid-1930s and began using creosote
treated poles instead of the more scarce cedar poles.
Within a relatively short period of time, preservative
treated poles became the mainstay of this new building
system. In a textbook titled Farm Buildings that was
published in 1941, author John C. Wooley introduces
“pole-frame” as the simplest type of barn frame. Wooley
states that “in many of the newer structures using this
type of frame, treated poles are being used, and a footing
is provided for each pole.” Contrary to this statement by
Wooley, the use of footings was actually relatively rare.
Perkins is attributed with two other developments of the
modern post-frame building system. He was the first to
Figure 1-30. Stub posts mark the location of the place 2- by 4-inch members on-edge as purlins, and he
fourteen poles that supported the 1608 church was the first to overlap purlins. By installing purlins-on-
located inside James Fort. A statue of Captain John edge, Perkins was able to increase both rafter and purlin
Smith and the James River appear to the left.
spacing. Overlapping of purlins led to more rapid
Walls of the Jamestown pole buildings were finished by construction and an improved purlin-to-rafter
attaching vertical wood slats to girts (see figure 1-29) connection. In 1949, Perkins applied for a patent on a
and then packing clay around the wood poles, girts and pole-frame building designed for storing and drying hay,
vertical slats. The clay surface was then waterproofed grain and other commodities. The patent was granted in
with a mixture of lime and animal fat. Roofs were June, 1953 (Patent No. 2,641,988). Figure 1 from this
thatched with marsh grass harvested from surrounding patent is reproduced in figure 1-31 and shows the lapped,
swamps. 2- by 4-inch on-edge purlins characteristic of Perkins’
buildings.
It is clear that the English settlers used pole buildings for
the same basic reasons we use post-frame buildings
today – they can be quickly erected, and they make
efficient use of readily-available materials.
Use of pole buildings in America continued throughout
the colonization of the country. Norum (1967) reports
use of pole buildings on farms in the 19th century.
1.4.3 D. Howard Doane
The modern post-frame structure can trace it roots to D.
Howard Doane, founder of Doane Agricultural Service
(DAS). Doane had an unwavering vision of a more
efficient, productive agriculture, and he worked to
improve profitability in all aspects of the farm Figure 1-31. Figure 1 from U.S. Patent No. 2,641,988
enterprises that DAS helped manage. Doane’s drive led granted in June, 1953.
him to explore options to the heavy timber framed
buildings that were the mainstay of production Although DAS was the assignee on Perkins’ patent, it
agricultural. In the early 1930’s, he erected buildings had no interest in protecting the patent from infringement
utilizing embedded red cedar poles as their primary by others. In fact, D. Howard Doane had Perkins and
supports. The poles supported girders upon which rafters other employees actively encourage builders and farmers
were placed on two-foots centers. Purlins consisted of to accept and utilize their ideas. Perkins began a
one-inch thick boards that were laid-flat and spaced 12 to “builders program” in the early 1950’s and traveled
18 inches apart. This frame was covered with corrugated around the country with Tom Locke, a DAS engineer,
galvanized steel. sharing plans with builders involved in and/or interested
in pole-frame building construction. The program was began to carve out a niche in the commercial building
dissolved in 1954. market.
1.4.5 Truss Use 1.4.9 NFBA Formation
A landmark moment for the industry came in 1969 when
The 1950’s saw increased use of trusses in farm
the State of Indiana looked to adopt building code
buildings. By the late 1950’s, truss use in pole-frame
provisions requiring “continuous concrete foundations”
buildings became the rule rather than the exception.
for all “wood frame commercial buildings”. Because of
Many trusses were fabricated with the use of ½-inch
the negative impact this would have on post-frame
thick plywood gussets held in place with glue and nails.
building, Freemon D. Borkholder organized a meeting
Fabrication of such trusses was quite labor intensive
which was attended by approximately twenty builders. It
because of the time required to hand drive numerous
was during this 1969 meeting that the decision was made
nails. Bolted trusses and trusses utilizing timber
to form an organization of post-frame builders and to call
connectors were also commonly used (trusses using split
it the National Frame Builders Association (NFBA). In
ring timber connectors were generally referred to as “bolt
2007 the word “Builders” was changed to “Building”
and ring” trusses). In the early 1960’s, buildings with
(i.e., NFBA became the National Frame Building
40-ft clearspans were commonly erected. By the early
Association) in recognition that the organization is made
1970’s, buildings with 60-ft clearspans were routinely
up of more than just active builders (i.e., it includes
built.
suppliers, designers, researchers, etc.).
1.4.6 Patterson Publication Use of the term “post frame” does not appear to have
In 1957 the American Wood Preservers Institute been coined during the 1969 Indiana meeting. In his
published a document written by Donald Patterson titled 1941 Farm Buildings textbook, author John C. Wooley
Pole Building Design. Written for use by engineers, uses the term “post frame” to refer to buildings with
Pole Building Design stressed engineering concepts that rough, hewed, sawed, or built-up posts placed at 10- or
were “somewhat unusual or unique in pole-type 12-ft intervals and placed on a wood sill or directly on a
buildings.” A major portion of the document was concrete foundation.
dedicated to methods for determining the depth of
1.4.10 Engineering Infusion
embedment of poles - methods based on research funded
by the Outdoor Advertising Association of America. As they expanded into commercial building markets in
the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, larger post-frame
1.4.7 Metal Plate Connected Trusses building companies began employing their own
The 1960’s ushered in the age of the metal plate registered professional engineers for in-house production
connected wood truss (MPCWT). Early MPCWTs of all plans, specifications and structural calculations
featured metal connector plates with much larger teeth required by code for commercial buildings. This
and lower tooth densities than today’s plates. Not until infusion of engineering into the post-frame building
the early 70s did most post-frame building companies industry impacted more than just commercial buildings,
begin transitioning from bolted trusses to MPCWTs. as it brought with it the science to safely build larger
agricultural structures. Although the importance of
1.4.8. Rectangular Posts properly engineering a building has never been in
The 1960’s also saw the pole-frame building industry dispute, few agricultural buildings were fully engineered
begin its transformation into the post-frame building prior to the 1970’s. This is because agricultural
industry as builders began to abandon poles in favor of buildings were (and still are) exempt from building codes
solid-sawn posts. In some cases the transition was from in virtually every jurisdiction in the United States.
buildings with round poles to buildings with all slabbed Although more engineering has been put into agricultural
poles, and then to buildings with slabbed poles in all buildings in the past half-century, it is important to
locations except the corners where rectangular posts realize that many agricultural structures are still
were used, and finally to buildings with all rectangular constructed with little or no engineering input.
posts. Although size-for-size solid-sawn posts typically 1.4.11 Concrete Footings
lacked the bending strength of the poles they replaced,
they enabled more rapid and accurate frame erection, as Concrete footings which were largely absent from pole-
well as the straight-forward installation of quality interior frame buildings erected prior to the 1960’s, became
wall finishes (something not easily accomplished with standard elements under embedded posts in the 1970’s.
tapered poles). Finished interiors had become more This can be attributed to significant increases in post
common place as (1) farmers began to utilize thermally- bearing pressures, and to commercial building
insulated post-frame buildings for shops, offices and engineering that routinely showed actual soil pressures
certain livestock housing facilities, and (2) the industry vastly exceeding allowable soil pressures when footings
were absent. Increases in post bearing pressure were ASAE EP484 requires strength and stiffness values for
directly attributable to increases in clearspan distances all load-resisting diaphragms and shearwalls in a
(i.e., axial post loads increase in direct proportion to the building. Consequently, numerous metal-clad wood-
clearspan distance between posts in a primary frame) and frame diaphragm panel tests have been conducted since
to decreases in post bearing area. In many cases, the the 1980's. Sources and a compilation of data from many
butt-end of tapered poles was often greater than the of these tests are provided in Chapter 8.
cross-sectional area of the rectangular posts that replaced
A major revision to ASAE EP484 was completed in
them.
1998. This revision included the simplified design
1.4.12 Penta and CCA Wood Treatments approach outlined by Bohnhoff (1992a) and also allowed
for more detailed diaphragm analyses including the
In the 1940’s, pentachlorophenol largely replaced Force Distribution Method developed by Anderson
creosote as the preferred preservative treatment for (1989) and computer program DAFI developed by
wood, especially for pole-frame building applications. Bohnhoff (1992).
Although creosote was a very effective treatment, the
resulting oily surface made it virtually impossible to seal 1.4.14 Mechanically-Laminated Posts
in its strong objectionable odors. Creosote-treated poles
In the early 1980’s, builders began switching from solid-
were also messy to handle, particularly in warm weather.
sawn posts to nail-laminated posts. This switch was
By the early 1980’s chromate copper arsenate (CCA) had
driven by the lack of stress-rated timber, decay issues
effectively supplanted pentachlorophenol in post-frame
with solid-sawn posts, and a need for posts that could
buildings. As a waterborne preservative, CCA was
withstand higher bending stresses. Decay problems
easier to stain, paint and seal. CCA was also considered
became more prevalent when builders switched from
to be less of a hazard to humans than penta-treated wood.
poles to sawn posts, primarily because of the difficulty of
In fact, in 1984, the EPA banned the use of
treating heartwood exposed by sawing operations.
pentachlorophenol for all indoor applications, except for
a few low exposure uses which included embedded poles In the mid-1980’s, builders began utilizing spliced, nail-
and posts used in agricultural applications. laminated posts – posts with preservative-treated wood
on one end and untreated wood on the other end.
1.4.13 Diaphragm Design Questions about the bending strength of various spliced
In the mid-1980’s, post-frame building engineers began post designs led David Bohnhoff to develop a special
discussing a procedure published in 1983 by Hoagland finite element modeling method for the posts (Bohnhoff
and Bundy for calculating the percentage of horizontal et al., 1989) and to conduct numerous tests on both
wind load transferred to shear walls by metal-clad roofs spliced and unspliced posts (Bohnhoff et al., 1991,
in post-frame buildings. This procedure, referred to as Williams et al., 1994, Bohnhoff et al., 1997). This
diaphragm design, was based on methods outlined for ultimately led Bohnhoff to draft ASAE EP599 Design
metal-clad steel-framed diaphragms by Bryan (1973), Requirements and Bending Properties for Mechanically
and featured an equation developed by Luttrell (1967) Laminated Columns which was approved by ASABE in
for extrapolating diaphragm test panel data for use in December 1996, and as an American National Standard
full-scale building design. The first research on metal- by ANSI the following February. In 2009, Bohnhoff
clad wood frame diaphragms can be traced to Hurst and chaired a major revision of the engineering practice
Mason who in 1961 published results of tests on two which included a name change to Design Requirements
separate (but similar) metal-clad pole buildings that and Bending Properties for Mechanically Laminated
showed that roof and endwall cladding contributed Wood Assemblies.
significantly to the overall rigidity of the structure. The
1.4.15 Foundation Design Standard
first metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm test panels were
tested over 15 years later by Hausmann and Esmay In the late 1980’s, Gerald Riskowski and William Friday
(1977) and White (1978). (1991a, 1991b) developed equations for calculating the
embedment depth of collared post foundations. These
The diaphragm design procedure published by Hoagland
equations became part of ASAE EP486 Shallow Post
and Bundy in 1983 was slightly modified by
Foundation Design which was developed under the
Gebremedhin and others (1986), and formed the basis for
direction of Friday and released by ASABE in March
ASAE EP484 Diaphragm Design of Metal-Clad, Post-
1991. Based on research by Neil Meador, the standard
Frame Rectangular Buildings. Work on the ASAE
was slightly revised in 1999 and approved as an
EP484 commenced in 1986 under the direction of
American National Standard by ANSI in October 2000.
Harvey Manbeck and was approved for publication in
In 2007, David Bohnhoff began working on a major
1989 (Manbeck, 1990).
1.5.5 Durability
Durability is dictated by the degree to which degradation
of materials due to decay and corrosion is controlled, and
the degree to which load levels are maintained within the
design strengths of components and connections. The
former is managed by using materials that are compatible
with the environment(s) to which they are exposed; the
latter is controlled with proper structural engineering.
Durability has been a hallmark of post-frame buildings,
as is evidenced by the number of post-frame buildings
that are still in use years after exceeding their original
design life. This can be attributed to proper use of
preservative lumber treatments (or concrete where such
Figure 1-33. Wood-clad post-frame building treatments are not desired), corrosion resistant fasteners,
constructed for horse housing. and wood adhesives.
1.5.6 Environmental-Friendliness
The low cost of post-frame buildings is directly
attributable to its efficient use of materials, and hence its
very low embodied energy relative to structures of
similar size. Much of this is attributable to the reduced
use of concrete in foundations. To this end, as more
accurate and complete life cycle analysis/assessment
methods are developed and used in selection of building
systems, greater use of post-frame building systems is
expected.
Figure 1-34. Small commercial post-frame building Given the durability of post-frame buildings, it is not
sided with stucco and brick veneer. uncommon for them to exceed their functional design
life. For this reason, many older post-frame buildings
are now used for purposes other than which they were
initially designed.
In situations where post-frame buildings have outlived
their initial need, it may be advantageous to move or
reconfigure the structure. This is relatively easy to
accomplish with modern post-frame buildings, as they
are largely assembled using mechanical fasteners (i.e.,
bolts and screws) that can be quickly removed without
Figure 1-35. Residential post-frame building with damage to components. This ability to “recycle” a post-
brick veneer and fiber-cement board siding. frame building adds to their reputation as one of the
world’s most environmentally-friendly structures.
1.5.7 Safety
Outstanding structural performance of post-frame
buildings under adverse conditions such as hurricanes is
well-documented. Gurfinkel (1981) cites superior
performance of post-frame buildings over conventional
construction during hurricane Camille in 1969. Harmon
et. al (1992) reported that post-frame buildings
constructed according to engineered plans generally
withstood hurricane Hugo (wind gusts measured at 109
mph). Since post-frame buildings are relatively light
weight, seismic forces do not control the design unless
significant additional dead loads are applied to the
structure (Faherty and Williamson, 1989; Taylor, 1996).
1.6 Ideal Structural Applications Figure 1-37. The numerous, equally-spaced overhead
Different structural framing/support systems will have doors of mini-warehouses make them ideal for post-
different advantages and disadvantages depending upon frame.
the particular application. A post-frame building system
is no different than any other structural framing/support
system in this regard. In general, a post-frame building
system will have inherent advantages where it is
advantageous to have wood posts as main, load-bearing,
vertical framing elements. Following are thirteen such
applications highlighted by Bohnhoff (2008).
1.6.1 Buildings With Numerous and/or
Relatively Large Wall Openings
Windows and doors in a post-frame building that are
narrower than the post spacing typically do not require Figure 1-38. Post-frame suburban garage.
structural headers, since roof trusses/rafters in most post-
frame buildings bear directly on the posts. Elimination
of structural headers enables elimination of trimmer
studs (a.k.a. jack studs, shoulder studs) and other special
structural members required to support the headers.
Removing headers and their supports not only saves
money, but results in an enhanced thermal envelope
when framing members are replaced with thermal
insulation. Additionally, fewer framing members mean
fewer cracks for air infiltration. Figure 1-39. Post frame readily accommodates the
overhead doors required for this automobile repair
In general, any building with large, regularly-spaced business in Lafayette, Indiana. An FBi Buildings
door and window openings is an ideal candidate for post- project.
frame. Mini-warehouses and service garages typically
have several equally-spaced and equally-sized overhead
doors making them ideal candidates for post-frame
(figures 1-37 through 1-39). In these buildings, posts are
often used to frame both sides of the doors. Post frame is
also ideal for retail stores with large glass facades (figure
1-40).
1.6.2 Buildings Without Basements less need for costly heat and moisture protection systems,
and enhanced concrete surface finish, durability, and
Many buildings without basements are supported on strength properties. Second, less preplanning is required
cast-in-place crawlspace walls or frost walls that rest on for below slab installation of HVAC, plumbing and
continuous cast-in-place concrete footings. The electrical system components. In fact, no preplanning is
construction time and concrete cost associated with these required when the interior concrete slab is placed after
continuous concrete foundation walls and footings is HVAC, plumbing and electrical system installations have
significantly greater than that associated with a post- been completed. With respect to utilities, it is also
frame building that utilizes embedded posts or a post-on- important that insulation must be placed under a slab that
concrete pier system as its foundation system (figure 1- contains a radiant heating system, and placement of this
41). insulation requires a very level, properly compacted base
The material and labor savings associated with post/pier – something more easily achieved and maintained in a
foundation systems makes them the most protected environment.
environmentally-friendly foundation system in common Some builders may opt to place posts on the thickened
use today. Additionally, embedded post and precast pier edge (i.e., grade beam) of a concrete slab. Such systems
foundations can be easily removed and reused – a feature generally require more total concrete than systems with
which adds to their status as a very environmentally- concrete pier foundations since the extra concrete
friendly foundation system. required for the grade beams usually exceeds that
required to fabricate concrete piers.
1.6.3 Buildings with Tall Exterior Walls
Mechanically- and glue-laminated posts are used in the
vast majority of today’s post-frame buildings. These
posts enable the construction of buildings with relatively
large floor-to-ceiling heights at prices much less than
they could be fabricated with a comparable wood stud
wall.
Laminated posts can be fabricated to any length by
splicing shorter pieces of wood together. Laminated
posts are also straight and inherently more stable because
of the laminating process. The only way to get a tall,
relatively straight wall with wood studs is to use more
expensive, engineered lumber products (e.g., laminated
strand lumber, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand
lumber).
The increased bending moments associated with taller
walls may be handled by using higher grade lumber or
with larger vertical wall framing elements. Another
option is to reduce the spacing of the framing elements
so that each element is subjected to less load. These
Figure 1-41. Preservative-treated, mechanically- options are easy to accommodate into post-frame
laminated embedded post (left) and mechanically- building design, which is one more reason why they get
laminated post attached to a precast concrete pier the nod over other framing systems in tall wall
(right). applications such as that shown in figure 1-42.
Most buildings without basements feature concrete slab- The cost advantage that post-frame buildings hold over
on-grade floors. More frequently today, these slabs low-rise steel frame buildings generally starts to
contain radiant heating systems. When post/pier disappear once minimum floor-to-ceiling heights move
foundation systems are used, the interior concrete slab beyond 20 feet. Below these heights, post-frame holds
can be placed after the building shell has been erected. thermal insulation advantages, if not cost advantages,
This has two major advantages. First, concrete is much over steel frame structures. This has made post-frame
more protected during its placement from wind, very popular for storage facilities such as the airplane
precipitation in all forms, and temperature extremes. This hanger in figure 1-43.
can translate into fewer unexpected scheduling delays,
1.6.7 Buildings with Large, Clearspan Wood notched to form a truss bearing surface. The truss rests
Trusses With On-Center Spacing 4 Feet or on the notches and is bolted into place. A special
Greater plate/bracket like that shown in figure 1-54 may be
added to increase connection load transfer capabilities.
Component connections are critical to the structural With mechanically-laminated posts, the truss may rest on
integrity of a framing system. In buildings with large, a shortened outer-ply or on a shortened inner-ply. The
clearspan wood trusses, the most critical connections are latter scenario, which is shown in figure 1-55, places the
those between the truss and its supports. In addition to bolts in double shear and is a very effective connection.
gravity-induced forces (a.k.a. bearing loads), these
connections must resist shear forces acting perpendicular 1.6.8 Buildings Requiring a More Open
to the plane of the truss and uplift forces due to wind. Structural Frame to Accommodate Non-
Depending upon overall building design, the connections
Structural “Infill” Panels/Materials
may also be required to transfer bending moment.
Post-frame is the ideal structural support system for
straw bale walls (figure 1-56), cordwood or stackwood
walls (figure 1-57, light-clay coated organic fiber walls
and even earthen walls. Given that straw, cordwood,
clay-coated organic fibers and earth are all considered
very environmentally-friendly materials, expect the
number of post-frame buildings that are constructed with
in-fill walls of these materials to grow.
Figure 1-66. Post-frame convenience store for Byrne Figure 1-68. Post-frame horse barn with post-
Dairy in Galeville, NY. The storefront features a supported roof overhang.
porch and above balcony. A porch formed by a roof
overhang extends along the side of the structure.
1.6.12 Buildings with Bracket-Supported frame. In situations where the overhang is a roof
Overhangs overhang, the wall support bracket attaches the end of
the truss to the post, thus functioning much like an
Roof overhangs and eyebrow overhangs are commonly exterior knee brace.
added to buildings to improve building aesthetics and
durability. They improve durability by protecting door
and window openings and siding from precipitation.
They also keep snow slides away from the building and
limit intrusion of direct solar radiation during warm
periods.
As the distance that an overhang extends from the
building wall increases, it is more likely the overhang
will be supported by a post (figure 1-68) or wall support
bracket (figures 1-74 to 1-76). Whether post supports or
wall support brackets are used is largely dependent on
overhang height. Normally, post supports are used for
lower overhangs because of headroom clearance issues
when wall support brackets are used.
With higher overhangs, wall support brackets generally
look better than posts and are normally less expensive
than post supports because of the added foundation and
header beams required with post supports.
Figure 1-74. Wall support brackets used to support 1.6.13 Buildings with Corrosive Contents
an eyebrow overhang.
With few exceptions, metals are unstable and will
Wall support brackets are the ideal overhang support corrode in ordinary aqueous environments. The rate of
system for post-frame buildings in which truss and post this corrosion depends on the hydrogen-ion
spacing are equal. In such buildings, posts and trusses concentration (pH) of the solution, the specific nature
form a series of post-frames as previously described. and concentration of other ions in solution, temperature,
When wall support brackets are attached to the posts and and other factors. In general, the more humid an interior
framing of the overhang, they add rigidity to each post- building environment, the more likely and frequently
moisture will condense on metal surfaces within the Bohnhoff, D. R., Chiou, W.S., & Hernandez, R. (1997).
building, and the greater will be the rate of metal Load-sharing in nail-laminated assemblies subjected
corrosion. Also, the greater the concentration within a to bending loads. ASAE Paper No. 974090. ASAE,
building of acidic gases (e.g., hydrogen sulfide, sulfur St Joseph, MI.
oxides, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, hydrogen fluoride),
Bohnhoff, D. R., Moody, R. C., Verrill, S. P., & Shirek,
caustic gases (e.g., ammonia), and oxidizing gases (e.g.,
L. F. (1991). Bending properties of reinforced and
ozone, nitric acid), the greater will be the rate of metal
unreinforced spliced nail-laminated posts. Res. Pap.
corrosion within the structure.
FPL-RP-503. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Given the higher humidities in livestock housing Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory,
facilities, and ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gases Madison, WI.
associated with deposition and decomposition of animal
Bryan, E. R. (1973). The stressed skin design of steel
wastes, it is wise to limit direct exposure of metals in
buildings. Crosby Lockwood Staples, London.
such facilities. It is also wise to limit direct exposure of
metals in water treatment facilities where chorine is used, Bryan, E.R. & El-Dakhakhni,W.M. (1968). Shear
and in facilities were bulk fertilizer, salt (figure 1-45) flexibility and strength of corrugated decks. ASCE
and other corrosive materials are stored. This is Journal of the Structural Division, 14(ST11):2549-
accomplished by using wood-framed structures in which 2580.
mechanical connectors are hidden or specially coated to
reduce corrosion and thus enhance overall durability. Davies, J. M. (1977). Simplified diaphragm analysis.
Journal of the Structural Division, 103(ST11):2093-
1.7 References 2109.
Davies, J. M. & Bryan, E. R. (1982). Manual of stressed
1.7.1 Non-Normative References
skin diaphragm design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
Anderson, G. A., Bundy, D. S., & Meador, N. F. (1989). New York, NY.
The force distribution method: Procedure and
Faherty, K. F. & Williamson, T.G. (1989). Wood
application to the analysis of buildings with
engineering and construction handbook. McGraw-
diaphragm action. Transactions of the ASAE,
Hill Publishing Company, New York, NY.
32(5):1791-1796.
Gebremedhin, K. G., Bahler, E. L., & Humphreys, S. R.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992a). Expanding diaphragm analysis
(1986). A modified approach to post-frame design
for post-frame buildings. Applied Engineering in
using diaphragm theory. Transactions of the ASAE,
Agriculture, 8(4):509-517.
29(5): 1364-1372.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992b). Estimating frame stiffness and
Gurfinkel, G. (1981). Wood engineering. (2nd Ed.).
eave loads for diaphragm analysis of post-frame
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, Iowa.
buildings. Transactions of the ASAE, 35(3):1043-
1054. Harmon, J. D., Grandle, G. R. & Barth, C.L. (1992).
Effects of hurricane Hugo on agricultural structures.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2006). Concrete piers: Making post-
Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 8(1):93-96.
frame buildings greener. Frame Building News,
18(1):57-63. Hausmann, C. T. & Esmay, M. L. (1977). The
diaphragm strength of pole buildings. Transactions
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2008). Twelve structural applications
of the ASAE, 20(1):114-116.
ideal for post-frame. Frame Building News,
20(3):34-43. Hoagland, R. C. & Bundy, D. S. (1983). Post-frame
design using diaphragm theory. Transactions of the
Bohnhoff, D. R. & Begel, M. E. (2000). Accuracy of
ASAE, 26(5):1499-1503.
post-frame building construction. Applied
Engineering in Agriculture, 16(1):83-88. Hurst, H. T. & Mason Jr., P. H. (1961). Rigidity of end
walls and cladding on pole buildings. Journal of the
Bohnhoff, D. R. & Cockrum, D. K. (2004). Quality
ASAE, 42(4):188-191.
assessment of light-gauge metal cladding and trim
installation. ASAE Paper No. 044113. ASAE, St Johnston, R. A. & Curtis, J. O. (1984). Experimental
Joseph, MI. verification of stress skin design of pole-frame
buildings. Transactions of the ASAE, 27(1):159-
Bohnhoff, D. R., S.M. Cramer, R. C. Moody, C. O.
164.
Cramer. 1989. Modeling Vertically, Mechanically
Laminated Lumber. Journal of Structural Kelso, W. (2011). James fort: lost and found. Colonial
Engineering, ASCE, 115(10):2661-2679. Williamsburg Journal (Journal of the Colonial
Williamsburg Foundation), 33(2)
Knight, J.T. (1989). A brief look back. Frame Building ASABE. (2010). ANSI/ASAE EP559.2 Design
Professional, 1(1):38-43. requirements and bending properties for
mechanically-laminated wood assemblies.
Luttrell, L. D. (1967). Strength and behavior of light-
gage steel shear diaphragms. Cornell Engineering ASABE. (2010). ANSI/ASABE S618: Post frame
Research Bulletin 67-1. Ithaca, NY. building system nomenclature.
Manbeck, H. B. (1990). Engineering practice for post- ASCE. (2010). ASCE/SEI 7-10: Minimum design loads
frame diaphragm design. Frame Building for buildings and other structures.
Professional, 1(5):5, 22-24.
AWC. (2012). ANSI/AWC NDS-2012: ASD/LRFD
Meador, N. F. (1996). Mathematical models for lateral National design specification for wood construction.
resistance of post foundations. Transactions of the
NFBA. (1999). Accepted practices for post-frame
ASAE, 40(1):191-201.
building construction: Framing tolerances. Version
Norum, W.A. (1967). Pole buildings go modern. Journal 1.
of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, No.ST2,
NFBA. (2005). Accepted practices for post-frame
Proc. Paper 5169, April, pp.47-56.
building construction: metal panel and trim
Riskowski, G. L. & Friday, W. H. (1991a). Design installation tolerances. Version 1.
equations for collared post foundations.
Transactions of the ASAE, 34(5):2141–2148. 1.8 Acknowledgements
Riskowski, G. L. & Friday, W. H. (1991b). Post
The following companies provided images for this
foundation design equations: Validation and
chapter:
sensitivity analysis. Transactions of the ASAE,
34(5):2149–2156. CB Structures, 202 Orlan Rd, New Holland, PA 17557.
http://www.cbstructuresinc.com/
Taylor, S.E. (1996). Earthquake considerations in post-
frame building design. Frame Building News Eversole Builders, 2495 Election House Road, Lancaster,
8(3):42-49. OH 43130. http://www.eversolebuilders.com/
Williams, G. D., Bohnhoff, D. R., and Moody, R. C. FBi Buildings, Inc., 3823 W 1800 S, Remington, IN
(1994). Bending properties of four-layer nail- 47977. http://www.fbibuildings.com/
laminated posts. Res. Pap. FPL-RP-528. U.S.D.A.
Fingerlakes Construction Company, 10269 Old Route 31
Forest Service. Forest Products Laboratory,
West, Clyde, NY 14433.
Madison, WI
http://www.fingerlakesconstruction.com/
White, R. N. (1978). Diaphragm action of aluminum-
Fuog Interbuild Inc., PO Box 237, Purcellville, VA
clad timber-framed buildings. ASAE Paper 78-
20134. http://www.fuoginterbuildinc.com
4501, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Hochstetler Buildings, Inc., 7927 Memorial Drive, Plain
1.7.2 Normative References City, OH 43064. http://www.hochstetler.net/
ASAE. (1989). ASAE EP484: Diaphragm design of Keystone Barn Supply, LLC "Keystone Barns", New
metal-clad, post-frame, rectangular buildings. Holland, Pennsylvania 17557,
ASAE. (1998). ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm design http://www.keystonebarns.com/
of metal-clad, wood-frame, rectangular buildings. Lester Building Systems, 1111 Second Avenue South,
ASAE. (1991). ASAE EP486: Shallow post foundation Lester Prairie, MN 55354.
design. http://www.lesterbuildings.com/
ASAE. (1999). ANSI/ASAE EP486.1: Shallow post Meyer Buildings, 444 W 1st Avenue, Dorchester, WI
foundation design. 54425. http://www.meyerbuildings.com/
ASABE. (2012). ANSI/ASAE EP486.2: Shallow post Morton Buildings, Inc., PO Box 399, Morton, IL 61550-
and pier foundation design. 0399. http://mortonbuildings.com/
ASAE. (1998). ASAE EP558: Load tests for metal-clad MPB Builders, Inc., 654 E. Oshkosh St., Ripon, WI
wood-frame diaphragms. 54971, http://mpbbuilders.com/
ASAE. (1997). ANSI/ASAE EP559 Design requirements Quality Structures, 167 HWY 59, Richmond, KS 66080.
and bending properties for mechanically laminated http://www.qualitystructures.com/
columns.
Building Regulations
firms. Not surprising, there are now hundreds of non- 2.2.5 ANSI
government organizations (NGOs) in the U.S. that write
and maintain standards. The only organization in the U.S. fully dedicated to
standards is the American National Standards Institute
Following is an alphabetic listing of NGOs credited with (ANSI) formed in 1916 by five major standard
one or more standards of significance to the design and developers (i.e., ASME, IEEE, ASCE, AIME, ASTM)
construction of buildings and other structures. Note that along with the U.S. Departments of War, Navy, and
the area(s) of coverage listed for a particular NGO may Commerce to “enhance the global competitiveness of
not be the only one(s) associated with that organization. U.S. business and the American quality of life by
promoting and facilitating voluntary consensus standards
ACI: American Concrete Institute
and conformity assessment systems and promoting their
(http://www.concrete.org/) - structural design of
integrity.”
concrete
AISC: American Institute of Steel Construction ANSI now accredits standard development organizations
(http://www.AISC.org/) - structural design of steel (SDOs) that voluntarily subscribe to and operate under
APA: The Engineered Wood Association its requirements. These accredited organizations may
(http://www.apawood.org/) - specifications for submit standards for review and possible acceptance as
engineered lumber and wood-based panel products American National Standards (ANS). There are now
ASABE: American Society of Agricultural and over 200 accredited SDOs (including all previously listed
Biological Engineers (http://www.asabe.org/) - post- NGOs) and over 10,000 American National Standards.
frame building design, live loads Once a standard has been accepted as an ANS, the
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers number of the standard will generally be prefaced with
(http://www.asce.org/) - structural loads the “ANSI” initialism. For example, ANSI/ASABE
ASHRAE: American Society for Heating, EP559 identifies ASABE EP559 after its acceptance as
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers an ANS. Approval of a standard as an ANS increases its
(http://www.ashrae.org/) - heating, cooling, level of recognition, which can enhance the standard’s
insulating, ventilating adoption into model codes.
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers ANSI is also the sole U.S. representative and dues-
(http://www.asme.org/) - plumbing paying member of the International Organization for
ASSE: American Society of Sanitary Engineering Standardization (known worldwide as the ISO) and thus
(http://www.asse-plumbing.org/) - plumbing organizes the promotion of American National Standards
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials at an international level. The benefits of this to the U.S.
(http://www.astm.org/) - testing and material economy are obvious.
specifications
AWC: American Wood Council 2.3 Building Codes
(http://www.awc.org/) - wood design specifications
AWPA: American Wood Protection Association 2.3.1 Purpose
(http://www.awpa.com/)
A building code is a legal document that helps ensure
NFPA: National Fire Protection Association
public health and welfare by specifying a minimum level
(http://www.nfpa.org/) - most everything related to
of protection from physical injury, fire and natural
fire including sprinkler systems, alarms, electrical
environmental forces. Building codes also help
wiring and its protection, oil and gas burning
minimize factors that adversely affect indoor air quality
equipment and its piping and venting.
and overall sanitation.
TPI: Truss Plate Institute (http://www.tpinst.org/) -
metal plate connected wood trusses 2.3.1.1 Protection from Physical Injury
UL: Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Building codes reduce risk of physical injury in
(http://www.ul.com/) - electrical appliances,
numerous ways. For example, stair, handrail and
furnaces, fireplaces, water heaters, storage of
guardrail requirements help prevent dangerous falls, and
combustibles, chimneys, fire resistant construction,
headroom requirements limit head injuries. Accessibility
venting
requirements such as minimum width requirements for
2.2.4 Structural Design Specifications doors and hallways, and height requirements for
countertops, enable building occupants to more safely
Those standards that control structural design are move and work in space. Special floor finish
categorically referred to as structural design requirements help prevent slips. Safety glazing in glass
specifications. This includes, for example, the National doors and full-height windows prevent glass from
Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction shattering and cutting those who accidently strike them.
published by the American Wood Council.
the minimum performance level for a building material, In December 1994, the three model code agencies
component or system. Requiring that a building be (ICBO, BOCA and SBCCI) founded the International
designed to withstand a balanced roof snow load of 40 Code Council (ICC) with the purpose of developing a
pounds per square foot is a performance-based single set of comprehensive and coordinated model
requirement. construction codes for the United States. In less than six
years, the ICC completed their task with the publication
Engineers and architects have more latitude in design
of eleven International Codes (a.k.a. I-Codes).
where performance-based requirements control. They
can design anything they want as long as they meet the Beginning in 2003, the ICC has released a new version
performance-based requirement. This is obviously not of their codes every three years. In 2013, there were
the case with a prescriptive code requirement which fifteen I-Codes: the International Building Code, the
places specific restrictions on the material or equipment International Residential Code for One- and Two-Family
used and/or how it must be installed and/or tested. In Dwellings, the International Mechanical Code, the
general, residential building codes tend to have more International Plumbing Code, the International Fire
prescriptive requirements than codes dedicated to Code, the International Existing Building Code, the
commercial construction. International Wildland-Urban Interface Code, the
International Fuel Gas Code, the International Energy
2.3.5 History of Model Codes Conservation Code, the International Private Sewage
Understanding the history of major model building codes Disposal Code, the ICC Performance Code for Buildings
in the United States is important as many documents still and Facilities, the International Property Maintenance
refer to provisions that were established in model codes Code, the International Zoning Code, the International
that are no longer maintained. Green Construction Code, and the International
Swimming Pool and Spa Code.
The first major U.S. model building code was published
in 1905 by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. This The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is
group of fire insurance industry representatives another major developer of model building codes. For
developed the code primarily in response to devastating more than a century, NFPA has been developing and
fires that leveled large sections of Boston, New York, updating codes and standards concerning all areas of fire
Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco in the late 1800’s. safety. They are most widely known for the National
Electric Code or NEC (NFPA 70) which is the
In the early 1920’s, building inspectors began forming quintessential document in the U.S. when it comes to the
what eventually became three major regional model code installation of electric distribution and equipment wiring
groups, each developing and maintaining its own model within facilities. Currently, there are more than 300
building code. The International Congress of Building NFPA fire codes used throughout the world, and many of
Officials (ICBO) published the Uniform Building Code, these are active in virtually every jurisdiction in the U.S.
the Building Officials and Code Administrators In addition to the NEC, other well known NFPA codes
International (BOCA) produced the National Building include the Life Safety Code (NFPA 101), the Fire
Code, and the Southern Building Code Congress Prevention Code (NFPA 1), and the National Fuel Gas
International (SBCCI) published the Standard Building Code (NFPA 54).
Code. In general, most states west of the Mississippi
adopted the ICBO code, northeastern states the BOCA 2.4 International Building Code
code, and states in the southeast adopted the SBCCI
code. Wisconsin and New York were the only two states 2.4.1 Adoption
in the country not to adopt one of these three model The most significant model building code in the U.S. is
building codes, opting instead to write and maintain their the ICC International Building Code which is more
own building code. commonly known by its initialism IBC. The IBC has
In addition to their model building code, the ICBO, now been adopted in all 50 States, the District of
BOCA and SBCCI each offered other model codes. For Columbia, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the
example, SBCCI also produced the Standard Mechanical Northern Marianas Islands. Federal agencies including
Code, Standard Gas Code, and Standard Plumbing the Architect of the Capitol, General Services
Code. In many cases, these other model codes were Administration, National Park Service, Department of
developed in collaboration with outside organizations. State, U.S. Forest Service and the Veterans
For example, at one time, the International Association Administration also enforce the I-Codes. The
of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) and Department of Defense references the IBC for
ICBO jointly published the Uniform Mechanical Code. constructing military facilities, including those that house
U.S. troops, domestically and abroad.
2.4.2 General Contents used to evaluate the duration that a building element
contains a fire, retains its structural integrity, or exhibits
Included in the IBC are sections on occupancy and both properties during a prescribed fire test exposure.
construction type, allowable heights and areas, fire- ASTM E136 is used to determine material
resistant construction, fire protection systems, means of combustibility; more specifically; it is used to distinguish
egress, accessibility, interior finishes, interior between materials which do not act to aid combustion
environment; foundations, exterior wall and roof and those that add appreciable heat to an ambient fire.
construction; structural loads; and design with wood, ASTM E84 provides comparative measurements of
concrete, aluminum, steel, masonry, glass, gypsum surface flame spread and smoke density measurements
board, plaster, and plastic. Although the IBC also with that of select grade red oak and fiber-cement board
includes chapters on energy efficiency, electrical surfaces under a specific fire exposure condition.
systems, mechanical systems, plumbing systems, and
elevator and conveying systems, the material actually The IBC uses nine construction type categories. These
appearing in these chapters is extremely limited as these categories are given in Table 2-2 along with the
chapters adopt other major model codes by reference. minimum fire resistive ratings (in hours) for their
Coverage of structural design with wood, steel, concrete structural frames, exterior bearing walls, interior bearing
and other materials is also extremely limited as most of walls, floors and roofs as determined in accordance with
this material is also adopted by reference. ASTM E119. It is important to realize that there are
several factors that can change the requirements in Table
2.4.3 Occupancy and Construction Types 2-2 and the reader is referred to the IBC for these
For fire safety reasons, building codes limit the size of required adjustments.
virtually all buildings, with actual size based largely on The NC (non-combustible) designation that accompanies
what the building will have in it and what materials will some of the fire resistance ratings means that in addition
be used to construct the building. To account for to meeting the minimum hourly rating, the assembly
building contents, codes categorize buildings by must also be constructed of material determined to be
occupancy type. To account for the materials used in non-combustible in accordance with ASTM E136.
building construction, codes categorize buildings by Falling into this NC category would be such materials as
construction type. stone, concrete, masonry and steel.
The combination of occupancy and construction type With respect to construction, Type I is considered to be
governs allowable building height and area. If buildings both noncombustible and fire-resistive. Type II is also
with widely different fire hazards were treated equally, noncombustible, but has little to no fire-resistance. Type
regulations providing for fire protection of the more III is construction in which the exterior walls are of
hazardous group would impose a penalty on construction noncombustible materials and the interior building
of buildings housing the lesser hazard, thus needlessly elements can be of virtually any material (note here that
increasing building costs or reducing allowable sizes. fire-retardant-treated wood framing is permitted within
2.4.3.1 Occupancy Types exterior wall assemblies of a 2-hour rating or less). Type
IV is construction featuring exterior walls of
Table 2-1 contains the occupancy types as defined by the noncombustible materials and the interior building
IBC. There are 26 occupancy group designations in ten elements of heavy timber (HT). Timbers must be solid-
main categories. As should be evident from Table 2-1 sawn or glued laminated members (mechanically-
descriptions, buildings in the same group will have laminated assemblies are not allowed). Columns must
similar life-safety characteristics, combustible contents, not be less than 8 nominal inches in thickness, and floor
and fire hazards. In addition to building size, occupancy and roof framing must not be less than 6 inches in
type controls egress requirements. nominal thickness. Finally, Type V is construction in
which all elements can contain combustible materials.
2.4.3.2 Construction Types
Virtually all post-frame buildings would be classified as
Buildings are classified by construction type in Type V buildings.
accordance with the fire resistive characteristics of their
For each construction type there are two levels of fire
structural frames (columns, beams, girders, trusses, and
resistance rating requirements: A and B. Fire resistance
spandrels), bearing walls (i.e. walls that have imposed
rating requirements for level A are one full hour greater
loads on them), nonbearing walls, floors, and roofs.
than those for level B. For example, as listed in Table 2-
Fire resistance characteristics are determined via 2, the fire resistance rating requirements for elements of
standard laboratory tests. Main tests include ASTM a Type VA building are 1 hour whereas those for a Type
E119, ASTM E136 and ASTM E84. ASTM E119 is VB building are zero (0) hours.
Roof construction
Floor construction
Construction type
Roof midheight
sprinkler system. This increase does not apply to Type
IIB, III, IV and V buildings with Group I-2 occupancy.
Likewise it does not apply to any buildings with H-1,
H-2, H-3 or H-5 occupancy.
Building
Finished
height
ground
Roof structures not used for habitation or storage (e.g.
level towers, spires, steeples) can be unlimited in height if
6 ft fabricated from noncombustible materials. When such
Grade plane
roof structures are fabricated from combustible materials,
6 ft they cannot extend more than 20 ft above the allowable
Finished ground level
building height.
Table 2-4. Maximum Allowable Heights (from IBC Table 503), UL = Unlimited a
Type of Construction
Use
Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V
Group
A B A B A B HT A B
Maximum Height, feet above grade
UL 160 65 55 65 55 65 50 40
Maximum Height, stories above grade
A-1 UL 5 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-2 UL 11 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-3 UL 11 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-4 UL 11 3 2 3 2 3 2 1
A-5 UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL
B UL 11 5 4 5 4 5 3 2
E UL 5 3 2 3 2 3 1 1
F-1 UL 11 4 2 3 2 3 1 1
F-2 UL 11 5 3 4 3 5 3 2
H-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 NP
H-2 UL 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 1
H-3 UL 6 4 2 4 2 4 2 1
H-4 UL 7 5 3 5 3 5 3 2
H-5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
I-1 UL 9 4 3 4 3 4 3 2
I-2 UL 4 2 1 1 NP 1 1 NP
I-3 UL 4 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
I-4 UL 5 3 2 3 2 3 1 1
M UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 1
R-1 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 2
R-2 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 2
R-3 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 3
R-4 UL 11 4 4 4 4 4 3 2
S-1 UL 11 4 3 3 3 4 3 1
S-2 UL 11 5 4 4 4 5 4 2
Ub UL 5 4 2 3 2 4 2 1
Uc UL 12 4 2 4 2 4 3 2
a In almost all cases, the allowable height can be increased by 20 feet, and the maximum number of stories by one story when the
building is protected throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system.
b Non-agricultural Group U buildings.
c Group U Agricultural Buildings (from IBC Appendix C) which includes buildings with the following uses: livestock shelters or
buildings (including structures and milking barns), poultry buildings or shelters, barns, storage of equipment and machinery used
exclusively in agriculture, horticulture structures (including detached production greenhouses and crop protection shelters), sheds,
grain silos, stables
.
Based on preceding equations, the allowable floor area, buildings, can have unlimited floor area if they are (1)
Aa, of a sprinklered building with a tabulated floor area, one-story in height, and (2) surrounded and adjoined by
At, of 26,000 ft2 and a 25 ft wide public way and/or public ways or yards not less than 60 feet in width.
accessible open space along three-quarters of the Group U agricultural buildings and groups B, F, M and S
building’s perimeter is 88,833 ft2 (note: Is = 200 and If = buildings, can have unlimited floor area if they are (1)
41.67). protected throughout with an automatic sprinkler, (2) no
The last line in Table 2-5 gives allowable floor areas for more than two stories in height, and (3) surrounded and
Group U agricultural buildings. These tabulated floor adjoined by public ways or yards not less than 60 feet in
areas are from Appendix C of the IBC. width.
Group U agricultural buildings and groups F-2 and S-2 A mezzanine that is less than one-third of the floor area,
Table 2-5. Maximum Allowable Building Area (from IBC Table 503)
Type of Construction
Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V
Use Group
A B A B A B HT A B
Maximum Allowable Building Area, Thousand of Square Feet per Story (UL = Unlimited)
A-1 UL UL 15.5 8.5 14 8.5 15 11.5 5.5
A-2 UL UL 15.5 9.5 14 9.5 15 11.5 6
A-3 UL UL 15.5 9.5 14 9.5 15 11.5 6
A-4 UL UL 15.5 9.5 14 9.5 15 11.5 6
A-5 UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL
B UL UL 37.5 23 28.5 19 36 18 9
E UL UL 26.5 14.5 23.5 14.5 25.5 18.5 9.5
F-1 UL UL 25 15.5 19 12 33.5 14 8.5
F-2 UL UL 37.5 23 28.5 18 50.5 21 13
H-1 21 16.5 11 7 9.5 7 10.5 7.5 NP
H-2 21 16.5 11 7 9.5 7 10.5 7.5 3
H-3 UL 60 26.5 14 17.5 13 25.5 10 5
H-4 UL UL 37.5 17.5 28.5 17.5 36 18 6.5
H-5 UL UL 37.5 23 28.5 19 36 18 9
I-1 UL 55 19 10 16.5 10 18 10.5 4.5
I-2 UL UL 15 11 12 NP 12 9.5 NP
I-3 UL UL 15 10 10.5 7.5 12 7.5 5
I-4 UL 60.5 26.5 13 23.5 13 25.5 18.5 9
M UL UL 21.5 12.5 18.5 12.5 20.5 14 9
R-1 UL UL 24 16 24 16 20.5 12 7
R-2 UL UL 24 16 24 16 20.5 12 7
R-3 UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL UL
R-4 UL UL 24 16 24 16 20.5 12 7
S-1 UL 48 26 17.5 26 17.5 25.5 14 9
S-2 UL 79 39 26 39 26 38.5 21 13.5
Ua UL 35.5 19 8.5 14 8.5 18 9 5.5
Ub UL 60 27.1 18 27.1 18 27.1 21.1 12
a Non-agricultural Group U buildings.
b Group U Agricultural Buildings (from IBC Appendix C) which includes buildings with the following uses: livestock shelters or
buildings (including structures and milking barns), poultry buildings or shelters, barns, storage of equipment and machinery used
exclusively in agriculture, horticulture structures (including detached production greenhouses and crop protection shelters), sheds,
grain silos, stables.
or an equipment platform that is less than two thirds the resistance rating requirements in Table 2-6. Each
floor area of the room or space in which it is located, separated occupancy must comply with the building
does not contribute to the building area or number of height limitations for the type of construction used.
stories. Where a room contains both a mezzanine and an Additionally, in each story of such buildings, the sum of
equipment platform, the two raised floor levels can be the ratios of the actual building area of each separated
ignored in allowable area calculations as long as their occupancy divided by the allowable building area of
aggregate area is less than two-thirds the floor area of the each occupancy can not exceed 1.0. For a single-story
room or space in which they are located. Type VB building that has a total floor area of 10,000
square feet with 30% under a Group B occupancy and
2.4.6 Buildings with Mixed Occupancy the other 70% under a Group F-2 occupancy, this ratio
Many buildings are used for multiple purposes and thus would be an acceptable 0.87 if the allowable area for
have areas assigned to different occupancy groups. With Group B and Group F-2 are 9000 and 13,000 sq ft,
a few exceptions, different occupancies within the same respectively (i.e., 3000/9000 + 7000/13,000 = 0.87 <
building must be separated by fire barriers and/or 1.0).
horizontal assemblies in accordance with the fire-
Some mixed occupancy buildings consist of a main fire in which continuity is maintained.” It is important to
occupancy and several smaller ancillary occupancies. A note that a fire barrier is defined as a wall. Similar
separation between the main occupancy and ancillary functioning assemblies that are run in a horizontal
occupancies (i.e. accessory occupancies) is not needed if position are defined by the IBC as horizontal assemblies.
(1) the main occupancy covers more than 90% of the
A fire barrier is used for mixed use occupancy separation
building area of the story in which the accessory
in accordance with Table 2-6, and is also used to separate
occupancies are also located, and (2) none of the
a single use occupancy within a building into smaller fire
occupancies exceeds its allowable floor area.
areas (generally in an effort to eliminate the requirement
2.4.7 Fire Barriers, Walls and Partitions for sprinklers). Other common applications include
shaft/exit enclosures, and protection of horizontal exits
Fundamental to the fire code provisions of the IBC are and exit passageways.
definitions for fire barrier, fire wall and fire partition.
While these terms may seem equivalent, they are not. Table 2-7 contains fire-resistance rating for fire barriers
and horizontal assemblies. For fire barriers and/or
2.4.7.1 Fire Barrier horizontal assemblies separating fire areas of mixed
A fire barrier is defined as “a fire-resistance rated wall occupancies, the highest fire-resistance rating of the
assembly of materials designed to restrict the spread of involved occupancies shall apply.
Section A-A
B
Nominal 2- by 4-inch
Fire side girts, girts, 24 in. o.c.
nominal 2- by 4- A A
inches 24 in. o.c.
10 ft
FIRE SIDE 4-1/16- by 5-1/4-inch
glue-laminated column
B
Section B-B
1 ft 8 ft 1 ft
Figure 2-3. Construction details for exterior wall that obtained a one-hour fire-resistance rating during a January
1990 test conducted for the National Frame Builders Association by Warnock Hersey International, Inc. Details of the
test are available from NFBA upon request.
2.6.2 3½-Hour Post-Frame Fire-Wall point rise of 325 degrees) between the material on the
exposed surface (gypsum wallboard in this case) and the
In December, 2011 UL conducted a full-scale test for substrate being protected (underlying wood girts).
NFBA on the fire wall assembly shown in figure 2-4
(UL, 2012). The goal of the test was to obtain an 2.6.2.1 Advantages
assembly with a minimum fire-resistance bearing wall
Because post frame buildings are typically classified as
rating of three hours. The assembly obtained a 3.5 hr
Type V buildings, they have some of the lowest
bearing wall rating. Use of the term “bearing” in this
allowable areas (Table 2-5). While automatic fire-
instance means that under the ASTM E119 fire-
suppression systems (sprinklers) can be used to increase
resistance test conditions, the wall continued to support
allowable areas, they can be very costly and impractical,
its maximum design load for 3.5 hours without passage
especially in rural areas where access to the large
of flame or gases hot enough to ignite cotton waste, and
amounts of water required for a properly sized sprinkler
without the temperature on the unexposed surface (non
system can be financially prohibitive. In such cases it is
fire side) increasing more than 250 F.
often more practical to split a building into two separate
The assembly in figure 2-4 is designated as UL Design buildings via a fire wall. For all occupancies except F-2,
Number V304. In addition to the 3.5 h bearing wall S-2, R-3 and R-4, the IBC requires that such a fire wall
rating, the assembly was also assigned a 2 hr “finish have a minimum fire resistance rating of 3 hours (Table
rating”. The finish rating is the time required to obtain 2-8). Only H-1 and H-2 occupancies are required to
an average temperature rise of 250 degrees (or a single have a 4-hour fire resistance rated fire wall.
10d nails
6 in. o.c. staggered
1 2 4
Figure 2-4. Post-frame fire wall with 3.5-hour bearing wall fire resistance rating. UL Design Number V304 (UL, 2012).
2.9 Significant Design Documents A number of shorter documents have been included in
Table 2-9. In many cases, these documents contain in-
Table 2-9 contains the source and a description for depth information on a subject covered in less detail in
several documents related to post-frame building design. one of the more major publications appearing in the
The two primary documents in this compilation are the table. Most can be downloaded at no cost.
American Wood Councils’ (AWC) National Design
Specification® (NDS) for Wood Construction and the The Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material
American Society of Civil Engineers’ (ASCE) Minimum is an outstanding publication written by employees of the
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Much USDA Forest Products Laboratory. It is available for
of this post-frame building design manual is tied to free download and should be part of the library of any
methodology appearing in these two documents. individual associated with the use of wood in
construction.
In addition to the NDS, there are three other major
“design specifications” listed Table 2-9. These are the The American Society for Testing and Materials
ACI Building Code Requirements for Structural (ASTM) is the largest developer of standards in the
Concrete, the AISC Steel Construction Manual, and world. Virtually any material or product used in building
AISI’s North American Specification for the Design of construction is subject to requirements of one or more
Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members. None of these ASTM standards. Despite this fact, Table 2-9 does not
three design documents will be overviewed in this contain references to a single ASTM standard. This is
manual. They are listed here because one or more of because those ASTM standards are either embodied in,
them may be required to complete the design of a post- or referenced by, other documents listed in the table.
frame building depending on the inclusion of structural Note that it is not uncommon for ASTM standards to
concrete, hot-rolled steel sections, built-up steel sections, appear in a list of building specifications, especially
and/or cold-formed steel sections in the structure. when they govern material characteristics that influence
long-term, in-service durability.
Table 2-9. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
alternative design provisions in Appendix B; alternative load and strength reduction factors in
Appendix C; and anchoring to concrete in Appendix D.
2. ACI DCCM: Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
Fundamentals of freshly mixed and hardened concrete including sustainability; durability; materials for
making concrete, such as portland cements, supplementary cementing materials, aggregates, water,
admixtures, fibers, and reinforcement; procedures for mix proportioning, batching, mixing,
transporting, handling, placing, consolidating, finishing, and curing concrete.
3. ACI 360R-10 Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground
Planning, design, and detailing of slabs. Background information on design theories is followed by
discussion of the types of slabs, soil-support systems, loadings, and jointing. Design methods are given
for unreinforced concrete, reinforced concrete, shrinkage-compensating concrete, post-tensioned
concrete, fiber-reinforced concrete slabs-on-ground, and slabs-on-ground in refrigerated buildings,
followed by information on shrinkage and curling.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
Covers both ASD and LRFD for hot-rolled and built-up steel sections. Includes the following
chapters: dimensions and properties; general design considerations; design of flexural members; design
of compression members; design of tension members; design of members subject to combined loading;
design considerations for bolts; design considerations for welds; design of connecting elements; design
of simple shear connections; design of flexible moment connections; design of fully restrained moment
connections; design of bracing connections and truss connections; design of beam bearing plates,
column base plates, anchor rods, and column splices; design of hanger connections, bracket plates, and
crane-rail connections; specifications and codes; miscellaneous data and mathematical information;
index and general nomenclature.
1. North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
Covers LRFD and ASD for cold-formed steel members. Includes the following sections: general
provisions; elements; members; structural assemblies; connections and joints; tests for special cases;
and design of cold-formed steel structural members and connections for cyclic loading (fatigue).
Appendices A, B and C cover provision applicable to the United States, Canada, and Mexico,
respectively.
column anchorage; arch anchorage; arch connections; truss connections; suspended loading
connections. Describes various connections that should be avoided and details the protection of glulam
from decay.
3. AITC 109 Standard for Preservative Treatment of Structural Glued Laminated Timber
The uses of preservative treatments for the protection of glued laminated timber to resist decay are
discussed. Topics discussed are design considerations, species of wood, types of preservative
treatment, requirements for retention, penetration, certification and marking, incising, treatment prior
to bonding, adhesives and bonding processes, fabrication and machining, care after treatment, field
treatment and exudation of natural wood resin.
4. AITC 112 Standard for Tongue-and-Groove Heavy Timber Roof Decking (free download)
This standard applies to solid sawn tongue-and-groove heavy timber decking. Its provisions are not
applicable to laminated timber decking. Discusses species, sizes and patterns, lengths, moisture
content, applications, specifications, weights of installed decking and allowable load tables for
nominal 2, 3 and 4 inch thickness decking.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
AITC
5. ANSI/AITC A190.1 American National Standard, Structural Glued Laminated Timber
The primary reference standard for manufacturing and quality control requirements for glued
laminated timber. Topics addressed are lumber, adhesives, grading, end jointing, face laminating,
finishing, marking, qualification of manufacturers and process quality control. Recommended for all
manufacturers of glulam assemblies.
5. Form D710 I-Joist Construction Details - Performance Rated I-Joists in Floor and Roof Framing (free
download)
Recommended construction details for I-joists in floor and roof applications. Also includes details for
cantilevers and web holes.
6. Form E445 Performance Standards and Qualification Policy for Structural-Use Panels (free
download)
7. APA PRP-108 - Describes requirements and test methods for APA Performance Rated Panels.
8. Form EWS T300 EWS Technical Note: Glulam Connection Details (free download)
Illustrations of correct and incorrect ways to make a connection involving glulam members.
9. Form EWS X440 Glulam Product Guide (free download)
Describes APA EWS trademarked glulam, addresses important design considerations, and includes a
specification guide.
10. Form EWS X720 PRI-400 Performance Standard for APA EWS I-Joists
Performance criteria, qualification requirements, and quality assurance information for APA
Performance Rated I-Joists.
11. Form EWS Y117 Glulam Design Specification (free download)
Glulam layup principles, allowable stresses, specification guidelines and design values
12. Form G310 Wind-Rated Roofs: Designing Commercial Roofs to Withstand Wind Uplift Forces (free
download)
Tested assembly details for roof systems with APA wood structural panels used as substrate that meet
classifications of FM Approvals or of Underwriters Laboratories.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
13. Form H335 Technical Note: Wood Structural Panel Sheathing or Siding Used to Resist Combined
Shear & Uplift (free download)
Determination of the number and location of uplift fasteners that must be used in combination with
fasteners used to resist shear.
14. Form K325 Designing for Combined Shear and Wind Uplift (free download)
Introduces a straightforward solution for builders to meet building code requirements for structural
wall systems in high wind areas. The APA system for combined shear and wind uplift is a prescribed
three-step design process that builders can follow with minimal added engineering.
15. Form L350 Diaphragms and Shear Walls (free download)
Design and construction recommendations for engineered diaphragm systems in floor, shear wall, and
roof systems.
16. Form L870 Voluntary Product Standard, PS 1, Structural Plywood (free download)
Covers Voluntary Product Standard PS 1 - the national standard for producing, marketing, and
specifying plywood for construction and industrial uses.
17. Form Q225. Technical Note: Load-Span Tables for APA Structural-Use Panels (free download)
Uniform load design capacities for various span ratings, section properties and panel thicknesses
calculated using Panel Design Specification (Form D510)
18. Form S350 Performance Standard for Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels (free download)
Covers Voluntary Product Standard PS 2 and describes the requirements for producing and testing
wood-based structural-use panels.
19. Form S475 Glued Laminated Beam Design Tables (free download)
Glued laminated beam design tables provide recommended preliminary design loads for two of the
APA
most common glulam beam applications: roofs and floors. The tables include values for section
properties and capacities, and allowable loads for simple span and cantilevered beams.
20. Form SR-101 APA System Report: Design for Combined Shear and Uplift from Wind (free download)
Designs for utilizing wind uplift resistance capabilities from wood structural panels, in addition to
resisting lateral shear forces and wind pressure perpendicular to the wall.
21. Form T325 Data File: Roof Sheathing Fastening Schedules for Wind Uplift (free download)
Nailing schedules for wood structural panel roof sheathing for high wind areas.
22. Form TT-111 Technical Topics: Wood Moisture Content and the Importance of Drying in Wood
Building Systems (free download)
Guidance on how to avoid potential moisture problems that could lead to costly and hazardous
deterioration as well as health risks when using wood structural products with impermeable materials.
23. Form X305 Introduction to Lateral Design (free download)
Explains how to design wood-frame buildings to withstand the lateral loads typical of high wind and
seismic zones.
24. Form X505 Panel Handbook & Grade Glossary (free download)
Panel and construction terminology explained in easy-to-understand language.
25. Form Y391 Technical Note: Structural Adhesives for Plywood-Lumber Assemblies (free download)
Covers structural adhesives for strength and stiffness, and semi-structural adhesives for stiffness only.
26. Form Z416 Data File: Nailed Structural-Use Panel and Lumber Beams (free download)
Load-span tables and fabrication information for beams fabricated by nailing structural panels to
dimension lumber.
27. Form Z725 APA Performance Rated I-Joists (free download)
Includes information on span ratings, installation details, cantilever designs, architectural specifications
and engineering design properties for APA Performance Rated I-Joists
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
Structural Wood Design Solved Example Problems is intended to aid instruction on structural design of
wood structures using both allowable stress design and load and resistance factor design. Forty example
problems allow direct side-by-side comparison of ASD and LRFD for wood structures.
6. ANSI / AF&PA PWF-2007 - Permanent Wood Foundation Design Specification
Structural design requirements for load-bearing wood-frame wall and floor systems designed for both
above and below-grade use as a foundation for light frame construction.
7. DA 1 - Application of Technical Report 12 for Lag Screw Connections (free download)
Example calculations of reference lateral design values for lag screws and wood screws that account for
the differences in applied moment and bearing resistance of the threaded and unthreaded portions of the
fastener
8. DA 4 - Post Frame Rink Shank Nails (free download)
Reference design values for post frame ring shank nails manufactured in accordance with ASTM
F1667. Tabulated values are calculated in accordance with the 2005 NDS yield limit equations.
9. DA 6 - Beam Design Formulas with Shear and Moment Diagrams (free download)
Shear and moment diagrams with accompanying formulas for design of beams under various static
loading conditions. Configurations include simple span, cantilever, and 2-span continuous beams.
10. DA 8 - Interior Shear Walls (free download)
This document describes how interior shear walls are designed to resist lateral loads
11. DCA 1 - Flame Spread Performance of Wood Products (free download)
Provides building code accepted flame spread ratings for various wood products and species which are
normally used as interior finishes for walls, ceilings, and floors in buildings.
12. DCA 2 - Design of Fire-Resistive Exposed Wood Members (free download)
Illustrates how exposed heavy timber and glued laminated columns and beams can be designed to meet
building code fire resistance requirements
13. DCA 3 - Fire Rated Wood Floor and Wall Assemblies (free download)
Describes how interior and exterior wood-frame walls and wood I-joist floors can be used to meet
building code requirements for fire resistive assemblies.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
14. DCA 4 - CAM for Calculating and Demonstrating Assembly Fire Endurance (free download)
Describes a procedure to calculate the fire endurance rating of a wood-frame wall, roof, or floor/ceiling
assembly. The procedure is based on combining previously determined fire resistance time values of
each separate component of the assembly without the need for additional fire testing.
15. DCA 5 - Post-Frame Buildings (free download)
Provides guidance to post-frame building designers for meeting the requirements of the 2000
International Building Code and to confirm that a properly designed post-frame building is in fact code
compliant.
16. DCA 6 - Prescriptive Residential Deck Construction Guide (free download)
Includes guidance on provisions of the International Residential Code (IRC) pertaining to single level
residential wood deck construction. Provisions contained in this document that are not included in the
IRC are considered good practice recommendations.
17. TR 10 - Calculating the Fire Resistance of Exposed Wood Members (free download)
Provides information for adjusting section properties and allowable stresses to account for a reduced
AWC
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
Gypsum Association
6525 Belcrest Road, Suite 480, Hyattsville, MD 20782
Phone: 301-277-8686; Fax: 301-277-8747; Website: http://www.gypsum.org/
GA
2. NFBA - Accepted Practices for Post-Frame Building Construction: Metal Panel and Trim Installation
Tolerances
Controls and/or limits for the relative orientation and spacing of panel and trim, mechanical fastener
placement, and panel and trim surface blemishes for post-frame buildings. Provisions only apply to
installation of exterior metal panel and exterior metal trim with a nominal base metal thickness less than
0.05 inches (1.20 mm). Fastener criteria only apply to exposed (i.e. through-panel) fasteners.
3. NFBA - Accepted Practices for Post Frame Building Construction: Framing Tolerances
Recommended tolerances for construction of primary and secondary wood framing in post-frame
buildings.
4. Post-Frame Construction guide (free download)
Introduction to the advantages and structural components of post-frame building systems.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
Comprehensive guide to building a raised floor system including site prep, soil analysis, materials
specification, foundation options, span tables, design loads, moisture control and cost comparisons.
Includes 25 construction details.
4. Southern Pine Headers and Beams (free download)
Comprehensive series of size selection and allowable load tables for choosing the proper header or
beam in specific applications. Southern Pine glued laminated timber is included as well as single and
multiple-member Southern Pine lumber.
5. Pressure-Treated Southern Pine (free download)
A guide to specification of treated wood for various uses and exposures, supplemented with detailed
preservative tables by specific product or application. Details of approved industry standards, proper
grade and quality marks for treated lumber are included, plus guidance on suitable fasteners and
connectors.
6. Permanent Wood Foundation Design and Construction Guide (free download)
Design specifications and structural requirements for using PWF systems. Typical applications are
illustrated
Information regarding the handling, installation, restraining and bracing of metal plate connected wood
trusses. Includes information on hoisting and placement of truss bundles, long span truss installation,
hip set assembly and bracing, design and installation of permanent restraint/bracing/reinforcement for
trusses and individual truss members, and toe-nailed connections for attaching trusses at bearing
locations.
3. DSB-89: Recommended Design Specification for Temporary Bracing of Metal Plate Connected Wood
Trusses
A specification developed primarily for technical audiences such as engineers and architects of record
and truss design engineers. The specification covers the determination of temporary bracing
requirements for symmetrical dual pitched triangular, mono pitched triangular, scissors, and 2x4/2x6
parallel chord metal plate connected wood trusses spaced four feet on center or less. Includes a
supplement with temporary bracing tables for use in lieu of specific design analysis for a particular
metal plate connected wood truss installation system.
Table 2-9 cont. Partial list of technical references related to post-frame building design and
construction.
ASCE 7 is the primary technical source used by model Category I represents buildings and structures with a low
codes (e.g., IBC, IRC) concerning dead, live, snow, hazard to human life in the event of failure and Category
wind, rain and seismic loads. In some cases, the model IV represents essential facilities.
codes attempt to distill the rigorous ASCE 7 procedures
A rational basis should be used to determine the risk
into a simpler, easy-to-use format.
category for structural design, which is primarily based
3.2.2 Metal Building Systems Manual on the number of persons whose lives would be
endangered or whose welfare would be affected in the
The Metal Building Systems Manual, published by the event of a failure. ANSI/ASCE 7 provides the plot in
Metal Building Manufacturers Association (2012), is figure 3-1 of the approximate relationship between the
recognized by model building codes as an excellent number of lives placed at risk by a failure and the Risk
technical resource document for calculating structural Category
loads on low-rise buildings (e.g. post-frame buildings). It
contains step-by-step examples for calculating wind,
snow and seismic design loads per ANSI/ASCE 7-2010
(as referenced in the 2012 IBC), along with information I II III IV
for designing roof drainage systems for metal buildings,
per the 2012 International Plumbing Code (IPC).
Tabulated in the manual is wind, snow, seismic and 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
rainfall design data for every U.S. county based on the Number of Persons at Risk
2012 IBC, ASCE 7-10, USGS and NOAA data. The
manual also contains procedures for calculation of loads Figure 3-1. ANSI/ ASCE 7 Risk Category as a
resulting from monorail, jib, underhung bridge, top- function of the number of lives placed at risk by a
running bridge, and single-leg gantry cranes. failure.
Additionally, the manual contains recommended drift 3.3.2 Multiple Use Buildings
and deflection criteria for the design of metal buildings
that use masonry, metal and other wall systems, as well When buildings or structures have multiple uses
as tolerances for manufacturing and erection. (occupancies), the independence of the structural systems
associated with the different uses must be examined. If
3.2.3 ASABE Standards the failure of a structural system in one use area will
A few ASABE engineering practices (EPs) have been impact the structural system in another use area, then the
developed to help engineers calculate loads specific to structural systems in both areas must be designed as if
agricultural structures. In general, these EPs cover live both areas house the highest usage group (the highest
loads not addressed by ANSI/ASCE 7. For a further usage group is the usage group associated with the
explanation of these live load EPs, see Section 3.9. highest applicable building category). For example if
one end of a structure is a large greenhouse – a usage
For a long time, ASABE maintained ASAE EP288 associated with a Category I building, and the other end
entitled Agricultural Building Snow and Wind Loads. In of the structure is used to store petrochemicals that are
the 1990’s, ASABE members voted to rewrite EP288 dangerous to the public if released – a usage associated
and adopt (by reference) the snow and wind load with a Category III building, the entire structure would
provisions of ANSI/ASCE 7. After this was done, it did have to be classified as a Category III building if the
not make much sense to maintain the standard and it was failure of the structural system in the greenhouse area
subsequently dropped. For this reason, any references to increases the probability of failure of the structural
ASAE EP288 should be replaced with ANSI/ASCE 7. system in the petrochemical storage area.
Table 3-1. ANSI/ASCE 7 Risk Categories (from ANSI/ASCE 7-10 Table 1.5-1)
Category Use or Occupancy of Buildings and Structures Examples
Buildings and other structures that represent a Agricultural buildings
I low hazard to human life in the event of Minor storage facilities
failure. Certain temporary facilities
All buildings and other structures except those Residential buildings
II
listed in Categories I, III and IV Most commercial and industrial buildings
Buildings and other structures where more than ~300
Buildings and other structures, the failure of
people congregate in one area
which could pose a substantial risk to human
Buildings and other structures with day-care facilities
life.
with capacity greater than ~150
Buildings and other structures, not included in
Buildings and other structures with elementary or
Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a
secondary school facilities with capacity greater than
substantial economic impact and/or mass
~150
disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the
III Buildings and other structures with a capacity greater
event of failure.
than ~500 for colleges or adult education facilities
Buildings and other structures not included in
Health care facilities with ~50 or more resident
Risk Category IV containing toxic or explosive
patients but not having surgery or emergency
substances where their quantity exceeds a
treatment facilities
threshold established by the authority having
Jails and detention facilities
jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat to
Power generating station and other public utilities not
the public if released
included in Category IV
Hospitals and other health care facilities having
Buildings and other structures designated as
surgery or emergency treatment facilities
essential facilities.
Fire, rescue and police stations and emergency vehicle
Buildings and other structures, the failure of
garages
which could pose a substantial hazard to the
Designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency
community.
shelters
Buildings and other structures required to
Communications centers and other facilities required
maintain the functionality of other Risk
for emergency response
IV Category IV structures.
Power generating stations and other public utility
Buildings and other structures containing
facilities required in an emergency
sufficient quantities of highly toxic substances
Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers and
where their quantity exceeds a threshold
emergency aircraft hangars
quantity established by the authority having
Water storage facilities and pump structures required
jurisdiction to be dangerous to the public if
to maintain water pressure for fire suppression
released and is sufficient to pose a threat to the
Buildings and other structures having critical national
public if released.
defense functions
S = Snow Load. Vertical loads from the mass of 3.5.1 Basic Load Combinations for ASD
snow accumulating on a structure.
Where allowable stress design (ASD) is used,
T = Self-Straining Load. Forces arising from ANSI/ASCE 7 and the IBC require that structures (and
contraction or expansion resulting from portions thereof) be designed to resist the most critical
temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture effects from the following combinations of nominal
changes, creep in component materials, loads.
movement due to differential settlement, or
combinations thereof: 1. D
S
Top View
S S S S S S
Front View
w w
L
L
L
Table 3-3. Components of a Uniform Distributed Load Acting Normal to a Sloping Surface
w
w
w
L
= L
+ L
Table 3-4. Approximate Weights of Construction Materials (from Hoyle and Woeste, 1989)
Weight Weight
Material Material
(lb/ft2) (lb/ft2)
3.8 Dead Loads are constant in magnitude and location throughout the
life of the building.
3.8.1 Definition
3.8.2 Weights of Construction Materials
Dead loads are the gravity loads due to the combined
weights of all permanent structural and nonstructural Tables C3-1 and C3-2 in ANSI/ASCE 7-10 contain
components of the building, such as sheathing, trusses, minimum design dead loads, and minimum densities for
purlins, girts and fixed service equipment. These loads design loads from materials, respectively. Table 3-4
contains approximate weights of materials commonly
ASAE EP378 Floor and Suspended Loads on 3.9.4 Live Load Reductions
Agricultural Structures Due to Use. Recommended In some cases, reductions are allowed for uniform loads
design loads resulting from livestock, suspended to account for the low likelihood of the loads
caged poultry, vehicles and manure on a floor. simultaneously occurring over the entire tributary area of
ASAE EP393 Manure Storages. Recommendations a component. For example, ANSI/ASCE 7-10 allows a
for the design, construction, and location of manure reduction in live loads in accordance with the following
storage units. Included are design loads for interior equation when the value of KLLAT is 400 ft2 or more:
and exterior walls, floors, footings and covers.
L = Lo [ 0.25 + (15 ft)/(KLLAT)0.5 ] (3-1)
ANSI/ASAE EP433 Loads Exerted by Free-Flowing
Grains on Bins. Methods of estimating the grain Where:
pressures within centrally loaded and unloaded bins L = Reduced design live load per ft2 of area
used to store free-flowing, agricultural whole grain. supported by the member
ASAE EP538 Design Loads for Bunker (Horizontal) Lo = Unreduced design live load per ft2 of area
Silos. Provides design loads for the walls of bunker supported by the member (from Table 3-5 or
(horizontal) silos for storing whole plant silages. ASCE Table 4-1)
Does not include hydrostatic pressure that may KLL = Live load element factor (from Table 3-6 or
occur when silage becomes saturated. ASCE Table 4-2)
ANSI/ASAE EP545 Loads Exerted by Free-Flowing AT = Tributary area in ft2
Grain on Shallow Storage Structures. Presents With respect to application of equation 3-1:
methods for estimating grain pressures within
shallow storage structures used to store free-flowing L shall not be less than 0.50Lo for members
agricultural whole grains. supporting one floor and L shall not be less than
0.40Lo for members supporting two or more floors.
Note that all standards adopted by ASABE prior to July
2005 (the month the society name changed from ASAE Live loads that exceed 100 lbf/ft2 shall not be
to ASABE) retain their ASAE designation, even when reduced unless the loads are for members
revised. This is to avoid someone from confusing or supporting two or more floors in which case a 20%
misinterpreting a revision to an old standard as a reduction is allowed.
completely new and totally different ASABE document.
Table 3-5. Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads and Minimum Concentrated Live Loads
Uniform, Concentrated.
Occupancy or Use
lbf/ft2 lbf
Fire escapes 100
Manufacturing
Light 125 2000
Heavy 250 3000
Office Buildings (File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier
loads based on anticipated occupancy)
Lobbies and first floor corridors 100 2000
Offices 50 2000
Corridors above first floor 80 2000
Roofs
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs 20
Roofs used for roof gardens 100
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards, subject to trucking. Note: conc.
load acting on area of 20 in.2 250 8000
Stairs and exits
One- and two-family dwellings 40
All other 100
Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required for
anticipated storage)
Light 125
Heavy 250
Stores
Retail, first floor 100 1000
Retail, upper floors 75 1000
Wholesale, all floors 125 1000
Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit ways) 60
Yards and terraces, pedestrians 100
Where P is the static pressure in lbf/ft2 and V is wind p= Design wind pressure
speed in miles per hour. qh= qz calculated at the mean roof height (see
figure 3-5)
To estimate the effective wind pressure, qz, acting at a
GCpf = External pressure coefficient for main wind-
particular height on a particular building due to wind
force resisting systems
velocity V, equation 3-3 is multiplied by (1) a velocity
GCpi = Internal pressure coefficient
pressure exposure coefficient Kz that adjusts the basic
= 0.00 for open buildings
wind speed values from the ANSI/ASCE 7-10 maps to
= +0.55 and -0.55 for partially enclosed
design heights other than 33 feet and exposures other
buildings
than C, (2) a wind directionality factor Kd that accounts
= +0.18 and -0.18 for enclosed buildings
for the reduced probability of maximum winds coming
GCp = External pressure coefficient for components
from any given direction and the reduced probability of
and cladding
the maximum pressure coefficient occurring for any
GCpo = Combined pressure coefficient for overhangs
given wind direction, and (3) a Kzt factor that accounts
for the effect of wind speed-up over nearby hills and ANSI/ASCE 7-10 contains figures, tables, and equations
escarpments. With these factors, equation 3-3 appears for determining pressure coefficients (i.e., GCpf, GCp,
as: GCpo). These coefficients are dependent on the tributary
area for the component being designed, and its location
qz = 0.00256∙Kz∙Kzt∙Kd ∙V 2 (3-4)
relative to the geometric discontinuities in the surfaces of
Where qz is in lbf/ft2 and V is in miles per hour. the building (i.e., its location relative to wall corners,
eave lines, the ridge, etc.). To account for the influence
3.11.5 Design Wind Pressure, p of location, building surfaces are broken into zones.
The design wind pressure applied to a surface depends Pressure coefficients within each of these zones are
on the calculation method. ANSI/ASCE 7-10 has three assumed constant.
different methods: (1) a directional procedure for The design wind pressure applied to a wall surface is the
buildings of all heights, (2) an envelope procedure for sum of the pressures applied to both sides of the surface
low rise buildings (buildings with a mean roof height h (i.e. external and internal pressures) as calculated
that is less than 60 feet and does not exceed the least according to equations 3-5 and 3-6, and shown in figure
horizontal dimension of the building), and (3) a wind 3-5.
tunnel procedure for any building or structure. The
envelope procedure is widely used in post-frame building External Pressure
qz = Effective Wind p = qh (GCpf) for MWFRS
design. Pressure p = qh (GCp) for C&C
Separate design wind pressures are calculated for
elements of the “main wind force resisting system” q z = qh
(MWFRS) and “components and cladding” (C&C). The
MWFRS is taken to include trusses, posts, girders,
shearwalls and diaphragms. Components and cladding
include members such as purlins, girts, curtain walls, h
sheathing, roofing and siding. Since wind pressures are Internal Pressure
z p = qh (GCpi)
higher on small areas due to localized gust effects,
design wind pressures are higher for components and
cladding.
For enclosed and partially enclosed low-rise building
systems, ANSI/ASCE 7-10 provides the following
equations for design wind pressure: Figure 3-5. Total pressure on a surface is sum of
external and internal pressures. For calculation
For elements of the main wind-force resisting system: purposes, pressures (both internal and external)
p = qh [(GCpf) – (GCpi)] (3-5) acting toward a surface are considered positive.
Hoyle and Woeste (1989) for rectangular wood beams MBMA. (2012). Metal building systems manual. . Metal
and Triche (1990) for wood I-beams. Building Manufacturers Association (MBMA),
Cleveland, OH.
3.14 References
Taylor, S.E. (1996). Earthquake considerations in post-
3.14.1 Non-Normative References frame building design. Frame Building News,
8(3):42-49.
AF&PA. (1993). Commentary to the national design
specification for wood construction. American Triche, M.E. (1990). Shear deflection effect on I-joist
Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA), design. Wood Design Focus, 1(2).
Washington, D.C.
3.14.2 Normative References
Faherty, K.F. & Williamson, T.G. (1989). Wood
engineering and construction handbook. McGraw- ANSI/AWC ASD/LRFD NDS - National Design
Hill, New York, NY. Specification for Wood Construction.
Hoyle, R.J. & Woeste, F.E. (1989). Wood technology in ANSI/ASCE 7-10 Minimum design loads for buildings
the design of structures. Ames, IA: Iowa State and other structures.
University Press.
4.2.3 Diaphragms and Shearwalls be considered for a specific building design. For
example, maximum gravity load will govern truss-to-
When cladding is fastened to the wood frame of a post- post bearing and post foundation bearing; whereas wind
frame building, large shearwalls and roof and ceiling minus dead load will govern the truss-to-post connection
diaphragms are formed that can add considerable rigidity (for uplift).
to the building. In many post-frame buildings,
diaphragms and shearwalls are carefully designed and 4.3.3 Force Calculations
become an integral part of the main wind-force resisting
The diaphragm analysis method presented in Chapter 6 is
system. Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms are covered in
the most accurate method to determine design moments,
Section 4.10 and Shearwalls in Section 4.11.
and axial and shear forces in posts. Historically, some
4.2.4 Specific Details designers calculated the maximum post moment for
embedded posts by using the simple structural analog of
The post-frame building system is a special type of light a propped cantilever (i.e. fixed reaction at the post
wood-frame construction. Although model and active bottom and pin reaction at the top). The implicit
building codes extensively cover light wood-frame assumption of this analog is that the roof diaphragm and
construction, they seldom cover specific details of post- shearwalls are infinitely stiff. This model may be
frame building design. Specifically, they lack coverage adequate for buildings with extremely stiff roof
of post foundation design, metal-clad wood-frame diaphragms and for conservatively estimating shear
diaphragm design, and interaction between post-frames forces in the roof diaphragm; however, it may
and diaphragms. Hence, Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 focus on underestimate the maximum post moment for many post-
these topics in more detail. frame buildings. The analysis procedures described in
4.2.5 Limitations Chapter 6 are more reliable since they account for the
flexible behavior of roof diaphragms and shear walls.
The structural design of buildings involves making many
judgments, such as determining design loads, structural If posts are embedded, generally two bending moments
analogs and analyses, and selecting materials that can must be calculated - one slightly below the groundline
safely resist the calculated forces for the life of the and the other above ground. For posts attached to a
structure. New research or testing could justify a change concrete surface with a flexible connection, the post-to-
of design procedure for the industry or for an individual concrete surface connection is typically modeled as a pin
designer. To this end, it is important to note that the (leaving the post moment equal to zero at that point), and
considerations presented herein are not exhaustive, and thereby limiting maximum post bending moment
thus should never be considered or treated as exhaustive. calculations and checks to a single point.
The bending moment and shear forces in the post at
4.3 Posts groundline are frequently used in embedded post
4.3.1 General foundation design calculations.
The function of the wood post is to carry axial and 4.3.4 Combined Stress Analysis
bending loads to the foundation. Posts are embedded in Forces involved in post design subject the posts to
the ground or attached to either a conventional masonry combined stresses (bending and axial), and thus they
or concrete wall or a concrete slab-on-grade. Posts can must be checked for adequacy using the appropriate
be solid-sawn, structural composite lumber, interaction equation from the NDS. In theory, every post
mechanically-laminated, or glued-laminated. Any length increment must satisfy the interaction equation,
portion of a post that is embedded or exposed to weather but in practice, a minimum of two locations are checked:
must be pressure-treated with preservative chemicals to the point of maximum interaction near the ground level
resist decay and insect damage (see Section 4.12). (column stability factor, Cp, equal to 1.0) and the upper
4.3.2 Controlling Load Combinations section of the posts where the maximum moment occurs
in conjunction with column action (Cp<1.0).
The load combination that usually controls post design is
full dead plus 3/4 wind plus 3/4 snow for ASD (e.g., 4.3.5 Shear Stress
equation 6a in Section 3.5.1) and full dead plus full wind The shear stress due to lateral loading (wind or seismic)
plus one-half snow for LRFD (e.g., equation 4 in Section rarely controls post design, but should always be checked
3.5.2); however, local codes may stipulate different load as a matter of good practice. Other loads such as bulk
combinations. It is possible for any one of the loads from stored materials may influence final post
combinations to be critical; therefore, they all should design.
either dead or live, in which case, they consider snow between the two units was not. Many different methods
and wind loads to be types of live loads. This runs and hardware have been used to design the connection,
counter to the ANSI/ASCE 7-10 definition of a live load. such as bolts, nails, truss anchors, and combinations of
Because loads like wind and snow are associated with the same. Unless otherwise governed by a specific code,
different ASD load duration factors and different LRFD the design of this connection should meet NDS
time effect factors, it is important that a designer know requirements.
what portion of an allowable top chord "live" load is due
to snow, what portion is due to wind, what portion is due 4.4.5 Stress Reversal
to roof live loading, etc. The trusses used in post-frame buildings are typically
long span and, consequently, have long webs. When the
4.4.3 Design
truss becomes part of a post-frame building, it is
This design manual does not present specifics of roof possible, under certain loading conditions, for a tension
truss design. Metal-plate-connected wood trusses in the web in the truss design to become a compression web.
United States are designed according to the provisions of
Stress reversal can also occur in truss chords due to a
ANSI/TPI 1-2007. Other designs are based on
wind uplift loading combined with dead load. This load
proprietary test information, along with design criteria
case may not frequently control the size of the truss
from the NDS.
chord lumber, but it makes compression in the bottom
Section 6.1.1.2 of ANSI/TPI 1-2007 requires that an chord possible. This situation is one reason that lateral
accepted structural analysis method for analyzing bracing of the bottom chord is required (SBCA/TPI,
statically indeterminate structures, such as the matrix 2013).
stiffness method, be used to determine the design
moments and axial forces for each truss member. Section 4.4.6 Temporary Bracing
6.1.1.1 of ANSI/TPI 1-2007 requires that this model Temporary bracing is required to ensure stability of
closely approximate the geometry and properties of the trusses during their installation and until permanent
truss members and connections. Regardless of analysis bracing for trusses and the building are in place. This
methods, structural modeling assumptions are important area is the most difficult to manage in the field.
and can dramatically influence the design (Brakeman,
1994). For example, partial fixity at truss plate joints as According to WTCA 1-1995 and ANSI/TPI 1-2007,
well as eccentricity at heel joints, can be modeled a determination and installation of temporary bracing is the
variety of ways. The heel joint usually gets the most responsibility of the building contractor. This work
attention since heel joint modeling decisions can greatly should be done in accordance with the Building
influence truss design. Component Safety Information (BCSI) Guide to Good
Practice for Handling, Installing, Restraining and
The size, and in some cases the orientation, of truss Bracing of Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses – a
plates is dependent on proprietary design values. These publication jointly produced by the Structural Building
values may be available from the manufacturer. Some Components Association (SBCA) and the Truss Plate
are available in the form of an ICC-ES Evaluation Report Institute (TPI). The BCSI guide contains the following
(see http://www.icc-es.org/reports/) ten major chapters:
Trusses can be obtained pre-engineered from the BCSI-B1:Guide for Handling, Installing,
manufacturer. It is important to consider wind loading on Restraining & Bracing of Trusses
trusses as stress reversals can occur and overstress some BCSI-B2:Truss Installation & Temporary
members. This design is complicated by the fact that Restraint/Bracing
wind loads are influenced by building geometry, so this BCSI-B3: Permanent Restraint/Bracing of Chords
information must be communicated to the truss designer. & Web Members
Any structural bracing (e.g. knee braces) or redundant BCSI-B4: Construction Loading
supports must be included in the truss design. BCSI-B5:Truss Damage, Jobsite Modifications &
Installation Errors
4.4.4. Truss-to-Post Connection BCSI-B7: Temporary & Permanent
The connection between the truss and post is critical. Restraint/Bracing of 3x2 and 4x2 Parallel Chord
Designers must consider both gravity forces and uplift Trusses
forces. With some truss-to-post connection designs, it BCSI-B8: Using Toe-Nailed Connections to Attach
might be necessary to examine the impact of the Trusses At Bearing Locations
connection on the forces induced in the truss chords, heel BCSI-B9: Multi-Ply Girders
joints, and post. Observations from several building BCSI-B10: Post Frame Truss Installation, Restraint
investigations revealed that the individual trusses and & Bracing
posts were designed properly, but the connection BCSI-B11: Fall Protection & Trusses
The temporary bracing requirements in BSCI-B10 (the increased using the repetitive member factors published
chapter specifically dedicated to post-frame building in ANSI/ASAE EP559 (ASABE, 2012).
trusses) is similar in content to BCSI-B2. The primary
difference is that BCSI-B2 applies to trusses spaced up to 4.5.4 Connections
2 ft on-center and up to 80 ft in length, and BSCI-B10 Girder attachment to posts and individual roof trusses is
applies to trusses between 2 and 12 ft on-center and up to a fundamental part of girder design. When designing
81 ft in length. girder-to-post connections, both uplift and gravity must
be considered. When designing truss-to-girder
4.4.7 Permanent Bracing
connections, special consideration must be given to
Permanent truss bracing is critical to the performance of situations in which trusses are hung off the side of the
the roof system. In fact, improper design and/or improper girder. In such cases truss-to-girder connections should
installation of permanent bracing are leading causes of be designed to prevent rotation between the trusses and
post-frame building structural failures. girder, the girder must be sized to handle additional
stresses due to torsion, or the girder must be braced to
Permanent bracing for trusses in post-frame buildings is
reduce rotation.
typically specified in accordance with BCSI-B3 and
BCSI-B10 (SBCA/TPI, 2013). If properly planned, the 4.6 Knee Braces
temporary bracing applied during truss installation can
be used as permanent bracing, making the completion of 4.6.1 General
the permanent bracing more efficient.
Knee braces are intended to supplement the resistance of
4.5 Girders post frames under lateral loads, and can influence the
unsupported length of columns. They have been used
4.5.1 General less and less in recent years.
Girders are heavy beams used to span large openings 4.6.2 Effectiveness
(e.g., doors) and to support trusses located between
posts. For example, when roof truss spacing is less than Knee brace effectiveness is highly dependent on the
the post spacing, girders (sometimes called headers) are stiffness of its connections to the post and truss. If the
needed to carry the intermediate trusses. This is a connections at the ends of the brace are flexible or not
common occurrence over large door openings. These very stiff due to the use of a few nails, the roof
beams are considered main wind-force resisting diaphragm carries the bulk of the load, and the brace is
members. Vertically nail-laminated lumber, structural ineffective (Gebremedhin and Woeste, 1986). If the
composite lumber, glued-laminated beams and steel I- brace connections are made very stiff (by installing many
beams are all commonly used as girders. There is an nails or bolts) the brace could effectively resist the wind
abundant supply of structural-composite lumber products loading but could overload the truss.
from manufacturers who publish their own allowable 4.6.3 Analysis
stresses. Often, the critical load combination is dead plus
snow load, although all applicable load combinations Knee braces induce primary bending moments in truss
must be checked. chords if attached between panel points. Knee braces
induce secondary bending moments when attached
4.5.2 Design Criteria directly to panel points. If knee braces are to be used in
Girders are designed as bending members. Any one of post-frame design, load sharing among the truss, post,
the four criteria used for the design of bending members knee brace, connections, and diaphragm (when
can control design (i.e. bending, shear, compression applicable) must be included in the structural analysis.
perpendicular to grain, and deflection). Shear can often
control girder design. Also note that formulae found in
4.7 Roof Purlins
most handbooks account for bending but not shear 4.7.1 General
deflection. Designers should consider the impact of shear
deflection on the total deflection of a girder. Hoyle and Roof purlins are typically 2- by 4-inch or 2- by 6-inch
Woeste (1989) provide formulae for calculating shear lumber, and are key structural elements of the roof
deflection of wood beams. assembly. They resist gravity loads, wind loads, roof
diaphragm chord forces, and provide lateral bracing to
4.5.3 Vertically Laminated Lumber truss top chords (or rafters). To fulfill the chord-bracing
role, the purlins must be supported against lateral
The design of girders for a post-frame building is routine
movement by attachment to sheathing or metal cladding
structural design except when a girder is fabricated by
that provides the needed roof diaphragm strength. Not all
vertically laminating three or more pieces of dimension
roof cladding materials provide diaphragm strength
lumber. In this case, the allowable bending stress can be
and/or purlin lateral support; one example is standing In general, the provisions of the NDS apply for the
seam roofing, which is fastened with clips that allow connections and stress analysis.
adjacent sheets to slide.
4.8 Wall Girts
4.7.2 Classification
4.8.1 General
Purlins in post-frame buildings fall into the ANSI/ASCE-
7 wind load category of “component and cladding.” Girts are used to collect wind-induced wall loads and
Components and cladding collect the loads and distribute distribute them to the post frames. For end walls, the
them to the primary structural elements, identified as the wind loads are distributed to structural end-wall posts.
main wind-force resisting system. Wind loads are much
greater at eaves, ridges, edges, corners and other
4.8.2 Classification
discontinuities. Purlin spacing and fasteners are critical Girts belong to the “component and cladding” category
in these areas. If these areas fail under extreme wind for determining the design wind load.
loading, the building envelope will be breached, and
internal wind pressures will change dramatically. 4.8.3 Orientation
4.7.3 Orientation Girts are either installed flat on post faces or recessed
between the posts. Girts recessed between posts are
Purlins are installed on-edge or flat. When they are used almost always orientated with the narrow edge facing the
on-edge, they may be either placed on top of the truss or cladding, and in this position, are frequently used to
recessed between the trusses. Purlins placed on-edge are support both interior and exterior cladding/sheathing.
frequently overlapped and fastened together at the
overlap. When used flat, purlins are installed on top of 4.8.4 Post Bracing
the trusses. Girts provide lateral support to side-wall columns. With
4.7.4 Truss Chord Bracing girts securely installed, the slenderness ratio of the post
weak axis is greatly reduced. Therefore, posts can
Purlin spacing is a factor in truss design since purlins usually be designed to carry the axial loads using the
provide lateral support to the truss top chord. In some slenderness ratio of the strong axis.
cases, the slenderness ratio for weak-axis truss chord
buckling between purlins can be greater than that for 4.8.5 Design Loads
strong-axis buckling. Therefore, when specifying trusses, Girts are normally designed to resist only wind load.
the building designer should inform the truss-design Wind loads are much greater at corners and other
engineer of the planned purlin spacing. discontinuities. Girt spacing and fasteners are critical in
4.7.5 Design Loads these areas. If these areas fail, the building envelope will
be breached, and internal wind pressures will change
Purlin design often is controlled by the dead plus snow dramatically.
load combination, or dead plus wind load (especially in
the edge zones of the roof). Dead loads used for design The dead load of the girt and attached steel is normally
may exceed actual weights for gravity load calculations; negligible for girt design. Cladding is attached to the
however, inflated dead loads cannot be used to offset girts by nails or screws, and the stiffness of these
wind uplift or wind overturn moments. In these cases, connections does not allow the girts to undergo
offsetting loads cannot exceed actual weights of significant bending stress or deflection from the action of
materials. the small dead loads present. However, the wall dead
load should be included in total dead load calculations
4.7.6 Design Criteria for the post foundation.
Purlins members should be checked for bending strength, Girts must be designed to resist forces induced by stored
shear capacity, and deflection. If the roof assembly is materials, especially granular materials such as fertilizer
functioning as a structural diaphragm, purlins will also or seeds/grain. Care should betaken to assure that the
be subjected to axial forces. Purlins shall be designed to capacity of wall panels, fasteners and girts are not
carry bending about both axes. Weak axis bending may exceeded by these forces.
be omitted if it can be demonstrated by test or analysis
that the roof sheathing provides support. The connections 4.8.6 Design Criteria
between the purlins and rafters should be designed for Girts are designed as bending members for which the
both gravity loads and wind uplift forces. Purlin hangers usual bending-member design criteria apply. The critical
are often used when purlins are recessed, and their connections between the girts and the post should be
capacity should be verified for the various loading cases. checked for both wind pressure and suction. The top wall
girt may be constructed to carry chord forces from the 4.11 Shearwalls
roof diaphragm and, if so, must be checked for the
appropriate axial loads. The NDS provisions apply for 4.11.1 General
the connections and stress analysis.
A large portion of the shear forces induced in roof and
4.9 Large Doors ceiling diaphragms is transferred to the building
foundation by shearwalls. In many post-frame buildings,
4.9.1 General the only walls available to transfer this shear are exterior
walls (i.e., endwalls and sidewalls). Where present,
Large doors are common in post-frame buildings. Door
interior partition walls can be designed to transfer
components must be designed to withstand design wind
additional shear.
loads, and are treated as “components and cladding” for
such calculations. 4.11.2 Endwalls
4.9.2 Open Doors Endwalls in post-frame buildings resist wind loads
perpendicular to the building end wall and
It is not uncommon for building owners to leave large
simultaneously help transmit roof shears (due to parallel-
doors open, even during periods of high wind. If an
to-end wall wind components) to the ground. In the
owner anticipates that this will occur, the building must
diaphragm design procedure described in Chapter 6,
be designed accordingly. Note that a large opening on
maximum roof shears occur at the endwalls. The roof
one side of the structure is generally associated with
shear is transferred into the top truss chord or rafter of
increased internal wind pressure coefficients, and thus
the endwall, through the endwall to the ground level, and
can significantly increase roof uplift forces.
finally to the ground by posts or to posts connected to a
4.10 Roof and Ceiling Diaphragms concrete slab. In addition to shear forces, the end wall is
subject to overturning forces. Wirt et al. (1992) have
4.10.1 General published procedures for analyzing and designing end-
wall foundations.
Roof and ceiling diaphragms are used to resist lateral
(sidesway) forces applied to the building by wind, 4.11.3 Wall Openings
earthquake and stored material. Under lateral load, roof
Allowances must be made for openings in shearwalls.
and ceiling diaphragms act as large stiff plates. These
One common practice in post-frame construction is to
plates support and distribute loads to wall posts.
place large doorways in the building endwalls.
Conceptually, diaphragm design is easy to understand,
Procedures for accounting for the opening and ways to
but the application of the procedure requires analysis
reinforce the remaining wall are given in Chapter 6.
tools and data.
Diaphragms made from plywood are well documented, 4.11.4 Partitioning
as well as those made entirely from steel. Less Partitioning of the building into structural segments is
information is available about wood-framed, metal-clad one method to reduce maximum roof shears and endwall
diaphragms which are prevalent in the post-frame shears. For example, if it is not practical to reinforce an
building industry. This is a major factor in post-frame endwall that has a large door installed, the alternative is
building design and is covered in more depth in Chapters to install a structural partition in the center of the
6 and 7. building. The structural partition must meet the shear
requirements delivered by the roof diaphragm.
4.10.2 Design Properties
Buttresses, inside or outside the walls, can be used to
Diaphragm performance depends on factors such as the reduce the effective length of the building with respect to
steel, steel sheet-to-sheet fasteners, steel-to-wood maximum roof and end-wall shears.
fasteners, and the wood frame. There is no standard steel
panel construction, so diaphragm strength and stiffness 4.12 Decay Resistance of Wood
depend on the specific construction used. Strength and
When wood moisture content exceeds 20% on a dry
stiffness data on laboratory test panels are generally
weight basis in the presence of oxygen, it is vulnerable to
required to derive design values. Most post-frame
attack by insects and decay fungi. Although some wood
buildings have much greater spans than laboratory test
species (and the heartwood of other species) are naturally
panels; therefore, test data must be extrapolated to
resistant to these types of attack, most structural woods
practical building sizes as explained in Chapter 7.
used in North America are not. These structural wood
for a series of iron oxides formed by the reaction of iron steel and it is attached with stainless steel screws there
with oxygen in the presence of water. Other non-iron will be very little, if any, corrosion.
based metals undergo equivalent corrosion, but the
Table 4-1. Galvanic Series in Flowing Seawater (a)
resulting oxides are not commonly called rust.
Electrical
The rate of corrosion is affected by water and accelerated Potential
by electrolytes, as illustrated by the effects of road salt Range of
Metal or Metal Alloy Alloy vs.
(calcium chloride) on the corrosion of automobiles. Reference
Given sufficient time, oxygen and water, any iron mass Electrode,
eventually converts entirely to rust and disintegrates. volts (b)
The corrosion of aluminum is much slower than that of Anodic Magnesium -1.60 to -1.63
iron because the resulting aluminum oxide forms a or Zinc -0.98 to -1.03
coating which protects the remaining aluminum in a Active Aluminum Alloys -0.70 to -0.90
End Cadmium -0.70 to -0.76
process known as passivation.
Cast Irons -0.60 to -0.72
4.13.1 Galvanic Corrosion Steel -0.60 to -0.70
Galvanic corrosion is a common form of corrosion that Aluminum Bronze -0.30 to -0.40
occurs when dissimilar metals or metal alloys are Red Brass, Yellow Brass, Naval Brass -0.30 to -0.40
brought into electrical contact by immersion in a Tin -0.29 to -0.31
conductive electrolyte. In the case of building materials, Copper -0.28 to -0.36
this conductive electrolyte is generally impure water Lead-Tin Solder (50/50) -0.26 to -0.35
(e.g., rainwater, groundwater). When electrically Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Brass -0.25 to -0.34
connected, one of the dissimilar metals becomes the Manganese Bronze -0.25 to -0.33
anode and corrodes faster than it would all by itself in the Silicon Bronze -0.24 to -0.27
conductive electrolyte, while the other metal becomes Stainless Steel – Type 410, 416 (c) -0.25 to -0.36
the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone in 90-10 Copper-Nickel -0.21 to -0.28
the conductive electrolyte. Which metal becomes the 80-20 Copper-Nickel -0.20 to -0.27
anode and which becomes the cathode depends on their Stainless Steel – Type 430 -0.20 to -0.32
relative electrical potential within the conductive Lead -0.19 to -0.25
electrolyte. Table 4-1 contains a list of the electrical 70-30 Copper-Nickel -0.13 to -0.22
potentials of metals in flowing seawater. When arranged Silver -0.09 to -0.14
in order of their electrical potential, the list of metals is Stainless Steel–Types 302,304,321,347 -0.05 to -0.10
referred to as a galvanic series. Within a galvanic series, Stainless Steel – Type 316, 317 (c) -0.00 to -0.10
the metal closer to the anodic (or active) end of the series Cathodic
Titanium and Titanium Alloys +0.06 to -0.05
will be the anode and thus will corrode faster, while the or
one toward the cathodic (or noble) end will corrode Noble End Platinum +0.25 to +0.18
slower. The greater the electrical potential difference Graphite +0.30 to +0.20
between two metals, the more rapidly the anode will (a) Source: Stephen Dexter, University of Delaware Sea Grant Marine
Advisory Service
corrode when the metals are electrically connected.
(b) These numbers refer to a Saturated Calomel Electrode. Measured
4.13.2 Building Material Selection Guidelines in seawater with flow rates between 8 and13 ft/s and temperatures
between 50 and 80 F (10-27 C)
Galvanic corrosion is minimized by (1) using metals that (c) Values listed are for a passive state. In low-velocity or poorly
are not dissimilar, (2) preventing dissimilar metals from aerated water, or inside crevices, these alloys may start to corrode
and exhibit potentials near -0.5 V
becoming electrically connected, and (3) keeping small
anodes from contacting large cathodes. With respect to
the latter, rate of corrosion is dependent on the surface In high moisture environments, components that are in
area of the anode relative to the cathode. The smaller the direct contact should not have an electric potential
surface area of the anode relative to the cathode, the more difference (from Table 4-1) that exceeds 0.20 volts.
concentrated the flow of electrons at the anode (i.e., the Metals listed in Table 4-1 have been color-coded into
higher the current), and the faster the rate of corrosion. groups that fall within the potential difference range of
Conversely, the larger the anode’s surface area in relation roughly 0.20 volts. Using this as a guideline, there
to the cathode, the more spread out the flow of electrons should be no problem with zinc coated components
and the slower the rate of corrosion. For example, if there contacting aluminum components, nor a problem with tin
is a window frame made of stainless steel and it is and copper components contacting each other.
attached with carbon steel screws, the screws will Conversely, allowing a zinc- or aluminum-components
probably corrode. If the window frame is made of carbon to contact copper or tin will result in more rapid
degradation of the zinc and aluminum. Lead should not avoided. Table 4-2 contains a guideline for selection of
be used in any construction where Galvalume or fasteners based on galvanic action. In general, zinc-
aluminum is utilized. Note that if a component has a coated fasteners should only be used to connect
metallic coating, the metallic coating and not the base galvanized and aluminum-zinc alloy coated steel. Do not
metal determines the electric potential of the component. use zinc- or aluminum-coated fasteners to attach copper
or stainless-steel panels. Whenever possible, match the
Materials should be selected so rainwater does not flow
surface metal on the fasteners with that on the panels and
from the cathode in a metal pair to the anode in a metal
trim they will attach.
pair. For example, in a metal pair of copper and
galvanized steel, copper is the cathode and galvanized Table 4-2. Common Fastener Recommendations
steel (i.e., zinc) is the anode. Water from a copper roof from Manufacturers
will contain dissolved copper that will result in unwanted Fastener Metal
corrosion of a galvanized steel gutter. Alternatively,
Stainless Steel
4.13.3 Sacrificial and Barrier Coatings
Aluminum
Panel/Trim Surface
Copper
Application of a metallic coating to a panel is done to Material
protect the base metal from oxidation. When the coating
is measurably more active/anodic (i.e., higher up on the
galvanic series) than the base metal, it will provide
galvanic protection to the base metal. Such is the case
with a zinc-coated (a.k.a. galvanized) steel panel. When
steel is exposed by cutting or scratching of the panel, Zinc (Galvanized) Yes Yes Yes No No No
galvanic corrosion will take place with the anodic zinc Aluminum-Zinc
moving to cover the exposed cathodic steel. A coating Alloy (e.g. No Yes Yes No No No
that protects base metal in this manner is referred to as a Galvalume)
sacrificial coating. Aluminum No No No Yes No No
The extent to which a sacrificial coating can continue to Copper No No No No Yes Yes(d)
protect base metal is directly proportional to the amount Stainless Steel No No No No No Yes
(i.e., thickness) of the coating. Metallic coatings that are
(a) Screws with an electrodeposited coating of zinc applied in
not sacrificial can only protect base metal by preventing
accordance with ASTM B633.
moisture and oxygen from reaching the base metal. Such (b) Nails with a zinc coating that meets or exceed ASTM A153
metallic coatings, along with paint, are referred to as Class D thickness specifications.
barrier coatings. (c) ASTM B633 electroplated screws with a special zinc or
Prevention of base metal oxidation by sacrificial and zinc-aluminum alloy cap.
barrier coatings is important. Not only is such oxidation (d) Austentic stainless steels (302/304, 303, 305) may increase
the corrosion of copper whereas martensitic stainless steel
unsightly, but it compromises panel strength and
(410) fasteners will not.
eventually weather tightness.
Application of paint coatings to metallic surfaces, or 4.13.5 Corrosion Due to Wood
placement of plastic or other non-metallic barriers Preservatives
between dissimilar metals, can significantly reduce
galvanic corrosion. When protecting an underlying Most waterborne wood preservatives contain copper.
metallic coating or base metal with a paint coating, it is This includes chromated copper arsenate (CCA), alkaline
important to realize that a small accidental scratch in the copper quat (ACQ), copper azole (CA), and ammoniacal
coating can result in rapid corrosion of the newly copper zinc arsenate (ACZA). To avoid galvanic
exposed metal if the exposed metal becomes the anode in corrosion in wood containing a copper-based treatment
a reaction with a nearby dissimilar metal that has a large and used in a moist condition, use fasteners that are
surface area. comprised of, or coated with: copper, a material more
noble than copper such as silicon bronze and types 304
4.13.4 Mechanical Fastener Selection and 316 stainless steel, or plastic (Baker, 1992). Do not
Due to their small surface area relative to the materials use aluminum fasteners or aluminum-coated fasteners in
they fasten, fasteners that take on the role of the anode lumber containing copper-based wood treatments (Baker,
will be at risk of rapid corrosion and thus should be 1992; AWC, 2004). Fasteners with a sufficient zinc
coating (i.e., fasteners that meet ASTM A153 Class D Hoyle, R. J. & Woeste, F. E. (1989). Wood
for hot-dip galvanizing) can generally be used in wood technology in the design of structures. Fifth edition.
containing copper-based treatments as long as the wood Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
is not regularly exposed to moisture or other
SBCA/TPI. (2013). Building component safety
environments considered extremely corrosive. This
information (BCSI): Guide to good practice for
means that any fastener with only an electrodeposited
handling, installing, restraining and bracing of
coating of zinc (e.g., an electro-plated screw) should not
metal plate connected wood trusses. Jointly
be used in wood containing copper-based treatments if
produced by the Structural Building Components
the wood is regularly exposed to moisture or an
Association (SBCA) and the Truss Plate Institute
environment considered extremely corrosive.
(TPI). http://www.sbcindustry.com/bcsi.php
Do not allow aluminum, aluminum-coated, and
Wirt, D. L., Woeste, F. E., Kline, D. E., and McLain, T.
galvalume-coated panels and trim to come into direct
E. (1992). Design procedures for post-frame end
contact with wood preservatives containing copper,
walls. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 8(1):97-
mercury or fluorides. Galvanized steel is generally
105.
compatible with chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
treatments but not with alkaline copper quat (ACQ) and 4.14.2 Normative References
copper azole (CA) in damp conditions. Avoid direct
contact between bare metal panels and treated lumber ANSI/ASAE EP 559.1 Design requirements and bending
where (1) condensation will frequently form on the metal properties for mechanically-laminated wood
surface in contact with the lumber, and (2) the wood assemblies.
treatment is more noble (cathodic) than the metal ANSI/ASABE S618 Post frame building system
surface. Direct contact between metal panels and treated nomenclature.
lumber can be avoided by separating them with a barrier
proven suitable for the application. ANSI/ASCE-7 Minimum design loads for buildings and
other structures
4.14 References ANSI/AWC-2012 National design specification for
4.14.1 Non-Normative References wood construction.
AWC. (2004). Fastener corrosion. American Wood ANSI/TPI 1-2007 National design standard for metal
Council Fact Sheet. AWC. 1111 Nineteenth Street, plate connected wood truss construction.
NW, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036 ASTM A153 Standard specification for zinc coating
http://www.awc.org/HelpOutreach/faq/CorrosionFac (hot-dip) on iron and steel hardware.
tSheet.pdf
AWPA U1-13 User specification for treated wood.
Baker, A. J. (1992). Corrosion of nails in CCA- and
ACA-treated wood in two environments. Forest WTCA 1-1995 Standard responsibilities in the design
Products Journal, 42(9):39-41 process involving metal plate connected wood
trusses.
Brakeman, D. B. (1994). Which truss design method is
the correct one? Peaks, 16(1):1-3.
Gebremedhin, K. G., & Woeste, F. E. (1986). Diaphragm
design with knee brace slip for post-frame buildings.
Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, 23(2):538-542.
5.1 Introduction
Contents A distinct advantage of post-frame construction is the
opportunity to transfer structural loads to the soil via post
5.1 Introduction 5–1
and pier foundations, thereby eliminating the need for a
5.2 Definitions 5–2 traditional foundation.
5.3 Soil Characteristics, Classification and Use 5–4
Post and pier foundations are a more environmentally-
5.4 Engineering Properties of Soil 5–8 friendly option to concrete frost walls because they use
5.5 Foundation Material Properties 5–11 considerably less concrete and can be quickly and easily
5.6 Structural Analysis 5–12 removed. Most post and pier foundations can be reused.
5.7 Governing Strength Equations 5–19 5.1.1 Governing Design Standard
5.8 Bearing Strength Assessment 5–22 Soil properties, safety factors, analysis methods and
5.9 Lateral Strength Assessment 5–25 design equations presented in this chapter are from
5.10 Uplift Strength Assessment 5–37 ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Shallow Post and Pier Foundation
Design.
5.11 Frost Heave Considerations 5–40
5.12 Installation Requirements 5–40 5.1.2 Classification
5.13 References 5–41 Depending on their width-to-length ratio, and the
surrounding soil type, foundations are categorized as
either shallow or deep. The vast majority of post and
pier foundations are shallow foundations, and exhibit a
behavior quite different from that of deeper systems such
as pilings.
In many respects ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 is a blend of
commonly published procedures for determining
allowable vertical loads on shallow spread footings, and
commonly published procedures for determining
allowable lateral loads on short piles. Thus the term
“shallow” is included in the title of the engineering
practice. As is common with shallow foundation design,
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 ignores any foundation-soil
friction that would help a pier/post foundation transfer
gravity loads into the soil ore resist uplift forces.
Soil deformation around a post is a three-dimensional
phenomena. Figure 5-1 shows the lines of constant soil
pressure (in a horizontal plane of soil) that form when a
post moves laterally. The greater the distance between
two posts, the less influence one post will have on the
soil pressure near the other. For design purposes,
individual embedded posts are considered isolated
foundations by ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 when post spacing
2.0B
0.2q
2.5B
Post
embedment
3.0B depth, d
5.2 Definitions
Cast-in-place
5.2.1 Post versus Pier Foundations Pier concrete pier
embedment
Post and pier foundations were previously defined in depth, d
Section 1.2.7 as follows:
Post foundation: An assembly consisting of an
embedded post and all below-grade elements, which may
include a footing, uplift resistance system, and collar. Footing cast
See figure 5-2. integral with pier
Pier foundation: An assembly consisting of a pier and Figure 5-3. Cast-in-place concrete pier foundation.
all below-grade elements, which may include a footing, Footing functions as uplift resisting system.
uplift resistance system, and collar. See figure 5-3.
Load Direction
Pier-to-column
connecting bracket
Ground
surface Precast concrete pier
Depth to
Water Uplift Foundation
Pier point of
table resisting face width, b
embedment rotation, dR
depth, dW system
depth, d depth, dU
Foundation Uplift resisting
depth, dF Pier side system length, LU
width, w
Uplift anchor
Unattached footing (steel angle)
Uplift resisting Footing breadth, B
system width, BU
Water table
Figure 5-4. Side view (left) and face view (right) of a pier foundation with an unattached footing and an uplift
resistance provided by steel angles.
No. 100
No. 200
No. 40
No. 10
No. 20
No. 4
In 1911, in an effort to better characterize the behavior of
100 fine-grained soils, Swedish chemist Albert Atterberg
defined three soil moisture contents (dry basis, %) that
80 he called the liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage
Percent Finer
0.002
0.001
4.75
0.850
0.420
0.150
0.075
0.010
10
1. Plasticity index (PI) of 15 or greater, determined in Except as excluded in section 5.3.8, excavated soil can
accordance with ASTM D 4318. generally be used for backfill. In the special case where
holes are drilled in clay, it may be preferable to backfill
2. More than 10 per cent of the soil particles are less than with the excavated clay instead of a coarse-grained
5 micrometers in size, determined in accordance with material for frost heave reasons. In all cases, excavated
ASTM D 422. material used as backfill should be compacted to its pre-
excavation density and should be free of organic material
and construction debris.
Figure 5-8. Plot used to differentiate between high and low PI soils for the Unified
Soil Classification System (see Table 5-1).
The primary soil properties utilized in post and pier For uplift and lateral strength assessments, soil sampling
foundation design include: Young's modulus for soil, ES; and in-situ soil tests should cover the distance between
undrained soil shear strength, SU; drained soil friction one-third and 100% of the anticipated foundation depth.
For bearing strength assessment, in-situ soil tests should
angle f'; and moist unit weight, γ. In this section
be taken at a location between the anticipated footing
presumptive values for these properties are presented
base and a distance B below the anticipated footing
along with equations for calculating the properties from
depth.
standard laboratory and in-situ tests.
A minimum site investigation generally includes at least
5.4.2 Presumptive Soil Properties three borings, usually combined with standard
Table 5-2 contains presumptive soil properties as penetration testing. For a rectangular structure, a boring
tabulated in ANSI/ASABE EP486.2. These values may at each corner and one in the center of the structure is
be used in the absence of satisfactory soil test data or recommended, with more required depending on soil
specific building code requirements. complexity and variability, and the size and importance
of the structure.
Data tabulated in Table 5-2 are unfactored values for use
with the resistance and safety factors presented in 5.4.4 Young’s Modulus for Soil, ES.
Section 5.7. Because the values in Table 5-2 have not
Young’s modulus, ES, is used to predict the lateral
been pre-adjusted to account for a margin of safety in
movement of a foundation. ES can be determined from
design, they will appear to be less conservative than data
laboratory tests or from in-situ soil tests. In general, it is
appearing in many presumptive soil property tables.
best to reserve laboratory tests for backfills; that is,
Since the range of possible void ratios in silts (types ML highly disturbed materials without a stress history. ES
and MH soils) and gravels (types GW and GP soils) is for non-backfill materials is generally best estimated
relatively small, the unit weights for these soils do not using field (in-situ) tests because of the significance of
largely change with variations in consistency, and thus stress history on ES and the difficulty of obtaining
have been assigned constant values in Table 5-2. undisturbed soil samples for laboratory testing.
5.4.3 Soil Tests Common laboratory tests include triaxial compression
tests conducted in accordance with ASTM D2166 and
Either laboratory or in-situ testing or a combination of D2850. Es for most cohesive soils can also be
laboratory and in-situ testing can be used to obtain all determined using an unconfined compression test in
necessary information needed for post/pier foundation accordance with ASTM D3080.
design.
In-situ tests for ES include prebored pressuremeter tests
Site-specific soil test results almost always result in (PBPMT), cone penetration tests (CPT), and standard
higher design values than would be obtained using Table penetration tests (SPT).
5-2 values. This is because presumptive values are the
lowest values associated with a broad classification of When a prebored pressuremeter test is used, ES can be
soils, each at their minimum strength conditions. calculated as:
Additionally, soil tests remove uncertainty associated
ES = (EO + ER) / 2
with use of presumptive soil properties, and thus lower
factors of safety are associated with calculations where where: EO is the pressuremeter first load modulus and ER
soil characteristics have been ascertained through test. is the pressuremeter reload modulus calculated in
accordance ASTM D4719.
Since certain soil tests are more accurate than others for
obtaining a specific soil property, factors of safety are a When a cone penetrometer test is used, ES for sandy soils
function of soil test method. Test procedures deemed the can be calculated as:
most accurate for obtaining various soil properties can be
ES = 1.5 qcr for silts, sands and silty sands
determined by a comparison of factor of safety values
presented in Section 5.7. ES = 2 qcr for young, normally consolidated sands
When establishing soil properties, assume that all ES = 3 qcr for aged, normally consolidated sands
cohesive soils will be loaded undrained, even under long-
ES = 4 qcr for sand and gravel
term static loadings, and that all cohesionless soils will
be loaded drained, even under rapid loadings such as where: qcr is the average cone resistance determined in
those resulting from earthquakes and wind forces. accordance with ASTM D3441.
Table 5-2. Presumptive Soil Properties for Post and Pier Foundation Design from ANSI/ASAE EP486.2
Increase in
Drained Young's Young's
Undrained Pois-
Moist soil modulus modulus per
Unified soil shear son's
unit friction for unit depth
Soil strength(b), ratio(f),
Soil Type Consistency weight, g angle(a), soil(c)(d), below
Classifi- SU ν
f' ES grade(c)(d)(e),
cation AE
lbf lbf
lbf/ft3 deg lbf/in2 lbf/in2
in2-ft in3
Soft 125 3.5 3920 - -
Homogeneous inorganic
CL Medium to Stiff 130 NA 7 6160 - - 0.5
clay, sandy or silty clay
Very Stiff to Hard 135 14 8400 - -
Soft 110 3.5 1680 - -
Homogeneous inorganic
CH Medium to stiff 115 NA 7 2800 - - 0.5
clay of high plasticity
Very Stiff to Hard 120 14 4480 - -
Inorganic silt, sandy or Soft 3.5 3920 - -
clayey silt, varved silt- Medium to stiff 7 6160 - -
ML 120 NA 0.5
clay-fine sand of low
plasticity Very Stiff to Hard 14 8400 - -
Inorganic silt, sandy or Soft 3.5 1680 - -
clayey silt, varved silt- Medium to stiff 7 2800 - -
MH 105 NA 0.5
clay-fine sand of high
plasticity Very Stiff to Hard 14 4480 - -
SM, SC, Loose 105 30 - 440 37
SP-SM,
Silty or clayey fine to
SP-SC, Medium to Dense 110 35 NA - 660 55 0.3
coarse sand
SW-SM
SW-SC Very Dense 115 40 - 880 73
Loose 115 30 - 880 73
Clean sand with little
SW, SP Medium to Dense 120 35 NA - 1320 110 0.3
gravel
Very Dense 125 40 - 1760 147
Gravel, gravel-sand Loose 35 - 2640 220
mixture, boulder-gravel GW, GP Medium to Dense 135 40 NA - 3520 293 0.3
mixtures Very Dense 45 - 4400 367
Well-graded mixture of Loose 120 35 - 1320 110
fine- and coarse-grained GW-GC Medium to Dense 125 40 - 1760 147
NA 0.3
soil: glacial till, hardpan, GC, SC
Very Dense 130 45 - 2200 183
boulder clay
(a)
Rapid undrained loading will typically be the critical design scenario in these soils. Laboratory testing is recommended to assess clay
friction angle for drained loading analysis.
(b)
Loading assumed slow enough that sandy soils behave in a drained manner.
(c)
Estimate of stiffness at a rotation of 1o for use in approximating structural load distribution. Use values that are 1/3 of the tabulated
values for serviceability limit state evaluations.
(d)
Constant values of stiffness used for calculation of clay response. Stiffness increasing with depth from a value of zero used for
calculation of sand response.
(e)
Assumes soil is located below the water table. Double the tabulated AE value for soils located above the water table.
(f)
Poisson ratio of 0.5 (no volume change) assumes rapid undrained loading conditions.
Cast-in-place concrete footings do not require steel When sizing reinforcement for larger precast footings,
reinforcement when the actual maximum distance from a the design must consider the extent and location of
footing edge to the nearest post/pier edge is less than the contact between the base of the placed footing and the
nominal thickness of the footing. This is because under underlying compacted base.
5.5.5 Concrete Piers 5.5.8 CLSM Base for Precast Concrete and
Axial, shear and bending forces in most concrete piers Wood Footings
are such that the assemblies must be treated as structural A controlled low-strength material (CLSM) placed
columns. ACI 318 clause 22.2.2 requires that all between the bottom of a precast concrete or wood
structural columns contain reinforcement and thus be footing and the underlying soil can be used to increase
designed in accordance with Chapters 10, 11 and 12 of the effective bearing area of the footing when its
the ACI code. unconfined compressive strength exceeds the ultimate
ACI 318 clause 10.9.1 requires that the cross-sectional bearing capacity of the underlying soil.
area of longitudinal reinforcement not be less than 1.0 In lieu of using a CLSM base for footings, some builders
percent of the gross cross-sectional area of the concrete. have compacted a non-hydrated (i.e., dry) concrete mix
ACI 318 clause 10.9.2 requires that no less than four in the base of holes drilled for pier/post foundation
longitudinal bars be used within rectangular or circular placement. Tests conducted by Bohnhoff et al. (2003)
ties, no less than three longitudinal bars be placed within have shown that non-hydrated concrete mixes that are
triangular ties, and no less than six longitudinal bars be compacted within a soil mass and allowed to self-
enclosed with spirals. hydrate, will obtain unconfined compressive strengths
The location and size of shear reinforcement in concrete that more than double the 1160 lbf/in2 (8 MPa) limit for
piers is determined in accordance with ACI 318 Chapters classification as a controlled low-strength material.
11. Shear reinforcement is not required where tests show Non-hydrated concrete mixes that are confined below a
that the required bending strength and shear strengths footing can be assumed to have the same high bearing
can be developed when the shear reinforcement is strength as any other dry soil. Thus there is no need to
omitted. be concerned about forces placed on the footing prior to
When a concrete pier is formed by casting concrete hydration of the concrete mix.
directly against earth, a minimum concrete cover of 3 5.6 Structural Analysis
inches is required on all steel reinforcement. When
concrete is cast on site but not directly against the earth 5.6.1 Introduction
(e.g., the concrete is cast into cardboard forming tubes),
the minimum concrete cover on steel reinforcement can Structural analysis is the determination of forces induced
be reduced to 2 inches for bars No. 6 or larger (bars 19 in building components by applied structural loads. For
mm or greater in diameter) and 1.5 inches for No. 5 or post-frame buildings featuring post/pier foundation
smaller bars (bars 13 mm or smaller in diameter). systems, such structural analyses can be measurably
Minimum required concrete cover on reinforcement in influenced by horizontal deformation of the soil in
precast concrete piers (i.e., piers manufactured under contact with the posts/piers.
plant control conditions) is 1.5 inches for No. 6 or larger To account for soil deformation during the structural
bars and 1.25 inches for No. 5 or smaller bars (ACI 318 analysis of a building frame with a shallow post/pier
clause 7.7.1 and 7.7.3). foundation, the soil in contact with the foundation is
modeled with a series of horizontal springs. This
5.5.6 Embedded Wood Posts and Piers
consists of determining the effective Young’s modulus
Wood used for embedded posts and piers must be for the soils surrounding the foundation (Section 5.6.2),
preservative treated in accordance with AWPA U1 Use selecting locations for the springs that will be used to
Category UC4B. model the surrounding soil (Section 5.6.3), and then
assigning properties to the soil springs (Section 5.6.4).
Mechanically-laminated wood posts and piers shall be
An example structural analysis that utilizes soil springs is
sized in accordance with ANSI/ASAE EP559. All other
presented in Section 5.6.5.
wood posts and piers shall be sized in accordance with
ANSI/AWC NDS. Section 5.6.6 contains equations that can be used to
approximate the lateral movement of a post/pier
Fasteners used below grade in mechanically-laminated
foundation due to the application of a groundline
wood posts and piers shall meet the requirements of
bending moment MG and groundline shear force VG. Use
ANSI/ASAE EP559.
of these equations is restricted to assumption inherent in
5.5.7 Anchor Attachments their development. These assumptions are overviewed in
Section 5.6.6. An application of Section 5.6.6 equations
Fasteners used below grade to attach collars, footings is presented in Section 5.6.7.
and other devices to resist uplift forces shall have a
durability equal to the service life of the structure.
tA Post contacts
ground surface
tA restraint
d Soil A
z
tA
t
tB
dF t
Soil B tB
d
z t
tB
dF
t
Footing not
t
fastened to post
Figure 5-10. Modeling a non-constrained post in a
layered soil. Footing not attached to rest of Footing not
fastened to post
foundation.
(a)
Figure 5-11 shows the modeling of a non-constrained
post that has an attached footing and an attached collar. Post moves away
Note that individual springs are required for both the from potential ground
footing and the collar because they each have different surface restraint
widths relative to the post.
t
w t
d
z t
t
dF
t
t
t
d
z t
dF
Footing fastened tF
t to post
Collar tC (b)
Figure 5-11. Modeling soil behavior when both 5.6.4 Soil Spring Properties
footing and collar are attached to the post
All soil springs are assumed to exhibit linear-elastic
In addition soil springs, other restraints ssociated with behavior until a point of soil failure is reached, at which
post/pier foundation modeling include placement of a point the force in the soil spring stays constant as the
horizontal roller support at the foundation base as shown spring undergoes additional deformation. A graphical
in Figures 5-10 and 5-11. Such a support ignores friction depiction of this behavior is shown in 5-13.
between the foundation and underlying soil. The initial stiffness, KH, of an individual soil spring
Resistance provided by surface restraint(s) must also be located at depth z is given as
modeled. Figure 5-12 shows an embedded post that abuts KH = 2.0 t ESE (5-4)
a slab-on-grade. To model the restraint that the slab
provides when the post moves toward the slab, the slab is Where:
modeled as a vertical roller support (figure 5-12(a)). t = thickness of the soil layer represented by the
Because the slab only abuts the inside of the post and is spring, in. (m)
not attached to the post, it does not apply a force to the ESE = effective Young’s modulus for soil at depth z,
post when the post moved away from the slab, and thus lbf/in2 (kN/m2)
Elastic Yielding ignored of 1000 lbf are applied to the post foundation at the
region groundline, what is the resulting rotation and lateral
Fult displacement of the post foundation at the groundline?
1 Spring Location
Plastic region
Spring Force, F
ESU and KH Calculations figure 5-16). For KH values in lbf/inch, this can be
Width of
achieved by (1) positioning element nodes so they are
Thickness of exactly an inch apart, (2) setting the element’s cross-
Distance from foundation at
Spring soil layer
number represented, t
surface, z spring sectional area equal to exactly one square inch, and (3)
location, b setting the element’s E value in lbf/in 2equal to the
inches inches inches numeric value of spring stiffness KH in lbf/inch.
1 10 5 5.5
2 10 15 5.5 Horizontal Displacement, inches
3 10 25 5.5
4 6 33 5.5 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
5 6.5 39.25 5.5 0
6 5.5 45.25 12
Increase in Young’s
1
Young’s Modulus
Modulus with Depth
Spring Unexca- Unexca- 10
Structural Analysis
Spring with stiffness KH
The model shown in Figure 5-14 was analyzed using IES
Inc.’s VisualAnalysis program (VA, 2013) with the No.2 Pinned-end element
SP post assigned an E value of 1.2 million lbf/in2. The with AE / L = KH
predicted displaced shape of the foundation post under
the 20,000 lbf-in groundline bending moment and 1000
Figure 5-16. Two equivalent ways to model the lateral
lbf groundline shear force is shown in figure 5-15. resisting force of soil.
Groundline displacement and rotation were found to be
0.093 inches and 0.4 degrees, respectively.
Like most commercially available structural analysis 5.6.6 Equations for Approximating Lateral
programs, VisualAnalysis contains a special spring Foundation Displacements and Soil
element that makes modeling of soil behavior a very Pressures
straight forward process (you simply input the node and
The lateral displacement of the below-grade portion of a
direction for spring application along with spring
post/pier foundation and associated soil pressures
stiffness).
induced by a groundline bending moment MG and
In lieu of a special spring element, the resisting force groundline shear VG can be estimated using equations in
applied to a post by soil can be modeled with a pinned- Sections 5.6.6.1 through 5.6.6.4. During the derivation
end element (a.k.a. a truss element) by equating the axial of these equations, the following simplifying
stiffness of the element (AE/L) to spring stiffness KH (see assumptions were made:
Table 5-3. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Bearing Strength Assessment
LRFD resistance ASD safety factor
factor for bearing for bearing
Associated
Soil Method used to determine ultimate bearing capacity qB strength strength
Section (a)
assessment, assessment,
RB fB
General bearing capacity equation with f determined from
laboratory direct shear or axial compression tests (see 0.80 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.80 - 0.01·f)
Section 5.4.6)
General bearing capacity equation with f determined from
0.62 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.62 - 0.01·f)
SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
Cohesionless
General bearing capacity equation with f determined from
(SP, SW, GP. 5.8.3 0.71 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.71 - 0.01·f)
GW, GW-GC, CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
GC, SC, SM, General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
0.58 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.58 - 0.01·f)
SP-SM, SP- properties from Table 5-2
SC, SW-SM, General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
SW-SC) properties from Table 5-2 with soil type verified by 0.77 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.77 - 0.01·f)
construction testing
5.8.4 Standard penetration test (SPT) 0.41 3.4
5.8.5 Cone penetration test (CPT) 0.50 2.8
5.8.6 Pressuremeter test (PMT) 0.50 2.8
General bearing capacity equation with undrained shear
strength determined from laboratory compression tests (see 0.60 2.3
Section 5.4.5)
General bearing capacity equation with undrained shear
strength determined from PBPMT data in accordance with 0.60 2.3
Section 5.4.5
General bearing capacity equation with undrained shear
strength determined from CPT data in accordance with 0.60 2.3
Cohesive 5.8.3 Section 5.4.5
(CL,CH, ML, General bearing capacity equation with undrained shear
MH) strength determined from in-situ vane tests in accordance 0.60 2.3
with Section 5.4.5
General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
0.47 3.0
properties from Table 5-2
General bearing capacity equation with presumptive soil
properties from Table 5-2 with soil type verified by 0.60 2.3
construction testing
5.8.5 Cone penetration test (CPT) 0.60 2.3
5.8.6 Pressuremeter test (PMT) 0.60 2.3
(a)
Section containing the qB equation to which the resistance/safety factor applies.
Table 5-4. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Lateral Strength Assessment using the
Universal Method of Analysis
LRFD resistance ASD safety factor
factor for lateral for lateral strength
Soil Method used to determine ultimate lateral soil resistance, pU,z
strength assessment, fL
assessment, RL
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with soil friction angle f determined from
0.86 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.86 - 0.01·f)
laboratory direct shear or axial compression tests (see Section 5.4.6)
Cohesionless Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with soil friction angle f determined from
0.66 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.66 - 0.01·f)
(SP, SW, GP. SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
GW, GW- Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with soil friction angle f determined from
0.76 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.76 - 0.01·f)
GC, GC, SC, CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
SM, SP-SM, Equation from Section 5.9.2.1with presumptive soil friction angle f from
SP-SC, SW- 0.61 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.61 - 0.01·f)
Table 5-2
SM, SW-SC) Equation from Section 5.9.2.11 with presumptive soil friction angle f
0.82 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.82 - 0.01·f)
from Table 5-2, with soil type verified by construction testing
Pressuremeter test (PMT) in accordance with Section 5.9.2.3 0.56 2.5
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with undrained shear strength SU
0.68 2.1
determined from laboratory compression tests (see Section 5.4.5)
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with undrained shear strength SU
0.68 2.1
determined from PBPMT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with undrained shear strength SU
0.68 2.1
Cohesive determined from CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5
(CL,CH, ML, Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with undrained shear strength SU
0.68 2.1
MH) determined from in-situ vane tests in accordance with Section 5.4.5
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with presumptive undrained shear strength
0.44 3.2
SU from Table 5-2
Equation from Section 5.9.2.1 with presumptive undrained shear strength
0.68 2.1
SU from Table 5-2 with soil type verified by construction testing
Pressuremeter test (PMT) in accordance with Section 5.9.2.3 0.68 2.1
Table 5-5. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Lateral Strength Assessment using the
Simplified Method of Analysis
LRFD resistance
ASD safety factor for
Method used to determine required soil factor for lateral
Soil Required property lateral strength
property strength
assessment, fL
assessment, RL
Soil friction angle Laboratory direct shear or axial compression
0.83 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.83 - 0.01·f)
f for equations in tests (see Section 5.4.6)
Cohesionless (SP,
Section 5.9.3.1, SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6 0.64 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.64 - 0.01·f)
SW, GP. GW,
5.9.3.3, 5.9.3.4
GW-GC, GC, SC,
and 5.9.3.6
CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6 0.73 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.73 - 0.01·f)
SM, SP-SM, SP-
SC, SW-SM, SW-
Soil friction angle Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.60 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.60 - 0.01·f)
SC) f for equations in
Presumptive value from Table 5-2 with soil
Sections 5.9.3.1 0.80 - 0.01·f 1.4/(0.80 - 0.01·f)
type verified by construction testing
and 5.9.3.4
Undrained shear Laboratory compression tests (see Section
0.64 2.2
strength SU for 5.4.5)
equations in PBPMT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.64 2.2
Sections 5.9.3.2, CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.64 2.2
Cohesive 5.9.3.3, 5.9.3.5 In-situ vane tests in accordance with Section
and 5.9.3.6 0.64 2.2
(CL,CH, ML, 5.4.5
MH) Undrained shear Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.42 3.3
strength SU for
equations in Presumptive value from Table 5-2 with soil
0.64 2.2
Sections 5.9.3.2 type verified by construction testing
and 5.9.3.5
Table 5-6. LRFD Resistance Factors and ASD Safety Factors for Uplift Strength Assessment
LRFD resistance
ASD safety factor for
Method used to determine required soil factor for uplift
Soil Required property uplift strength
property strength
assessment, fU (a)
assessment, RU (a)
Laboratory direct shear or axial compression
Cohesionless (SP, 1.20 - 0.015·f 1.4/(1.20 - 0.015·f)
tests (see Section 5.4.6)
SW, GP. GW, Soil friction angle SPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6
0.93 - 0.015·f 1.4/(0.93 - 0.015·f)
GW-GC, GC, SC, f for use in the
CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.6 1.07 - 0.015·f 1.4/(1.07 - 0.015·f)
SM, SP-SM, SP- equations of
SC, SW-SM, SW- Section 5.10.3 Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.87 - 0.015·f 1.4/(0.87 - 0.015·f)
Presumptive value from Table 5-2 with soil
SC) 1.16 - 0.015·f 1.4/(1.16 - 0.015·f)
type verified by construction testing
Laboratory compression tests (see Section
0.70 2.0
5.4.5)
PBPMT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.70 2.0
Undrained shear
Cohesive CPT data in accordance with Section 5.4.5 0.70 2.0
strength SU for use
(CL,CH, ML, In-situ vane tests in accordance with Section
in the equation of 0.70 2.0
MH) 5.4.5
Section 5.10.4
Presumptive value from Table 5-2 0.56 2.5
Presumptive value from Table 5-2 with soil
0.70 2.0
type verified by construction testing
(a)
In all cases, RU is limited to a maximum value of 0.93 and FU is limited to a minimum value of 1.50.
5.8 Bearing Strength Assessment foundation elements, the net ultimate bearing capacity
can be approximated as the difference between qB and
5.8.1 Ultimate Bearing Strength, QU g·dF as is done in equation 5-15.
The ultimate groundline bearing strength of a post or pier 5.8.2 Correction Factors for qB of
foundation is given as: Cohesionless Soils
QU = (qB - g dF) A (5-15) Correction factors CW1 and CW2 are included in equations
where: for cohesionless soils to account for water table depth, dW
relative to foundation depth, dF. In equation form:
QU = ultimate bearing strength of a post or pier
foundation at the ground surface (z = 0), lbf CW1 = 0.5 when dW < dF
qB = ultimate soil bearing capacity, lbf/ft2 = 1.0 when dW > 1.5 B + dF
g = moist unit weight of soil, lbf/ft3 = 0.5 + (dW - dF)/(3B) when dF < dW < 1.5 B + dF
dF = foundation or footing depth, ft (see figure 8-4) CW2 = 0.5 + 0.5 dW / dF when dW < dF
A = footing bearing area, ft2 = 1.0 when dW > dF
Different methods for calculating ultimate soil bearing 5.8.3 qB from the General Bearing Capacity
capacity qB are given in Sections 5.8.3, 5.8.4, 5.8.5, and Equation
5.8.6. Equations in these sections assume that the
ground surrounding the location of the installed footing For saturated clay soils:
is level. If it is not, adjustments to calculated values qB = Su NC dC sC + g dF
must be made in accordance with common engineering
practice. qB = Su (6.19 + 1.23 dF /B) + g dF for dF /B < 2.5
Adjustments to qB are required for cohesiveless soils qB = Su 9.25 + g dF for dF /B > 2.5
when the water table is within a distance 1.5 B of the
bottom of the footing where B is the breadth of the where:
footing. These adjustment factors are given in Section NC = 5.14 for f = 0
5.8.2.
sC = 1.2 for square and round footings
Quantity g dF is the pressure applied to the foundation
base (i.e., at a depth, dF) by the soil overburden. dC = 1 + 0.2 dF /B for dF /B < 2.5
Assuming that the difference is negligible between the dC = 1.5 for dF /B > 2.5
density of the soil and the average density of the
5.8.6 qB from Pressuremeter Test (PMT) Without soil tests, the ASD factor of safety for bearing
Results strength assessment fB from Table 5-3 is 3.0. In
accordance with Section 5.7.2, this value can be reduced
For all soils: to 2.4 for structures with a low risk to human life; thus:
qB = qo + CPB (pL – σ0h) QU > fB PASD = 2.4 (3500 lbf) = 8400 lbf
where: qo is the initial total vertical pressure at the base Since QU is equal to 9965 lbf, this inequality is met and
of the footing; pL is the average value of limiting the design is adequate. If it were not, design options
pressures obtained from the PMT within a zone of +1.5 B include increasing the footing size and/or conducting soil
above and below the footing depth dF; σ0h is the tests to determine actual soil strength. The latter would
horizontal total stress at rest from the PMT for the depth likely result in a higher SU value and a lower factor of
where the PMT is performed; and CPB is an empirical safety.
5.9 Lateral Strength Assessment MG that falls within the VU -MU envelope will not exceed
the ultimate capacity of the foundation.
5.9.1 Overview
Maintaining a proper sign convention is important.
As the groundline shear force VG and groundline bending Groundline shear forces and groundline bending
moment MG applied to the top of a post (or pier) moments are given the same sign when they
foundation are increased, the pressure applied to the independently rotate the foundation in the same direction
foundation by the soil increases. This increase in soil (figure 5-22).
pressure at a particular depth will continue until the
+ MG + VG - MG - VG
ultimate lateral soil resisting pressure pU at that depth (as
calculated in Section 5.9.2) is reached. Once this point is
reached, there is no further increase in pressure applied
to the foundation by the soil at that depth.
The ultimate strength of a post or pier foundation is
reached when all soil in contact with the foundation has
reached its ultimate lateral soil resisting pressure. The
groundline shear force VG and groundline bending
moment MG when this state is reached are respectively
defined as the ultimate groundline shear capacity VU and
the ultimate groundline moment capacity MU of the Figure 5-22. Groundline shear forces and groundline
foundation as limited by soil strength. bending moments are given the same sign if they
independently rotate a foundation in the same
For any foundation, the ultimate groundline moment direction.
capacity, MU, is dependent on the groundline shear force
induced in the foundation. Thus there is (in theory) an The two shaded regions in figure 5-21 identify loadings
infinite number of VU - MU combinations for each non- in which groundline bending moment and groundline
constrained foundation design. These combinations can shear have the same sign. Although these regions
be represented with a VU -MU envelope on a plot of comprise a relatively small area of the VU - MU envelope,
groundline shear VG versus groundline bending moment the vast majority of loadings on non-constrained
MG (figure 5-21). foundations are located in these regions.
150
Surface-Constrained The two most extreme points on the VU – MU envelope
Foundation Properties
represent the VU – MU combinations associated with the
Groundline Bending Moment, MG, in-kips
100 g = 110 lbm/ft3 restraint of the foundation at or just above the ground
f = 35º
d = 48 inches surface (i.e., constrained or surface-constrained
50 b = 4.5 inches foundation). In this case, the groundline shear force is
the force in the foundation at a point just below the
surface restraint, and is opposite in sign to the groundline
0
bending moment.
VU – MU Envelope
-50
Section 5.9.3 contains equations for calculating MU for
foundations that have a fixed face width and are
surrounded by soil that is homogeneous for the entire
-100 embedment depth. Application of these equations is
Surface-Constrained relatively straight-forward, and thus is referred to as the
-150 Simplified Method of analysis.
-4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Groundline Shear Force, VG, lbf Determination of the ultimate lateral strength capacity of
foundations that do not meet requirements for application
Figure 5-21. VU - MU envelope for a post/pier of the Simplified Method, involves modeling soil
foundation.
behavior with discrete springs and is covered in Section
5.9.4. Strength capacity determination utilizing soil
Plotted in figure 5-21 is a VU -MU envelope for a springs is referred to as the Universal Method of
foundation with a 4.5 inch width and 48 inch depth. analysis.
Additionally, the foundation is surrounded by a
cohesionless soil with a moist unit weight of 110 lbm/ft3 Section 5.9.5 contains an example analysis that
and soil friction angle of 35 degrees. Any combination showcases methods from Sections 5.9.3 and 5.9.4.
of groundline shear VG and groundline bending moment
5.9.2 Ultimate Lateral Soil Resistance, pU equal to cohesion, c, for a saturated clay soil.
5.9.2.1 pU Based on Soil Properties 5.9.2.2 pU for Cohesionless Soils from CPT
Tests
In accordance with ANSI/ASAE EP486.2, the ultimate
lateral soil resisting pressure pU at a given depth z is At a given depth z, ultimate lateral soil bearing pressure
calculated as: pu for cohesionless soils can be determined from CPT
cone penetration resistance qcr at depth z using the
pU,z = 3σ’v,z KP + (2 + z/b) c KP 0.5 for 0 < z < 4b (5-16) following correlation from Lee et al. (2010).
pU,z = 3 (σ’v,z KP + 2 c KP 0.5) for z > 4b (5-17) pU,z = (1.959 pA-0.10 qcr0.47) /(σ’m,z-0.63)
where: where: pU,z is ultimate lateral resistance at depth z; pA is
pU,z = ultimate lateral resistance pU at depth z atmospheric pressure; and σ’m,z is mean effective stress at
KP = coefficient of passive earth pressure, depth z and is given as:
dimensionless
σ'm,z = (σ'v,z + 2 σ'0h,z)/3
= (1 + sin f)/(1 – sin f)
f = soil friction angle, degrees where: σ’v, z is effective vertical stress at depth z; and
c = soil cohesion at depth z σ'0h,z is at rest effective horizontal stress at depth z.
b = face width of foundation at the groundline
To maintain dimensional homogeneity, input pA, qcr and
σ’v,z = effective vertical stress at depth z
σ’m,z in identical units. Pressure pU,z will then have the
= σv, z - uz = g z - uz
same units as these three input variables.
σv, z = total vertical stress at depth z
= gz 5.9.2.3 pU from Pressuremeter Tests
g = moist unit weight of soil
For any given depth, pu can be determined from a
uz = pore water pressure at depth z
pressuremeter reading in accordance with procedures
= gw •(distance the water table is above depth z) outlined by Briaud (1992).
gw = water unit weight = 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 0.0361 lbf/in3
5.9.3 MU and VU via the Simplified Method
Equations 5-16 and 5-17 equate ultimate lateral soil
resisting pressure pU to three times the Rankine passive The equations in this Section are only applicable to
pressure. Although basing resisting pressure solely on foundations that have a fixed face width and are
passive pressure would appear to neglect the active surrounded by soil that is homogeneous for the entire
earth-pressure acting on the back of the foundation and embedment depth.
side friction, the factor of three by which the passive
Equations in Section 5.9.3.1, 5.9.3.2 and 5.9.3.3 are for
pressure is increased is based on observed ultimate loads
non-constrained foundations, and were set up with MU as
– ultimate loads which were most likely influenced by
the dependent variable and VU as an independent
forces acting on all sides of the foundation system.
variable. To establish a VU - MU envelope line for a non-
Passive pressure due to soil cohesion is assumed to constrained foundation, simply calculate MU for more
increase from 1/3 its full value at the ground surface to than one VU value as shown in figure 5-23.
its full value at a depth of 4 b. This partially accounts for
the reduced soil containment at the soil surface and less
Groundline Bending Moment, MG
where: SU is undrained soil shear strength at depth z. The Figure 5-23. Equations for the Simplified Method for
value of 9 SU is approximately equal to three times non-constrained foundations require selection of a VU
value to determine MU.
2SUKP0.5 when f is equal to 32 degrees. SU is numerically
If shear VLRFD (or VASD) and moment MLRFD (or MASD) dRU
rotate the top of the foundation in opposite directions, (b)
Ultimate Pivot Point d
input a negative value for VLRFD (or VASD).
PU 9 b SU
y
Ground MU
z surface VU
9 b SU Cohesive soil with
undrained shear
PU strength SU
Post or pier Figure 5-25. Forces acting on a non-constrained
with width b foundation of fixed width b in cohesive soil at failure
dRU (a) when dRU is less than 4 b, and (b) when dRU is
greater than 4 b.
d Ultimate
Pivot Point The ultimate moment MU that can be applied at the
groundline to a post/pier foundation that is not
3 dRU b KP γ constrained at the groundline and is embedded in
cohesive soil is:
Cohesionless soil
3 d b KP γ with density r and MU = b SU (4.5 d 2 - 6 dRU 2 - dRU 3/ (2b)) (5-22)
friction anγle f
PU where:
Figure 5-24. Forces acting on a non-constrained dRU = [64 b2 + 4VU / (3SU) +12 b d]1/2 - 8 b < d
foundation of fixed width b in cohesionless soil at
failure. and
dRU < 4b
9 b SU
6 c b KP 0.5 3 d b KP γ
PU
PU
Figure 5-28. Forces acting on a constrained
Figure 5-29. Forces acting on a constrained
foundation of fixed width b in cohesive soil at failure
foundation of fixed width b in a homogenous soil at
(a) when d is less than 4 b, and (b) when d is greater
failure (a) when d is less than 4 b, and (b) when d is
than 4 b.
greater than 4 b.
5.9.4 MU and VU via the Universal Method of these directions can switch as the applied loads
increase as shown in figure 5-30.
The ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Universal Method of analysis
utilizes soil springs with an initial stiffness KH and
MG << MU
ultimate strength Fult as shown in figure 5-13. Of these
two spring properties, only Fult is required to establish
MG = MU
MU and VU.
5.9.4.1 Soil Spring Strength, Fult
The ultimate load that an individual spring can sustain is Ultimate
given as: Pivot
Point
Fult = pU,z t b (5-30)
where:
Fult = Ultimate load that a spring at depth z can
sustain, lbf
pU,z = Ultimate lateral soil resistance for unexcavated
soil at depth z from Section 5.9.2, lbf/in.2
t = Thickness of the soil layer represented by the
soil spring, inches
b = Face width of post/pier, footing, or collar that is
being modeled with the spring, in. MG << MU
z = Distance of spring below grade, in.
MG = MU
Although backfill properties will influence spring
stiffness KH, they are not factored into calculations of
ultimate spring strength Fult. This is because the soil
failure planes associated with the ultimate lateral
capacity of the foundation are almost entirely located in dRU
the unexcavated soil surrounding the backfill.
5.9.4.2 Conditions at Ultimate Lateral
Capacity
Ultimate
Each soil spring is assumed to exhibit linear-elastic Pivot
behavior until Fult is reached, at which point the spring is Point
assumed to undergo a plastic state of strain with the force
in the soil spring remaining at Fult. The lateral strength
capacity of a foundation (as limited by soil strength) is
reached when all springs acting on the foundation have Figure 5-30. Surface-constrained (top) and non-
reached their maximum ultimate strength capacity Fult. . constrained (bottom) post foundations subjected to a
In other words, a foundation has reached its lateral groundline bending moment. At ultimate lateral
strength capacity when there is not a single remaining capacity (MG = MU) there is no more than one pivot
soil spring that can take additional load. point (i.e., the ultimate pivot point) located below
grade.
The groundline shear VG and groundline bending
moment MG that will result in a plastic state of strain in Once all soil springs have yielded (i.e., once the
all soil springs are defined respectively as the ultimate foundation has reached its ultimate capacity), the
groundline shear capacity VU and ultimate groundline foundation will pivot about a single point, herein referred
moment capacity MU for the foundation. to as the ultimate pivot point (figure 5-30). The ultimate
The key to determining MU and VU for any foundation is pivot point is also identified as the point of zero lateral
identifying on which side of the foundation each soil displacement under ultimate load. All soil springs
spring is pushing. At loads less than a foundation's located above an ultimate pivot point act in the same
ultimate capacity (i.e., prior to the yielding of all soil direction. Likewise, all springs located below an
springs), the direction that many soil springs act is a ultimate pivot point act in the same direction.
function of the bending stiffness of the foundation It’s important to note that the ultimate pivot point’s
relative to the stiffness of the surrounding soil, and some location is not a function of the foundation’s bending
stiffness, nor is it a function of soil spring stiffness KH
MU
VU0 VU1 VU2 VU3 VU4
VU
dRU1,t1 dRU1
1
dRU2
dRU2
dRU3 t2 2
z dRU3
dRU4 t3 3
dRU4
t4 4
t5 5
Figure 5-31. When ultimate pivot points are located at the interface between soil layers modeled with different soil
springs, Equations 5-30 and 5-31 can be used to calculate MU and VU, respectively.
150 0.34 df 0.42 df “VASD fL, MASD fL”. “VU1, MU1” lies on a line drawn
0.50 df
through the origin and “VASD fL, MASD fL”. Stated
100
0.58 df
differently, the closest “VU, MU” point to “VASD fL,
MASDfL” is the one whose MU/VU value equals MASD/VASD.
50 0.67 df
More generically, the closest “VU, MU” point to a
0.75 df
0
particular “VG, MG” point is one whose MU/VU value
0.83 df equals MG /VG. Rearranging yields the equality:
Foundation Properties
-50 0.92 df
g = 110 lbm/ft3 MU = VU (MG /VG) (5-33)
f = 35º 1.00 df
-100 d = 48 inches As will be demonstrated in the following paragraph,
b = 4.5 inches
equation 5-33 makes it possible to determine if a
-150
-4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
foundation is adequate without having to first establish a
Groundline Shear Force, VG, lbf
VU - MU envelope plot like that shown in figure 5-32.
Figure 5-32. VU - MU envelope obtained by applying Figure 5-34a shows a nonconstrained post with MG and
equations 5-31 and 5-32 for 13 different ultimate pivot VG applied at the groundline. Figure 5-34b shows VG
point locations (12-spring model). “Boxed” values located a distance MG/VG above the groundline. From a
identify ultimate pivot point locations (dRU values). statics perspective, the diagrams in Figures 5-34a and 5-
34b are equivalent. As force VG in Figure 5-34b is
increased, soil springs will begin to yield. As a spring
5.9.4.4 MU and VU for a Specified MG/VG yields, it is replaced with an equivalent force as shown in
Value Figure 5-34c. Force VG can be increased until all but one
A foundation is adequate under lateral loads if MU > soil spring has reached its ultimate capacity Fult. The
MASD fL and VU > VASD fL for Allowable Stress Design, and value of VG when this point is reached is defined as the
MU > MLRFD /RL and VU > VLRFD /RL for Load and ultimate groundline shear capacity of the foundation VU
Resistance Factor Design. (Figure 5-34d). Once VU is established, MU is calculated
by direct application of equation 5-33.
Checking if these inequalities have been met is straight
forward once a VU -MU envelope plot exists. For The spring that has not reached its ultimate capacity Fult
example, figure 5-33 shows the results of two different (when VU is reached) is the spring that represents the soil
structural analyses involving the same foundation; one layer in which the ultimate pivot point is located. For this
ASD and the other LRFD. A quick scan of this plot reason, the spring is referred to as the pivot spring. It
reveals that the foundation is adequate for the LRFD follows that the pivot spring is simultaneously
loading but not for the ASD loading. representing soil forces applied to both sides of the
foundation as shown in Figure 5-34e. Because these
VU – MU envelope
forces (1) counteract each other, and (2) individually
cannot exceed Fult, the pivot spring itself will always
Groundline Bending Moment, MG
MASD fL
have a load less than Fult. The only time this would not
VU1 ,MU1 , dRU1
be the case is when the ultimate pivot point is located
MU1 MASD exactly at the interface between soil layers represented
Slope = =
VU1 VASD by different springs (figure 5-31).
VU2 ,MU2 , dRU2
Given that the forces in all soil springs that have yielded
MLRFD MU2 MLRFD
Slope = = are known, the only unknowns in Figure 5-34d are VU
RL VU2 VLRFD and the force in the pivot spring. Thus, VU can be
calculated by summing moments about the point at
which the pivot spring attaches to the foundation, and the
force in the pivot spring can be determined by summing
VASD fL VLRFD moments about the point at which VU is applied (i.e., at a
RL distance MG/VG from the groundline).
Groundline Shear Force, VG It is evident that the procedure for determining VU (and
Figure 5-33. Using a VU - MU envelope to check the thus MU) is very straightforward if one knows which one
adequacy of a foundation under two different of the soil springs is the pivot spring. In practice, this can
loadings. be determined by trial and error. If the wrong spring is
selected, the absolute value of the force calculated for
that spring will exceed the spring’s Fult value.
MG MG / VG
Groundline
VG
5 Fult,5 Fult,5
Since MU exceeds 155,500 in-lbf (just barely), the z t B pU,z Fult Fult·z
No.
foundation is adequate. in. in in. lbf/in2 lbf in-lbf
1 3 6 5.5 2.3 76 228
Notes:
2 9 6 5.5 6.9 228 2056
1. The 3.11 safety factor is a relatively high value, and 3 15 6 5.5 11.5 381 5710
some engineers feel comfortable using a reduced 4 21 6 5.5 16.1 533 11191
value in this application. ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 allows 5 27 6 5.5 20.8 685 18500
a 20% reduction in fL for buildings that represent a 6 33 6 18 25.4 2741 90444
low risk to human life in the event of a failure such as MU = 128128
an ASCE/SEI 7 Category I building.
The far right column of the above table contains the
2. Using a bottom collar is an effective way to increase resisting moment about the groundline provided by each
MU of a constrained foundation, and is common spring. In accordance with equation 5-31, the
where there is a desire to reduce embedment depth. summation of these values provides the total ultimate
groundline bending capacity MU of the foundation. Since strength SU of 7 lbf/in2 (from Table 5-2 for a medium to
this exceeds the required value by 3000 in-lbf, the dense cohesive soil), the calculated embedment depth
analysis was rerun with a 5.5 inch thick collar. This was was 55 inches. Based on this value, an overall depth
quickly accomplished with changes in the depth and (including the attached footing) of 48 inches was
associated thickness of the lower two springs. selected. The soil spring model used is shown in figure
5-37.
z t b pU,z Fult Fult·z
No.
in. in in. lbf/in2 lbf in-lbf
1 3 6 5.5 2.3 76 228
2 9 6 5.5 6.9 228 2056 MU MLRFD / VLRFD = 66.7 in.
3 15 6 5.5 11.5 381 5710 VU
4 21 6 5.5 16.1 533 11191
5 27.25 6.5 5.5 21.5 769 20945 6 in. 1
6 33.25 5.5 18 26.1 2584 85915
6 in. 2
MU = 126045
The resulting MU value still exceeds the required 6 in. 3
minimum of 125,000 in-lbf. However, reducing the collar
thickness another half inch does not work as MU for the 6 in. 4
foundation with a 5 inch thick collar is 120,600 in-lbfs.
6 in. 5
Section 5.11 Frost Heave recommended to backfill with coarse granular backfill to
reduce frost heave, this is not recommended when holes
Considerations are dug in clay soils. Drilling holes in clay soils and
5.11.1 General backfilling with a coarse-grained soil turns every post-
hole into a sump pit that traps and holds water. This
Freezing temperatures in the soil result in the formation leaves the backfill in a saturated, and thus prolonged
of ice lenses in the spaces between soil particles. Under low-strength state and very prone to significant frost
the right conditions, these ice lenses will continue to heave when freezing conditions occur. Consequently, as
attract water and increase in size. This expansion of ice a general rule, backfill holes in silts and clays with clay
lenses increases soil volume. If this expansion occurs soils.
under a footing, or alongside a foundation element with a
rough surface, that portion of the foundation will be 5.11.3 Concrete Floors
forced upward. This action is called frost heave, and can If the ground beneath a concrete floor can freeze, the
induce large differential movements in a structure. floor should be installed such that its vertical movement
Differential movement can crack building finishes, and is not restricted by embedded posts or by structural
induce significant stress in structural connections and elements attached to embedded posts. While concrete
components. When ice lenses thaw, soil moisture content shrinkage may break bonds between a floor and
increases dramatically. The soil is generally in a surrounding components, more proactive measures will
saturated state with reduced strength. As soil water ensure independent vertical behavior. For example,
drains from the soil, effective soil stresses increase and roofing felt or plastic film can be placed against
the foundation will generally settle. surrounding surfaces prior to placing the floor.
5.11.2 Minimizing Frost Heave 5.11.4 Concrete Backfill
Frost heave can be minimized by building on soils with a The use of cast-in-place concrete as a backfill material
low likelihood of freezing, providing good water may actually increase the likelihood of frost heave. The
drainage, and using fine-grained soils with caution. rough soil-to-concrete backfill interface provides the
Footing Location. The best way to avoid foundation potential for significant vertical uplift forces due to frost
frost heave is to minimize the freezing potential of heave. Also, the placement of concrete in holes that
underlying soils. This is accomplished by extending decrease in diameter with depth provide additional risk
footings below the local frost line or by using a for frost heave.
foundation system designed and constructed in
accordance with SEI/ASCE 32 (Bohnhoff, 2010a;
Section 5.12 Installation
Bohnhoff, 2010b). Requirements
Water Drainage. Proper surface and subsurface This section covers two construction-related factors that
drainage can reduce frost heave. Drainage of surface can significantly affect structural performance: soil
waters from a structure is enhanced by installing rain compaction and component placement.
gutters, adequately sloping the finish grade away from
the structure, and raising the building elevation to a level 5.12.1 Compaction Under Footings
above that of the surrounding area. Subsurface drainage Compact all disturbed soil at the base of a hole to a level
is achieved with the placement of drain tile or coarse consistent with the soil bearing capacity assumed in
granular material below the maximum frost depth, with design. Soil upon which a precast concrete footing will
drainage to an outlet. Such drainage lowers the water be placed must be flat and level. A non-flat surface
table and interrupts the flow of water moving both results in uneven soil-to-footing contact, and this
vertically and horizontally through the soil. increases bending moments and shear stresses within the
Fine-Grained Soils. Fine-grained soils such as clays footing. If the compacted base is not level, the top
and silts are more susceptible to frost heave than sands surface of any precast concrete footing will not be level,
and gravels because (1) water is drawn up further in the resulting in only line or point contact between the footing
smaller capillaries of fine-grained soils, and (2) there is and post/pier it supports.
much more surface area in a unit volume of fine-grained 5.12.2 Backfill Compaction
soil, and therefore more surface area for water
adsorption. One factor that limits frost heave in fine- Compact all backfill by tamping all soil in layers (a.k.a.
grained soils is that water is less mobile (moves slower) lifts) that do not exceed a thickness of 8 inches (0.2 m)
as capillaries decrease in size – a factor which explains so as to achieve lateral stiffness and strength properties
why frost heave is more of a problem in silts than it is in consistent with those used in design.
the more finer-grained clay soils. While it is often
5.12.3 Embedment Depth Lee, J., Kim, M., & Kyung, D. (2010). Estimation of
lateral load capacity of rigid short piles in sands
Installed depth of a post/pier foundation shall not be less using CPT results. Journal of Geotechnical and
than 90% of the specified depth. A post foundation can Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(1): 48-56.
be installed deeper than specified without adversely
affecting foundation behavior. However, installing a Meyerhof, G.G. & Adams, J.I. (1968). The uplift
post or pier deeper than specified can leave the top too capacity of foundations. Canadian Geotechnical
short to meet specified structural needs. In the case of Journal, 5(4): 225-244.
spliced, laminated wood posts (i.e., posts with
5.13.2 Normative References
preservative-treated lumber spliced to non-treated
lumber), deeper embedment may bring the non-treated Structural Design Specifications
portion of the post closer to grade, making it more
difficult to meet the ANSI/ASAE EP559 requirement ACI 318 Building code requirements for structural
concrete and commentary
that preservative wood treatment extend a minimum of
16 inches above the ground surface. ANSI/AWC NDS National design specification (NDS)
for wood construction with commentary
5.12.4 Footing Placement
ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Shallow post and pier foundation
The lateral location and plumbness of drilled holes can
design
be adversely affected by: stones and roots struck during
drilling, rough/sloping terrain, drilling equipment ANSI/ASAE EP559 Design requirements and bending
characteristics, limited site access for drilling equipment, properties for mechanically laminated-wood
etc. This frequently requires that the base of a hole be assemblies
manually enlarged to facilitate more accurate footing
SEI/ASCE 32 Design and construction of frost-protected
placement. Unless otherwise permitted by engineering
shallow foundations
design, a precast concrete footing shall be placed so that
the center of the footing is within a distance b/2 of the Laboratory Soil Testing Standards
center of the post/pier it supports, where b is the width of
ASTM D422 Standard test method for particle-size
the post/pier. Cast-in-place concrete footings shall be
analysis of soils
placed so that distance from the center of the post/pier to
the nearest edge of the footing is not less than half the ASTM D854 Standard test methods for specific gravity
specified diameter/width of the footing. of soil solids by water pycnometer
Bohnhoff, D. R. (2014b). Modeling soil behavior with ASTM D4643 Test method for determination of water
simple springs, Part 2: determining the ultimate (moisture) content of soil by microwave oven
lateral capacity of a post/pier foundation. Frame heating
Building News, 26(3):50-55. ASTM D4767 Standard test method for consolidated
Briaud, Jean-Louis. (1992). The Pressuremeter. undrained triaxial compression test for cohesive
Brookfield, VT.: A.A. Balkema Publishers. soils
Diaphragm Design
6.1 Introduction
Contents 6.1.1 2-D Frame Analysis
Prior to the 1980’s, the common method of analysis for
6.1 Introduction 6–1
post-frame structures in agricultural, commercial and
6.2 Structural Model 6–2 light industrial applications was to consider the structure
6.3 Frame Stiffness, k 6–3 as a system of independently-acting, two-dimensional (2-
6.4 Diaphragm Stiffness, Ch 6–10 D) post-frames. Although a 2-D frame analysis method
works well for designing frames under vertical loadings;
6.5 Eave Load, R 6–10
it is often too conservative for designing buildings
6.6 Load Distribution 6–14 against sidesway. In addition, many 2-D frames offer
6.7 Component Design 6–25 little or no resistance to loads acting normal to the frames
6.8 Rigid Roof Design 6–29 (e.g., wind acting normal to the endwalls).
6.9 References 6–30 6.1.2 Diaphragm Action
A considerable portion of the horizontal load applied to
many post-frame structures is actually resisted by roof
and ceiling diaphragms and shearwalls. As previously
stated (Section 4.10), roof and ceiling diaphragms are
large plates that are formed when cladding is attached to
roof and ceiling framing, respectively. These large plates
help redistribute load throughout the structure. This
redistribution of load by the diaphragms is called
diaphragm action. A shearwall is any wall – interior or
exterior – with a measurable amount of racking
resistance. Most of the load to which a diaphragm is
subjected, is transferred to the foundation by shearwalls
orientated parallel to the direction of applied load. Figure
6-1 illustrates a situation in which wind load directed at a
sidewall, is transferred via the roof diaphragm to the
endwalls and one interior wall. Under this loading, the
two endwalls and the one interior wall function as
shearwalls. When the same wind load is directed toward
the endwall, the sidewalls function as shearwalls in
transferring the load from the roof diaphragm to the
foundation system.
6.1.3 Post-Frame Contributions
Whenever load is applied normal to the sidewall of a
structure, any post-frame with measurable racking
resistance functions like the interior shearwall in figure
6-1. The amount of load that an individual post-frame
will transfer to the foundation is dependent on (1) the in-
plane shear stiffness of the diaphragm, and (2) the
When diaphragm action is accounted for in overall To avoid confusion when assigning properties to
building design, the design process is referred to as diaphragm sections, it is helpful to identify each
diaphragm design. Diaphragm design is a relatively diaphragm section with a two-digit identifier. The first
straight forward process when a diaphragm is (1) digit identifies the bay associated with the section. Bays
assumed to have infinite shear stiffness, and/or (2) only are generally numbered from left-to-right, as shown in
attached to two shearwalls/post-frames (as is generally figures 6-2c and 6-2d. The second digit identifies the
the case with endwall loadings). When neither of these
conditions applies (generally true with loads normal to
the sidewall) diaphragm design is more complex.
P 0.1 d
(a) (b)
k=P/∆
Figure 6.5. Structural analogs once used for
modeling (a) non-constrained and (b) surface
constrained posts. These analogs are not
recommended for use as they provide a reduced
post stiffness with an increase in embedment depth.
Figure 6-4. Definition of frame stiffness, k.
H
w
d
Non-constrained post/pier
As the rigidity of post-to-truss/rafter connections stiffness. The error introduced by the infinite bending
increases, the greater will be the dependency of frame stiffness assumption was investigated by Bohnhoff
stiffness on the in-plane bending stiffness of the (1992a) and found to significantly impact some frame
truss/rafter(s). stiffness calculations. Specifically, the stiffness of
frames in narrower buildings with low eave heights was
For there to be full rotational restraint at the top of the
overestimated by 50%. Conversely, in some taller and
post (as is assumed with Fixity Cases 2, 4, 6 and 8), the
wider buildings, the infinitely stiff truss assumption
post-to-truss/rafter connection must be completely rigid
overestimated frame stiffness by less than 10%.
AND the truss/rafter must have an infinite bending
(a)(b)
Table 6-2. Post Stiffness Equations for Posts Embedded in Soil
Free Non- Free Non-
Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational
HP
Grade Line
L1 R1
Nominal 6- by 6-inch L2 R2
15 ft
No. 2 SP posts 3.5 ft
L3 R3
L4 R4
6 in. typ.
L5 R5
5 in. thick concrete slab
L6 R6
3.5 ft L7 R7
s x qlw
Ceiling Gravity Loads
R = s (Hwr qwr – Hlr qlr + Hww fw qww – Hlw fl qlw) (6-4)
where:
R = eave load, lbf (N)
s = bay width = frame spacing for interior post-
(a) frames and shearwalls, ft (m)
= one-half the frame spacing for endwalls, ft (m)
∆ Hwr = windward roof height, ft (m)
Hlr = leeward roof height, ft (m)
R Hww = windward wall height, ft (m)
Hlw = leeward wall height, ft (m)
qwr = windward roof pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlr = leeward roof pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qww = windward wall pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
qlw = leeward wall pressure, lbf/ft2 (N/m2)
fw = windward post fixity factor (Table 6.5)
fl = leeward post fixity factor (Table 6.5)
(b)
Height and wind pressure variables are graphically
Figure 6-12. Horizontal eave displacement ∆ due to defined in Figure 6-14. Inward acting wind pressures
(a) applied building loads, and (b) eave load, R. have positive signs, outward acting pressures are
negative. In buildings with variable frame spacings, set s
equal to the average of the frame spacings on each side
Roof Gravity Loads of the frame for which the eave load is being calculated.
s x qlr
sx Hlr
s x qwr
q wr q
sx lr Hwr
Vertical
s x qlw
Roller
s x qww
Hlw
Hww
s x qww
s x qlw
A post fixity factor is the fraction of the total load acting Cases 1 through 4 are for posts assumed to be fixed or
on a post that is transferred to the eave by the post. Post pinned at their base. Cases 5 through 8 apply to
fixity factors are a function of load distribution, post embedded posts. Equations for embedded posts assume
properties and post end fixities. that the embedded portion has an infinite flexural rigidity
(EI), and that soil modulus of elasticity ES increases
Table 6-5 contains post fixity factors for uniformly
linearly with depth z as ES = AE z.
loaded posts that have a constant flexural rigidity (EI).
(a)(b)
Table 6-5. Post Fixity Factors
Free Non- Free Non- Free Non- Free Non-
Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational
sq HP
HP
Post Top
Post Fixity at (d)
Fixity Case Restrained from Post Fixity Factor, f
Groundline
Rotating? (c)
1 Pinned No 1/2
2 Pinned Yes 5/8
3 Fixed No 3/8
4 Fixed Yes 1/2
5 Non-Constrained No [C/12 + (d/HP)2 + 2d/HP +1] / [2C/9+(d/HP)2 + 8d/(3HP) + 2]
[C/2 + (d/HP)2(18+6/C) + 20d/HP + 7.5] / [C +
6 Non-Constrained Yes
(d/HP)2(18+6/C) + 24d/HP+12]
7 Constrained No (4 + 3C) / (8 + 8C)
8 Constrained Yes (5 + 3C) / (8 + 6C)
(a) Equations assume a uniformly distributed load acts over height HP and that the embedded portion of the post has an
infinite flexural rigidity (EI) below grade and a constant flexural rigidity above grade. Soil modulus of elasticity ES is
assumed to increase linearly with depth z as ES = AE z.
(b) From Bohnhoff (1992b)
(c) Top of posts can freely translate in vertical direction but are fixed from moving horizontally.
(d) C = d 4AE HP /(6 EI)
d = distance from grade to the top of a detached footing, or distance from grade to the bottom of an attached footing.
HP = distance from grade to the post-to-truss/rafter connection. Also distance over which the uniform load is applied.
AE = increase in Young’s modulus for soil per unit increase in depth z below grade.
E = modulus of elasticity for above-grade portion of post.
I = moment of inertia for above-grade portion of post.
35.6 lbf/ft2
7 lb
f/ft
2 f/ft 2
3 lb
12
6
5 lbf/ft2
Nominal 6- by 6-inch
5 lbf/ft2
8 lbf/ft2
15 ft No. 2 SP posts
24 ft
Frames spaced 8 ft on center
5 in. thick concrete slab
3.5 ft
6 in. thick, 14 in. diameter
detached concrete footing
Solution 2: Calculation Using Post Fixity Solution 3: Calculation Using Post Fixity
Factors for Embedded Posts Factors for Fixed-Based Posts
Since leeward and windward roof heights are the same, When both posts are assumed to be fixed at grade,
and leeward and windward wall heights are the same, equation 6-5 can be used with post fixity factor f equal to
equation 6-4 can be reduced to: 0.375 when posts are assumed to be pin-connected to the
truss (Table 6-5 fixity case 3), and f equal to 0.500 when
R = s [Hr (qwr – qlr) + Hw (fw qww – fl qlw)] (6-6)
posts tops are not allowed to rotate (Table 6-5 fixity case
For this example problem, equation variables are given 4). For this example problem, these fixity factors
as: produce eave loads of 1065 lbf and 1260 lbf,
respectively. These values are 4.1% lower and 0.9%
s = bay width = frame spacing = 8 ft
higher, respectively, than the values of 1111 lbf and
Hr = roof height = 6 ft
1249 lbf obtained via plane-frame structural analysis
Hw = wall height = 15 ft
with soil springs.
qwr = windward roof pressure = 3 lbf/ft2
qlr = leeward roof pressure = -7 lbf/ft2 In general, use of Table 6-5 post fixity factors for Cases
qww = windward wall pressure = 8 lbf/ft2 1 through 4 provides a quick and sufficiently accurate
qlw = leeward wall pressure = -5 lbf/ft2 estimate of eave load.
fw = windward post fixity factor
= 0.377 for constrained post pinned to truss
(Table 6-5 fixity case 7) 6.6 Load Distribution
= 0.502 for constrained post with top fixed from
rotating (Table 6-5 fixity case 8) 6.6.1 General
fl = leeward post fixity factor The distribution of horizontal loads to frames,
= 0.402 for non-constrained post pinned to truss shearwalls, and various diaphragm sections can be
(Table 6-7 fixity case 5) determined after stiffness values have been assigned to
= 0.541 for non-constrained post with top fixed each frame and diaphragm element, and eave loads have
from rotating (Table 6-5 fixity case 6) been established.
Post fixity factors were calculated using the equations in Load distributions are typically determined using a
Table 6-5 with C equal to 74.8 and a d/HP ratio of 0.233. plane-frame structural analysis program as described in
The proceeding variables produce an eave load R of Section 6.6.2, or by using computer program DAFI as
1083 lbf when posts are assumed pinned to the trusses, described in Section 6.6.3. Neither of these two
and a value of 1482 lbf when the top of posts are not approaches places restrictions on frame stiffness values,
allowed to rotate. diaphragm stiffness values, or individual eave load
values.
The 1083 lbf eave load is 2.5% lower than the 1111 lbf
value obtained via plane-frame structural analysis with Two other methods, one using mS and mD Tables as
soil springs and posts pin-connected to the truss. This described in Section 6.6.4, and the other involving
difference can be attributed to the fact that post fixity Simple Beam Analogy Equations as provided in Section
factors for embedded posts assume an infinitely rigid 6.6.5 can be used when all five of the following
post below grade which results in more load being conditions exist: (1) all diaphragm elements have the
attracted to the foundation (and less being shifted to the same stiffness Ch, (2) all interior frame elements have the
eave). same stiffness, k, (3) both exterior frame elements (i.e.,
the two elements representing the endwalls) have the
The 1482 lbf eave load is 18.6% greater than the 1249 same stiffness, ke, (4) eave load, R, is the same at each
lbf value obtained via plane-frame structural analysis interior frame, and (5) the eave load for each exterior
with soil springs and posts rigidly connected to the truss. frame is equal to one-half that for an interior frame.
This significant difference can be attributed to the fact
that the post fixity factors assume post tops do not rotate 6.6.2 Load Distribution via Plane-Frame
which is typically only the case when (1) posts are Structural Analysis
rigidly connected to the truss, and (2) the truss has an Virtually any finite element or plane-frame structural
infinite bending stiffness. When modeling with soil analysis program can be used to determine the
springs, indivudal truss elements and their connections distribution of load between frame and diaphragm
were modeled; that is, the truss was not assumed to elements. The connectivity between, and behavior of
behave as a beam with infinite bending stiffness. these elements are typically represented with a two-
A3 , E3 , L3
A2 , E2 , L2
A4 , E4 , L4
A5 , E5 , L5
or
Ed = Ch Ld3/(bd dd3) (6-8)
1 2 3 4 5
Id1,Ed1,Ld1 Id2,Ed2,Ld2 Id3,Ed3,Ld3 Id4,Ed4,Ld4 where:
Ed = modulus of elasticity assigned to element x
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Ch = shear stiffness of the diaphragm being
modeled with element x
k1 = A1 E1 / L1 k4 = A4 E4 / L4 Ch2 = 12 Ed2 Id2 / Ld23 Ld = length of element x
k2 = A2 E2 / L2 k5 = A5 E5 / L5 Ch3 = 12 E d3 Id3 / Ld33 Id = moment of inertia of element x
k3 = A3 E3 / L3 Ch1 = 12 Ed1 Id1 / Ld13 Ch4 = 12 Ed4 Id4 / Ld43 bd = thickness of element x when element is
rectangular
(b) dd = depth of element x when element is
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 rectangular
R1 Also shown in figure 6-17(b) is the use of conventional
1 R2 2 R3 3 R4 4 R5 5 frame elements (in place of spring elements) to model
Ad1,Ed1,Ld1 Ad2,Ed2,Ld2 Ad3,Ed3,Ld3 Ad4,Ed4,Ld4 the behavior of interior and endwall frames. This
Ch1 = Ad1 Ed1 / Ld1 Ch3 = Ad3 Ed3 / Ld3
requires an additional set of nodes (identified as 1’,2’, 3’,
4’ and 5’ in figure 6-17(b)). Complete the model by pin-
Ch2 = Ad2 Ed2 / Ld2 Ch4 = Ad4 Ed4 / Ld4
(c)
connecting these elements to their respective nodes, and
then assign each element a modulus of elasticity
Figure 6-17. (a) Two-dimensional spring model calculated as:
with frame and diaphragm element stiffness
values and individual eave loads identified. Black E = k L/A (6-9)
dots represent eave nodes with numbers
where:
corresponding to the frame they represent. (b)
Alternate 2-D model using beam elements (in red) E = modulus of elasticity assigned to element x
and truss elements (in blue) to model frame and k = frame stiffness of the post-frame being
diaphragm behavior. (c) Alternate 1-D model. modeled with element x
L = length of element x
A = cross-sectional area of element x
The problem with trying to analyze the figure 6-17(a)
model with a plane-frame structural analysis program is When compiling input values for computer analysis, it is
the program is unlikely to feature a special spring important to maintain a consistent set of units in
element that can be used to completely model an equations 6-7, 6-8 or 6-9. In practice, it is recommended
individual diaphragm (typically a 1-D spring element that nodes be spaced one inch apart (which sets the
plus additional nodes and special rigid link elements length of each element at one inch), and that the width
and depth of all elements be fixed at one inch. When this (Diaphragm And Frame Interaction). A Microsoft
is done, the value of Ed in lbf/in2 is numerically equal to windows-based version of DAFI developed by Ben
the value of Ch in lbf/in. Likewise, the value of E in Bohnhoff can be downloaded at no cost from the NFBA
lbf/in2 will be numerically equal to the value of k in web site:
lbf/in. (http://www.nfba.org/Resources/content/dafi.html).
Output values of interest from the analysis of the figure An example use of DAFI is shown in figure 6-18. When
6-17(b) model are: (1) shear forces in the fixed-end DAFI is first opened, the Default Values window shown
elements which equal the shear forces resisted by the in figure 6-18(a) appears. This window enables users to
diaphragms, (2) axial forces in the pinned-connected input a project name, project filename (name under
elements which equal the forces transferred to the ground which input data will be saved for later retrieval),
by interior and endwall frames, and (3) nodal number of building bays, and default values for: endwall
displacements which equal eave-line displacements of frame stiffness, interior frame stiffness, diaphragm shear
the frames. stiffness, and eave load applied to an interior frame.
Once default values have been entered, they can be saved
Even through it may be less intuitive, the one-
by clicking on the button at the bottom of the window.
dimensional model shown in figure 6-17(c) is typically
Note that default values from previous examples in this
easier to implement than the figure 6-17(b) model. All
chapter have been used in this demonstration of DAFI.
nodes, elements and applied loads associated with the
figure 6-17(c) model are colinear. To precisely illustrate Clicking on the Specific Values tab brings up the
this would result in an indecipherable drawing. For this window shown in figure 6-18(b). Using the previously
reason, the nodes in figure 6-17(c) have been stretched to input default values, DAFI pre-populates the two tables
avoid drawing loads on top of springs on top of elements. that comprise this window. Note that the default eave
load on each endwall frame is set equal to one-half the
Simple springs are used in the figure 6-17(c) to model
default interior frame eave load.
interior and endwall frame behavior, and conventional
modeling elements are used to model diaphragm The Specific Values window can be used to change any
behavior. With respect to the later, the modulus of number of stiffness and/or load values from their default
elasticity that should be assigned to each element is values. Simply click on the cell containing the value to
given as: be changed and enter a new value.
Ed = Ch Ld/Ad (6-10) Analysis results can be obtained by clicking on the
Frame Analysis tab which brings up the window shown
where:
in figure 6-18(c), or the Diaphragm Analysis tab which
Ed = modulus of elasticity assigned to element x brings up the window shown in figure 6-18(d). Data in
either table can be resorted by clicking on the heading of
Ch = shear stiffness of the diaphragm being
one of the columns. This will sort the data in that
modeled with element x
column from high-to-low (or with a subsequent click,
Ld = length of element x from low-to-high). This feature enables a user to quickly
locate the maximum horizontal displacement, diaphragm
Ad = cross-sectional area of element x shear force, etc.
When analyzing the one-dimensional model in figure 6- Shear loads appearing in the DAFI output are horizontal
17(c), all elements should be fixed to their respective compoents of the in-plane shear force to which the
nodes, and at least two of the nodes should be fixed from daiphragm is subjected. It is also important to note that
translating in a direction perpendicular to the applied the shear load listed for each diaphragm in the DAFI
load (if not, the structure will be unstable). Unlike with output is essentially an average shear load in the
the figure 6-17(b) model, the nodes in figure 6-17(c) diaphragm. For example, the average shear load listed in
need not be fixed from rotating. The axial forces induced figure 6-18(d) for diaphragm 1 is 1542.5 lbf . To
in the elements of the one-dimensional model will equal calculate the maximum shear load in each diaphragm
the shear forces in the diaphragm being represented by element, simply add the quantity R/2 to the average
the elements. value. For this example analysis, half the eave load is
6.6.3 Load Distribution via DAFI 555.5 lbf. Adding this to the average shear load in
diaphragm 1 yields a maximum shear force in diaphragm
To avoid using a plane-frame structural analysis program 1 of 2098 lbf. As should be expected, the maximum
to determine load distribution due to diaphragm action, shear force in the end diaphragm is equal to the total
Bohnhoff (1992a) developed computer program DAFI eave load resisted by the endwall frame.
(a)
Default
Values
window
(b)
Specific
Values
window
(c)
Frame
Analysis
window
(d)
Diaphragm
Analysis
window
6.6.3.1 DAFI Inner Workings the eave load for each exterior frame is equal to one-half
that for an interior frame. These five requirements are
DAFI sets up and solves the equations that relate eave generally met in buildings with a fixed bay spacing,
loads to eave displacements. These equations, which are endwalls that are virtually identical in construction, and
obtained by summing the forces applied to the eave interior frames that don’t vary in overall design. When
nodes, can be written as follows (Bohnhoff, 1992): Tables 6-6 and 6-7 are applicable, the analysis tools
For the first endwall frame (i = 1): discussed in Sections 6.6.2 and 6.6.3 are generally not
needed.
R1 = Δ1 (k1 + Ch1) - Δ2 Ch1 (6-11a)
Input parameters required for Tables 6-6 and 6-7 include:
For i = 2 to n – 1: number of frame elements (i.e., the number of interior
Ri = Δi (ki +Ch,i-1+Ch,i) - Δi+1Ch,i - Δi-1Ch,i-1 (6-11b) frames + 2); ratio of diaphragm element to interior frame
element stiffness, Ch / k; and ratio of exterior to interior
For the last frame (i = n): frame element stiffness, ke / k.
Rn = Δn (kn + Ch,n-1) - Δn-1 Ch,n-1 (6-11c) The most highly loaded diaphragm element (in any
Where: building that meets the preceding five conditions) is the
element located adjacent to the endwalls. The maximum
i = eave node at which forces are being summed. shear force in this diaphragm element, Vh, is equal to the
Eave node i is on frame i appropriate shear modifier value, mS, from Table 6-6,
n = total number of frames both endwall and multiplied by the eave load, R, for an interior frame. In
interior equation form:
Δi = displacement of eave node i
Ri = eave load applied to frame i Vh,max = R mS (6-14)
ki = stiffness of frame i where:
Ch,i = shear stiffness of diaphragm element i.
Diaphragm element i is located between nodes i Vh,max = maximum horizontal shear force in a
and i+1. diaphragm element, lbf (N)
mS = shear force modifier from Table 6-6
Once structural equations are established, DAFI R = eave load at interior frame, lbf (N)
simultaneously solves them to obtain the unknown eave
displacements. The following equations are then used to The value obtained from equation 6-14 is simply equal to
calculate shear forces in diaphragm elements, and loads one-half of the total horizontal eave load that is not
resisted by individual interior and exterior frame carried by the interior frames.
elements. The most highly loaded interior frame element (in any
Vhi = Chi (Δi+1 – Δi ) (6-12) building that meets the preceding five conditions) is the
element located closest to the building midlength.
F i = Δ i ki (6-13) Because of diaphragm action, the total horizontal load
where: that this critical frame must resist is reduced from that
which it would resist without diaphragm action. The
Vhi = shear transferred by diaphragm element i magnitude of this reduction is referred to the sidesway
Fi = eave load resisted by frame element i restraining force because in reality, it is a restraining
It is worth noting that the purpose of the models in force applied to the frame by the roof (and/or ceiling)
figures 6-17(b) and 6-17(c) is to essentially trick a plane- diaphragms. Numerically, the sidesway restraining force
frame structural analysis program into developing for the critical frame, Qc, is equal to the product of the
equations 6-11(a), 6-11(b) and 6-11(c). eave load R, and the appropriate sidesway restraining
force factor, mD from Table 6-7. In equation form:
6.6.4 mS and mD Tables
Qc = R mD (6-15)
Forces in the most highly loaded diaphragm and frame
elements, can be calculated using Tables 6-6 and 6-7 where:
when all five of the following conditions exist: (1) all Qc = sidesway restraining force for the critical
diaphragm elements have the same stiffness Ch, (2) all frame, lbf (N)
interior frame elements have the same stiffness, k, (3) mD = sidesway restraining force factor from Table
both exterior frame elements (i.e., the two elements 6-7
representing the endwalls) have the same stiffness, ke, (4) R = eave load at interior frame, lbf (N)
eave load, R, is the same at each interior frame, and (5)
10 5 0.91 1.23 1.46 1.62 1.73 1.81 1.86 1.89 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.93 1.94 1.94
10 10 0.93 1.29 1.58 1.81 1.99 2.13 2.23 2.31 2.36 2.40 2.44 2.46 2.48 2.49
10 20 0.94 1.33 1.66 1.94 2.17 2.36 2.52 2.66 2.76 2.85 2.92 2.98 3.03 3.06
10 50 0.95 1.35 1.70 2.02 2.30 2.55 2.76 2.96 3.12 3.27 3.40 3.51 3.61 3.70
10 100 0.95 1.36 1.72 2.05 2.35 2.62 2.86 3.08 3.27 3.45 3.61 3.76 3.89 4.01
10 200 0.95 1.36 1.73 2.07 2.37 2.65 2.91 3.14 3.36 3.56 3.74 3.90 4.06 4.20
10 500 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.39 2.68 2.94 3.19 3.41 3.62 3.82 4.00 4.17 4.32
10 1000 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.40 2.68 2.95 3.20 3.43 3.64 3.84 4.03 4.20 4.37
10 10000 0.95 1.36 1.74 2.08 2.40 2.69 2.96 3.21 3.45 3.66 3.87 4.06 4.24 4.41
20 5 0.93 1.28 1.54 1.73 1.85 1.94 2.00 2.03 2.06 2.07 2.09 2.09 2.10 2.10
20 10 0.95 1.35 1.68 1.95 2.16 2.33 2.45 2.55 2.62 2.67 2.71 2.74 2.76 2.78
20 20 0.96 1.39 1.76 2.09 2.38 2.62 2.83 3.00 3.14 3.25 3.35 3.43 3.49 3.54
20 50 0.97 1.41 1.82 2.20 2.54 2.85 3.14 3.39 3.62 3.83 4.01 4.17 4.32 4.44
20 100 0.97 1.42 1.84 2.23 2.60 2.95 3.26 3.56 3.83 4.09 4.32 4.54 4.74 4.92
20 200 0.97 1.42 1.85 2.25 2.63 2.99 3.33 3.65 3.95 4.24 4.50 4.75 4.99 5.21
20 500 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.65 3.02 3.38 3.71 4.03 4.33 4.62 4.90 5.16 5.41
20 1000 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.66 3.03 3.39 3.73 4.06 4.37 4.66 4.95 5.22 5.48
20 10000 0.98 1.43 1.86 2.27 2.67 3.04 3.40 3.75 4.08 4.40 4.70 5.00 5.28 5.55
50 5 0.95 1.31 1.59 1.79 1.93 2.03 2.09 2.14 2.16 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.20 2.21
50 10 0.97 1.38 1.74 2.04 2.28 2.46 2.61 2.72 2.80 2.86 2.91 2.94 2.97 2.99
50 20 0.98 1.43 1.83 2.20 2.52 2.80 3.04 3.25 3.41 3.55 3.67 3.77 3.84 3.91
50 50 0.99 1.45 1.90 2.32 2.71 3.08 3.42 3.73 4.01 4.26 4.50 4.70 4.89 5.06
50 100 0.99 1.46 1.92 2.36 2.78 3.18 3.57 3.93 4.27 4.60 4.90 5.18 5.45 5.69
50 200 0.99 1.47 1.93 2.38 2.82 3.24 3.65 4.04 4.42 4.79 5.14 5.47 5.79 6.09
50 500 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.84 3.28 3.70 4.12 4.52 4.91 5.29 5.66 6.02 6.37
50 1000 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.85 3.29 3.72 4.14 4.55 4.96 5.35 5.73 6.11 6.47
50 10000 0.99 1.47 1.94 2.40 2.86 3.30 3.74 4.16 4.58 5.00 5.40 5.80 6.19 6.57
100 5 0.95 1.32 1.61 1.82 1.96 2.06 2.13 2.17 2.20 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.24 2.25
100 10 0.97 1.40 1.76 2.07 2.32 2.51 2.67 2.78 2.87 2.93 2.98 3.02 3.05 3.06
100 20 0.98 1.44 1.86 2.24 2.58 2.87 3.12 3.34 3.52 3.67 3.79 3.89 3.98 4.05
100 50 0.99 1.47 1.92 2.36 2.77 3.16 3.52 3.85 4.16 4.43 4.69 4.91 5.12 5.30
100 100 0.99 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.85 3.27 3.68 4.07 4.44 4.79 5.13 5.44 5.73 6.01
100 200 0.99 1.48 1.96 2.43 2.89 3.33 3.77 4.19 4.61 5.00 5.39 5.76 6.12 6.46
100 500 1.00 1.48 1.97 2.44 2.91 3.37 3.83 4.27 4.71 5.14 5.56 5.98 6.38 6.78
100 1000 1.00 1.48 1.97 2.45 2.92 3.39 3.85 4.30 4.75 5.19 5.62 6.05 6.48 6.89
100 10000 1.00 1.49 1.97 2.45 2.93 3.40 3.86 4.32 4.78 5.23 5.68 6.12 6.56 7.00
1000 5 0.95 1.33 1.63 1.84 1.99 2.09 2.16 2.20 2.23 2.25 2.27 2.27 2.28 2.28
1000 10 0.98 1.41 1.78 2.10 2.36 2.56 2.72 2.84 2.93 3.00 3.05 3.09 3.12 3.14
1000 20 0.99 1.45 1.88 2.28 2.63 2.93 3.20 3.43 3.62 3.78 3.91 4.02 4.11 4.18
1000 50 1.00 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.83 3.24 3.62 3.97 4.30 4.60 4.87 5.12 5.34 5.54
1000 100 1.00 1.49 1.97 2.45 2.91 3.36 3.79 4.21 4.61 4.99 5.35 5.69 6.02 6.32
1000 200 1.00 1.49 1.99 2.47 2.95 3.42 3.89 4.34 4.78 5.22 5.64 6.05 6.44 6.83
1000 500 1.00 1.50 1.99 2.49 2.98 3.46 3.95 4.42 4.90 5.37 5.83 6.29 6.74 7.18
1000 1000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.49 2.98 3.48 3.97 4.45 4.94 5.42 5.90 6.37 6.85 7.31
1000 10000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 2.99 3.49 3.98 4.48 4.97 5.47 5.96 6.45 6.94 7.43
10000 5 0.96 1.33 1.63 1.84 1.99 2.09 2.16 2.21 2.24 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.28 2.29
10000 10 0.98 1.41 1.79 2.10 2.36 2.57 2.72 2.85 2.94 3.01 3.06 3.10 3.12 3.14
10000 20 0.99 1.45 1.89 2.28 2.63 2.94 3.21 3.43 3.63 3.79 3.92 4.03 4.12 4.19
10000 50 1.00 1.48 1.95 2.40 2.84 3.25 3.63 3.98 4.31 4.61 4.89 5.14 5.36 5.57
10000 100 1.00 1.49 1.98 2.45 2.92 3.37 3.80 4.22 4.62 5.01 5.37 5.72 6.05 6.35
10000 200 1.00 1.50 1.99 2.48 2.96 3.43 3.90 4.35 4.80 5.24 5.66 6.08 6.48 6.87
10000 500 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.49 2.98 3.47 3.96 4.44 4.92 5.39 5.86 6.32 6.78 7.23
10000 1000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 2.99 3.49 3.98 4.47 4.96 5.44 5.93 6.41 6.88 7.36
10000 10000 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 4.99 5.49 5.99 6.49 6.98 7.48
10 5 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94 1.94
10 10 2.50 2.50 2.51 2.51 2.51 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52
10 20 3.09 3.12 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.21 3.21
10 50 3.77 3.84 3.89 3.94 3.99 4.02 4.06 4.09 4.11 4.13 4.15 4.17 4.18 4.19
10 100 4.12 4.21 4.30 4.38 4.45 4.52 4.58 4.63 4.68 4.72 4.76 4.80 4.83 4.86
10 200 4.33 4.45 4.56 4.66 4.76 4.84 4.92 5.00 5.07 5.13 5.19 5.25 5.30 5.35
10 500 4.47 4.61 4.74 4.86 4.97 5.08 5.18 5.27 5.36 5.44 5.52 5.60 5.67 5.73
10 1000 4.52 4.66 4.80 4.93 5.05 5.16 5.27 5.37 5.47 5.56 5.65 5.73 5.81 5.88
10 10000 4.57 4.72 4.86 4.99 5.12 5.24 5.36 5.47 5.57 5.67 5.76 5.86 5.94 6.03
20 5 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10
20 10 2.79 2.80 2.80 2.81 2.81 2.81 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82
20 20 3.58 3.62 3.64 3.66 3.68 3.69 3.71 3.71 3.72 3.73 3.73 3.74 3.74 3.74
20 50 4.56 4.65 4.74 4.82 4.88 4.94 4.99 5.03 5.07 5.11 5.14 5.16 5.18 5.20
20 100 5.08 5.24 5.38 5.51 5.62 5.73 5.83 5.91 5.99 6.07 6.13 6.20 6.25 6.30
20 200 5.42 5.61 5.80 5.97 6.13 6.28 6.42 6.55 6.67 6.79 6.90 7.00 7.09 7.18
20 500 5.65 5.88 6.09 6.30 6.50 6.69 6.87 7.04 7.20 7.36 7.51 7.65 7.78 7.91
20 1000 5.73 5.97 6.20 6.42 6.64 6.84 7.03 7.22 7.40 7.58 7.74 7.90 8.06 8.21
20 10000 5.81 6.06 6.30 6.54 6.77 6.98 7.20 7.40 7.60 7.79 7.97 8.15 8.33 8.50
50 5 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21 2.21
50 10 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.02 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.03 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04
50 20 3.96 4.00 4.03 4.06 4.08 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.14 4.15 4.15 4.16
50 50 5.20 5.33 5.45 5.55 5.64 5.72 5.79 5.85 5.90 5.95 5.99 6.03 6.06 6.08
50 100 5.92 6.13 6.33 6.51 6.67 6.83 6.97 7.10 7.21 7.32 7.42 7.51 7.59 7.67
50 200 6.39 6.66 6.93 7.18 7.41 7.64 7.85 8.05 8.24 8.42 8.59 8.75 8.90 9.04
50 500 6.71 7.04 7.36 7.67 7.97 8.26 8.54 8.81 9.07 9.32 9.57 9.80 10.03 10.25
50 1000 6.83 7.18 7.52 7.85 8.18 8.50 8.80 9.10 9.40 9.68 9.96 10.23 10.50 10.75
50 10000 6.94 7.31 7.68 8.03 8.38 8.72 9.06 9.39 9.72 10.04 10.35 10.66 10.97 11.27
100 5 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25
100 10 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.10 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.11 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.12 3.12
100 20 4.10 4.14 4.18 4.21 4.23 4.25 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.30 4.31 4.31 4.31
100 50 5.46 5.61 5.74 5.85 5.95 6.04 6.12 6.19 6.24 6.30 6.34 6.38 6.42 6.45
100 100 6.26 6.50 6.72 6.93 7.12 7.29 7.45 7.60 7.74 7.86 7.98 8.08 8.18 8.27
100 200 6.79 7.10 7.41 7.69 7.97 8.23 8.48 8.72 8.94 9.15 9.35 9.54 9.72 9.89
100 500 7.16 7.54 7.91 8.27 8.62 8.96 9.29 9.62 9.93 10.24 10.53 10.82 11.10 11.37
100 1000 7.30 7.70 8.10 8.49 8.87 9.24 9.61 9.97 10.33 10.67 11.01 11.35 11.68 12.00
100 10000 7.43 7.85 8.28 8.69 9.11 9.51 9.92 10.32 10.72 11.11 11.50 11.88 12.27 12.64
1000 5 2.28 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29
1000 10 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.18 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19
1000 20 4.24 4.29 4.32 4.36 4.38 4.40 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.46 4.47 4.47
1000 50 5.72 5.88 6.02 6.15 6.26 6.36 6.44 6.52 6.59 6.65 6.70 6.74 6.78 6.81
1000 100 6.61 6.87 7.12 7.35 7.57 7.77 7.95 8.12 8.28 8.43 8.56 8.68 8.79 8.89
1000 200 7.20 7.56 7.90 8.23 8.55 8.85 9.14 9.41 9.68 9.93 10.17 10.39 10.61 10.81
1000 500 7.62 8.05 8.48 8.89 9.30 9.70 10.10 10.48 10.86 11.22 11.58 11.93 12.27 12.61
1000 1000 7.78 8.24 8.69 9.15 9.59 10.04 10.47 10.91 11.33 11.75 12.17 12.58 12.99 13.39
1000 10000 7.92 8.41 8.90 9.39 9.87 10.36 10.84 11.33 11.81 12.29 12.77 13.25 13.73 14.20
10000 5 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29
10000 10 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20
10000 20 4.25 4.30 4.34 4.37 4.40 4.42 4.43 4.45 4.46 4.46 4.47 4.48 4.48 4.48
10000 50 5.75 5.91 6.05 6.18 6.29 6.39 6.48 6.56 6.62 6.68 6.73 6.78 6.82 6.85
10000 100 6.64 6.91 7.17 7.40 7.62 7.82 8.01 8.18 8.34 8.49 8.62 8.74 8.86 8.96
10000 200 7.24 7.60 7.95 8.29 8.61 8.92 9.21 9.49 9.76 10.01 10.26 10.49 10.71 10.91
10000 500 7.67 8.11 8.54 8.96 9.38 9.78 10.18 10.57 10.96 11.33 11.70 12.06 12.41 12.75
10000 1000 7.83 8.30 8.76 9.22 9.67 10.12 10.57 11.01 11.44 11.88 12.30 12.72 13.14 13.55
10000 10000 7.98 8.47 8.97 9.46 9.96 10.45 10.94 11.44 11.93 12.42 12.91 13.40 13.89 14.38
10 5 0.83 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.41 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.06
10 10 0.86 0.79 0.70 0.63 0.54 0.48 0.41 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.14
10 20 0.88 0.83 0.76 0.70 0.64 0.58 0.52 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.25
10 50 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.71 0.66 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.42 0.39
10 100 0.90 0.86 0.81 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.51 0.49 0.46
10 200 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.51
10 500 0.90 0.86 0.82 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54
10 1000 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55
10 10000 0.91 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.58 0.56
20 5 0.87 0.78 0.65 0.56 0.45 0.38 0.30 0.25 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.07
20 10 0.91 0.85 0.76 0.69 0.60 0.54 0.46 0.41 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16
20 20 0.93 0.89 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.66 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.33 0.30
20 50 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.48
20 100 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.58
20 200 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
20 500 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69
20 1000 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.71
20 10000 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72
50 5 0.89 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.48 0.40 0.32 0.26 0.21 0.17 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.07
50 10 0.93 0.88 0.80 0.73 0.65 0.58 0.50 0.44 0.38 0.33 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18
50 20 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.77 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.55 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.37 0.34
50 50 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.63 0.59 0.56
50 100 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.69
50 200 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.81 0.79 0.77
50 500 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83
50 1000 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85
50 10000 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87
100 5 0.90 0.82 0.69 0.60 0.48 0.41 0.32 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
100 10 0.94 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.66 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.39 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.18
100 20 0.97 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.47 0.43 0.39 0.35
100 50 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.76 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.62 0.59
100 100 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.73
100 200 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.87 0.85 0.84 0.82
100 500 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88
100 1000 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91
100 10000 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93
1000 5 0.91 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.49 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
1000 10 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.67 0.60 0.52 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19
1000 20 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.49 0.45 0.40 0.36
1000 50 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62
1000 100 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.79 0.77
1000 200 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.87
1000 500 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94
1000 1000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97
1000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
10000 5 0.91 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.49 0.42 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07
10000 10 0.95 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.53 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.19
10000 20 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.49 0.45 0.40 0.37
10000 50 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.76 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.62
10000 100 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.77
10000 200 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.87
10000 500 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95
10000 1000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97
10000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
10 5 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
10 10 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
10 20 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05
10 50 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15
10 100 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.23
10 200 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30
10 500 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
10 1000 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37
10 10000 0.54 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.39
20 5 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
20 10 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
20 20 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06
20 50 0.45 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.19
20 100 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.31
20 200 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.42 0.41
20 500 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50
20 1000 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.55 0.54 0.53
20 10000 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57
50 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
50 10 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
50 20 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07
50 50 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.22
50 100 0.66 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38
50 200 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.54 0.52
50 500 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.65
50 1000 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.71
50 10000 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77
100 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
100 10 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
100 20 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08
100 50 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.24
100 100 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41
100 200 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57
100 500 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.73
100 1000 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80
100 10000 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86
1000 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
1000 10 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
1000 20 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
1000 50 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25
1000 100 0.74 0.72 0.69 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
1000 200 0.85 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.63
1000 500 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81
1000 1000 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89
1000 10000 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98
10000 5 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
10000 10 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
10000 20 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
10000 50 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25
10000 100 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45
10000 200 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.64
10000 500 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82
10000 1000 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90
10000 10000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
For a four bay building with k = 71.5 lbf/inch, ke =2000 y = A cosh(α x) + B sinh(α x) + R/k (6-18)
lbf/inch, Ch = 16,000 lbf/inch, and R = 1111 lbf, use the ymax = A cosh(α L/2) + B sinh(α L/2) + R/k (6-19)
mS and mD Tables to determine: (1) the maximum
diaphragm element shear force, and (2) the sidesway ye = R / [ k (1 – D)] (6-20)
restraining force for the middle (i.e., critical) post frame. Qc = R – ymax k (6-21)
Solution where:
ke / k = 2000 lbf/in. / 71.5 lbf/ in. = 28.0 R = eave load, lbf (N)
Ch / k = 16,000 lbf/in. / 71.5 lbf/in. = 224 s = frame spacing, in. (mm)
By interpolation from Table 6-6, mS is equal to 1.87. By L = distance between endwalls, in. (mm)
interpolation from Table 6-7, mD is equal to 0.91. Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width s of the
diaphragm, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Vh,max = R mS = 1111 lbf (1.87) = 2076 lbf
k = stiffness of interior frames, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Qc = R mD = 1111 lbf (0.91) = 1011 lbf ke = stiffness of endwall frames (or shearwalls),
The input values for this problem are identical to those lbf/in. (N/mm)
used in the example DAFI analysis shown in figure 6- x = distance from endwall, in. (mm)
18. As previously described, the maximum horizontal y = lateral displacement of diaphragm at a distance
diaphragm shear force, Vh,max, based on the DAFI output x from the endwall, in. (mm)
is 2098 lbf. The sidesway restraining force for the ye = lateral displacement of the endwall, in. (mm)
critical frame, Qc, based on the DAFI output is 1027 lbf. ymax = maximum eave displacement, in. (mm)
The Qc value is obtained by subtracting the load of 84.19
= lateral displacement of diaphragm at a distance
lbf resisted by frame 3 (i.e., the critical frame) from the
x = L/2 from the endwall
load of 1111 lbf applied to frame 3.
Vh = diaphragm shear force, lbf (N)
Comparing the Vh,max and Qc values of 2098 lbf and 1027 Vh,max = maximum diaphragm shear force, lbf (N)
lbf obtained using DAFI, to the Vh,max and Qc values of
= diaphragm shear force at x= 0 or x = L
2076 lbf and 1011 lbf obtained using the mS and mD
Tables, illustrates the slight error introduced with Qc = sidesway restraining force for the critical
interpolation of the lower precision numbers in the mS frame, lbf (N)
and mD Tables. sinh = hyperbolic sine
cosh = hyperbolic cosine
(k / Ch )1/2
6.6.5 Simple Beam Analogy Equations α =
s
McGuire (1998) presented the concept of modeling the A = ye – R/k
diaphragm as a simple beam with an applied load
inversely proportional to deflection. This analogy A ( 1 – cosh(α L))
B =
resulted in the following equations for calculating sinh(α L)
diaphragm shear forces and lateral displacements for the ke sinh(α L)
special case when: (1) all diaphragm elements have the D =
α Ch s (1 - cosh(α L))
same stiffness Ch, (2) all interior frame elements have the
same stiffness, k, (3) both exterior frame elements (i.e., Entering simple beam analogy equations into a
the two elements representing the endwalls) have the spreadsheet program provides for quick and precise
same stiffness, ke, and (4) eave load, R, is the same at calculations, and thus is recommended over calculations
each interior frame. requiring interpolation of mS and mD Table values.
6.6.5.1 Example Application of Simple Ch,x = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm element x
Beam Analogy Equations θ i = slope of diaphragm section i
6.6.6.1 Example Calculation
Problem Statement
For a four bay building with s = 120 inches, k = 71.5 Problem Statement
lbf/inch, ke =2000 lbf/inch, Ch = 16,000 lbf/inch, and
Diaphragm element 1 in figure 6-3 consists of three
R = 1111 lbf, use the simple beam analogy equations
diaphragm sections as shown in figure 6-2: roof sections
to determine: (1) lateral displacement of the endwall,
1a and 1b each with a horizontal shear stiffness of 6000
(2) maximum eave displacement, (3) maximum
lbf/inch, and ceiling section 1c with a horizontal shear
diaphragm element shear force, and (4) sidesway
stiffness of 4000 lbf/inch. When diaphragm element 1 is
restraining force for the critical post frame.
subjected to a horizontal shear force Ch1 of 2100 lbf,
Solution what in-plane shear forces are induced in diaphragm
sections 1a, 1b and 1c? Note that both roof sections are
Properties
sloped at 26.6 degrees (6-in-12 slope) and the ceiling
R = 1111 lbf section is horizontal.
s = 120 in.
L = 480 in. Solution
ke = 2000 lbf/in.
Ch1 = ch,1a + ch,1b + ch,1c
k = 71.5 lbf/in.
= 6000 lbf/in + 6000 lbf/in + 4000 lbf/in
Ch = 16,000 lbf/in.
= 16000 lbf/in
Intermediate Calculations Vp,i = (ch,i / Ch1) Vh1 / (cos θi)
α = 0.00055707 in.
-1
Vp,1a = (6000/16000) (2100 lbf) / 0.894 = 881 lbf
cosh(α L) = 1.03496
sinh(α L) = 0.27059 Vp,1b = (6000/16000) (2100 lbf) / 0.894 = 881 lbf
cosh(α L/2) = 1.00895 Vp,1c = (4000/16000) (2100 lbf) / 1.00 = 525 lbf
sinh(α L/2) = 0.13410
D = -14.069 6.6.7 Forces Applied to Frames by
ye = 1.0311 inches Individual Diaphragms
A = -14.507 inches
B = 1.9281 inches The horizontal movement of most building frames is
resisted by roof/ceiling diaphragms. The total horizontal
Calculated Displacements and Forces resisting force applied to an individual frame by the
ye = 1.031 inches roof/ceiling diaphragms attached to both sides of the
ymax = 1.160 inches frame is defined as the sidesway restraining force, Q.
Vh,max = 2062 lbf
Qc = 1028 lbf To accurately model a frame with resisting forces
applied by the roof and ceiling diaphragms, requires that
the sidesway restraining force, Q, first be divided up
6.6.6 In-Plane Shear Force in a Diaphragm between the individual diaphragm (e.g., diaphragms a, b,
Section, Vp and c in figure 6-2b). This is accomplished using the
The analysis tools/methods discussed in sections 6.6.2 following equation:
through 6.6.5 provide horizontal components of Qi = Q (ch,i / Ch) (6-23)
diaphragm element in-plane forces. In most cases, each
element is comprised of two or more diaphragm sections. where:
The in-plane shear force in each of these diaphragm Qi = sidesway resisting force due to diaphragm i, lbf
sections is calculated as: (N)
Vp,i = (ch,i / Ch,x) Vh,x / (cos θ i) (6-22) Q = total sidesway resisting force acting on the
where: frame, lbf (N)
= Qc for the critical frame
Vp,i = in-plane shear force in diaphragm section i, lbf
Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width s of the
(N)
roof/ceiling assembly, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Vh,x = horizontal shear force in diaphragm element x,
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm i with
(from Sections 6.6.2 through 6.6.5), lbf (N)
width s, lbf/in. (N/mm)
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm section
i, lbf/in. (N/mm)
s xqlw
(a)
Vp,i = in-plane shear force in diaphragm section i
from equation 6-22, lbf (N)
va,i = allowable in-plane shear strength of diaphragm
Roof Gravity Loads i (see Section 7.3.3), lbf/ft (N/m)
di = slope length of diaphragm i, ft (m)
s x qwr s x qlr
6.7.3 Diaphragm Chords
In addition to shear forces, a roof/ceiling diaphragm
assembly must also resist bending moment. The
q p,a q p,b magnitude of this bending moment is dependent on a
q p,c number of factors. For design, this bending moment is
assumed to be no greater than:
s xqlw
where:
Md = diaphragm bending moment, lbf-ft (N m)
Vh,max = maximum total shear in roof/ceiling
(b) diaphragm assembly, lbf (N)
L = distance between shearwalls, ft (m)
Figure 6-19. (a) Frame with diaphragm resisting
forces. (b) Resisting forces applied as uniformly Equation 6-27 treats the roof/ceiling assembly as a
distributed in-plane loads for frame component uniformly loaded beam that is simply supported by two
stress analysis. shearwalls spaced a distance L apart. Each shearwall is
assumed to be subjected to a force that is equal to the
maximum total shear in the roof/ceiling assembly, Vh,max.
The maximum total shear in the roof/ceiling assembly, The axial force in an edge chord is dependent on chord
Vh,max can be obtained via plane-frame structural analysis force distribution as indicated by the presence of α in
(Section 6.6.2), DAFI output (Section 6.6.3), or if equation 6-28. The current ANSI/ASAE EP484
applicable, equations 6-14 or 6-17. The uniform load on diaphragm design procedure assumes that edge chords
the roof/ceiling assembly (w in figure 6-20a) is set equal act alone in resisting bending moment (figure 6-20b). For
to 2Vh,max /L. This quantity is multiplied by L2/8 to obtain this case, α is numerically equal to one (1). This is a
Md. conservative approach. Alternatively, many engineers
The bending moment applied to a roof/ceiling diaphragm assume a linear distribution of chord forces as shown in
assembly is resisted by axial forces (a.k.a. chord forces) figure 6-20c. When a linear distribution is assumed, the
in members oriented perpendicular to trusses/rafters. reduction factor α is a function of chord location. If there
This includes roof purlins and analogous framing are an even number of chords and they are evenly
members in the ceiling diaphragm. For bending moment spaced, then α is given as:
calculations, these members are referred to as diaphragm (n – 1 )2
chords (figure 6-20a). Any connection in the chords, α= n/2 (6-29)
either between intermediate chord members or where Σ (n – 2 i + 1)2
i =1
they are connected to the endwalls, must be designed to
resist the calculated axial force. If there are an odd number of chords and they are evenly
If the roof/ceiling assembly behaves as a single beam in spaced, then α is given as:
resisting bending moment, the maximum chord force (n – 1 )2
(which is located in the edge chords) can be calculated α= (n-1)/2 (6-30)
as: Σ (n – 2 i + 1)2
i =1
Pe = Md α / b (6-28)
where:
where:
α = reduction factor when chords are evenly spaced
Pe = axial force in edge chord, lbf (N) and chord forces are linearly distributed as
Md = diaphragm bending moment from equation 6- shown in figure 6-20c
27, lbf-ft (N m) n = number of chord rows, including the two rows
α = reduction factor dependent on chord force of edge chords
distribution
Equations 6-29 and 6-30 were used to calculate the
b = horizontal distance between edge chords, ft (m)
values given in Table 6-8.
b
Vh,max Vh,max
Figure 6-20. (a) Plan view of a diaphragm under a uniform load, w. Chord force distributions when (b)
moment resisted by edge chords only, (b) chord force distribution is linear, and (c) chord force
distribution is linear, but diaphragm halves assumed to act independently in resisting moment.
If a linear distribution of chord forces is assumed The structural framing over a door or window opening
Pe = Md α / b will act as a drag strut transferring shear across the
opening. The header over the opening shall be designed
= 10800 ft-lbf (0.298)/24 ft = 134 lbf to carry the force in tension and/or compression across
the opening.
If bending moment is assumed to be resisted only by
edge purlins then: Shearwall strength can easily be increased when the
applied load exceeds shearwall capacity. For example,
Pe = 10800 ft-lbf (1.00)/24 ft = 450 lbf
the density of stitch screws can be increased and
additional fasteners can be added in panel flats (on both
sides of each major rib is the most effective). If only one
side of the wall has been sheathed, add wood paneling or
When (1) the shearwalls and roof/ceiling diaphragm Output from a DAFI analysis of a building with
assembly are assumed to be infinitely rigid, (2) the only relatively high diaphragm and shearwall stiffness values
applied loads with horizontal components are due to is presented in figure 6-18. This output shows less than
wind, and (3) wind pressure is uniformly distributed on 6% of the total horizontal eave load being resisted by the
each wall and roof surface, then the maximum shear interior frames.
force in the diaphragm assembly is given as:
Although rigid roof design expedites calculation of McGuire, P.M. (1998). One equation for compatible eave
maximum diaphragm shear forces, the design procedure deflections. Frame Building News, 10(4):39-44.
does not provide estimates of sidesway restraining force
Niu, K.T. & Gebremedhin, K.G. (1997). Evaluation of
for interior post-frame design.
interaction of wood framing and metal-cladding in
roof diaphragms. Transactions of the ASAE,
6.9 References 40(2):465-476.
Pollock, D. G., Bender D. A., and Gebremedhin, K. G.
6.9.1 Non-Normative References (1996). Designing for chord forces in post-frame
Bender, D. A., Skaggs, T. D., & Woeste, F. E. (1991). roof diaphragms. Frame Building News, 8(5):40-44.
Rigid roof design for post-frame buildings. Applied
VA. (2013). Visual Analysis Version 10.0, IES, Inc.,
Engineering in Agriculture, 7(6):755-760.
Bozeman, MT. www.iesweb.com/
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992a). Expanding diaphragm analysis
Williams, G. D. (1999). Modeling metal-clad wood-
for post-frame buildings. Applied Engineering in
framed diaphragm assemblies. Ph.D. diss.,
Agriculture, 8(4):509-517.
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI.
Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992b). Estimating frame stiffness and
Wright, B. W. & Manbeck, H. B. (1993). Finite element
eave loads for diaphragm analysis of post-frame
analysis of wood-framed metal-clad diaphragm
buildings. Trans of the ASAE, 35(3):1043-1054.
panels. Trans of the ASAE, 36(3):895-904.
Bohnhoff, D. R., Boor, P. A., & Anderson, G. A. (1999).
Thoughts on metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm 6.9.2 Normative References
action and a full-scale building test. ASAE Paper
No. 994202, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org ANSI/ASAE EP486.2 Shallow post and pier foundation
design
Bohnhoff, D. R., Boor, P. A., & Gadani, M.H. (2003).
UW & LBS full-scale metal-clad wood-frame ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm design of metal-clad
diaphragm study. Report 3: Building load wood-frame rectangular buildings
configurations, load cases and data analysis ASAE EP558.1 Load tests for metal-clad wood-frame
methods. ASAE Paper No. 034004. ASABE, St. diaphragms
Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org
7.1 Introduction
Contents 7.1.1 General
7.1 Introduction 7-1 One of the first steps in diaphragm design is to establish
7.2 Design Variables 7-2 in-plane shear strength and stiffness values for each
7.3 Diaphragm Test Assemblies 7-2 identified diaphragm section. In most post-frame
buildings, these diaphragm sections consist of corrugated
7.4 Building Diaphragm Properties 7-5 metal panels that have been screwed or nailed to wood
7.5 Building Shearwall Properties 7-5 framing. Behavior of these metal-clad wood-frame
7.6 Tabulated Data 7-5 (MCWF) diaphragms is complex, and consequently, has
been the subject of considerable research during the past
7.7 Example Calculations 7-12
40 years. In addition to improving overall design, this
7.8 References 7-12 research has led to improved methods for predicting
metal-clad wood-frame diaphragm strength and stiffness.
7.1.2 Predicting Diaphragm Behavior
There are essentially three procedures for predicting the
strength and stiffness of a building diaphragm. First, an
exact replica of the building diaphragm (a.k.a. a full-size
diaphragm) can be built and tested to failure. Second, a
smaller, representative section of the building diaphragm
can be built and laboratory tested. The strength and
stiffness of this test assembly are then extrapolated to
obtain strength and stiffness values for the building
diaphragm. Lastly, diaphragm behavior can be predicted
using finite element analysis software. The latter requires
that the strength and stiffness properties of individual
component (e.g., wood framing, mechanical connections,
cladding) be known.
Of the three procedures for predicting metal-clad wood-
frame diaphragm properties, only the second one -
extrapolation of diaphragm test assembly data - is
commonly used. This is because testing full-size
diaphragms is simply not practical (a new test would
have to be conducted every time overall dimensions
changed), and finite element analysis of MCWF
diaphragms is, for practical purposes, still in a
developmental stage. The later can be attributed to the
fact that the large number of variables affecting
diaphragm structural properties, as well as the nonlinear
behavior of some variables, has thus far precluded the shear stiffness and strength of mechanical connections
development of a quick and reasonably accurate closed-
between wood members and between wood members
form approximation of diaphragm strength and stiffness.
and cladding.
7.1.3 ASAE EP558 and EP484
7.2.5 Mechanical Connections
Construction specifications and testing procedures for
Type (screw or nail), size, and relative location of
diaphragm test assemblies are given in ASAE EP558
mechanical fasteners used to join components
Load Tests for Metal-Clad Wood-Frame Diaphragms
significantly impact diaphragm properties. Fasteners are
(ASABE, 2013). EP558 also gives equations for
primarily defined by what they connect. Major categories
calculating diaphragm test assembly strength and
include purlin-to-rafter, sheet-to-purlin, and sheet-to-
stiffness. These calculations along with construction
sheet (see figure 7-1). Sheet-to-sheet fasteners are more
specifications and testing procedures from EP558 are
commonly referred to as stitch or seam fasteners.
outlined in Section 7.3 Diaphragm Assembly Tests. For
Removing stitch fasteners can dramatically reduce the
additional details and further explanation of testing
shear strength and stiffness of a diaphragm. Sheet-to-
procedures, readers are referred to the ASAE EP558
purlin fasteners are also defined by their location (i.e.,
Commentary (ASABE, 2013).
end, edge, and field). A sheet-to-purlin fastener may be
ANSI/ASAE EP484 Diaphragm Design of Metal-Clad, located in a rib or in the flat of a corrugated metal panel.
Wood-Frame Rectangular Buildings (ASABE, 2012) Locating fasteners in the flat generally produces stronger
contains the equations for extrapolating diaphragm test and stiffer diaphragms. The nonlinear nature of fastener
assembly properties for use in building design. These performance is one of the more complex variables
calculations are presented in Section 7.4 Building affecting diaphragm stiffness.
Diaphragm Properties.
7.2.6 Blocking
7.2 Design Variables When secondary framing members are installed above
primary framing (e.g. top running purlins) or below
7.2.1 General primary framing (e.g. bottom-running ceiling framing),
cladding can only be fastened directly to the secondary
Many variables affect the shear stiffness and strength of
framing (see figure 7-1). In such cases, blocking is often
a structural diaphragm, including: overall geometry,
placed between the cladding and primary framing to
cladding characteristics, wood properties, fastener type
increase shear transfer between the components. This is
and location, and blocking. A short description of each of
commonly done at locations where diaphragms and
these variables follows.
shearwalls intersect.
7.2.2. Geometry
Geometric variables include: spacing between secondary 7.3 Diaphragm Test Assemblies
framing members (e.g. purlins), spacing between primary
7.3.1 Construction
framing members (e.g., trusses/rafters), and overall
dimensions. With respect to overall dimensions, With the exception of overall length and width, a
diaphragm depth is measured parallel to primary frames, diaphragm test assembly is required to be identical to the
diaphragm length is measured perpendicular to primary diaphragm in the building being designed. Specifically,
frames. In most structures, the overall length of a roof frame members must be of identical size, spacing,
diaphragm is equal to the length of the building. species and grade; metal cladding must be identical in
composition, profile and thickness; and fastener type and
7.2.3 Cladding location must be the same. ASAE EP558 has established
Cladding type (e.g., wood, metal, fiberglass, etc.) is a minimum sizes for diaphragm test assemblies to ensure
significant design variable. Coverage (and examples) in that there is not too great a difference between the size of
this design manual is limited to corrugated metal a diaphragm test assembly and the actual building
cladding. Important design characteristics of this type of diaphragm.
cladding include: base metal (e.g., steel, aluminum), base
7.3.2 Test Configurations
metal thickness, panel profile, and individual sheet width
and length. ASAE EP558 allows for two different testing
configurations: a simple beam test (figure 7-2) and a
7.2.4 Wood Framing cantilever test (figures 7-3 and 7-4). In figures 7-2 and 7-
The species, moisture content and specific gravity of 4, variable “a” represents the spacing between
wood used in the framing system will not only affect the rafters/trusses (a.k.a. the frame spacing). This spacing
structural properties of the wood members, but also the
Purlins
Test assembly length, b
Cladding
corrugations
Direction of
E J L H
2 3
1 4
Deflection gage location and direction of measured deflection (typ.)
Notes:
1. The applied forces may alternately be applied at points J and L
2. Locate gages 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the rafters/ truss chords
Figure 7-2. Simple beam test configuration for roof and ceiling diaphragm test assemblies.
Applied force, P factor λ), can not be used to increase the allowable
design shear strength during building design.
F G Applied force, P
2
Post
Girt Post
Corrugations
Direction of
4
E Test assembly width, a H
Deflection gage location
and direction of measured
1 deflection (typ.) 3
Notes:
1. Force P may be alternately applied at point H
2. Locate gages 1, 2 and 4 on the posts
3. Locate gage 3 on the girt 4
E H
Figure 7-3. Cantilever test configuration for shear Test assembly width, a
wall test assemblies.
Deflection gage location
and direction of measured
7.3.3 Shear Strength 1
deflection (typ.) 3
The in-plane shear stiffness for the diaphragm test ch = cp cos2(θ) (7-10)
assembly, c, is converted to an effective shear modulus or
for the test assembly, G, as: ch = G bh cos(θ) / s (7-11)
Table 7-1 contains design details and engineering shear wall tests assemblies. The information in these
properties for roof diaphragm tests assemblies. Table 7-2 tables represents a small percentage of available data.
contains design details and engineering properties for
Table 7-1. MCWF Roof Diaphragm Test Assembly Data
Test Assembly Number 1 2 3 4
Test Configuration Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever Cantilever
Cladding
Wick Agri Wick Agri Midwest
Manufacturer/Trade Name Wick Agri Panel
Panel Panel Manufacturing.
Base Metal Thickness Gauge 28 28 29 29
Major Rib Spacing, inches 12 12 12 12
Major Rib Height, inches 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.0
Major Rib Base Width, inches 1.25 1.25 1.25 2.5
Major Rib Top Width, inches 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.5
Yield Strength, ksi 50 50 80 80
Overall Design
Width, feet 9 9 9 6
Length, b , feet 12 12 12 12
Purlin Spacing, feet 2 2 2 2
Rafter Spacing, feet 9 9 9 6
Purlin Location Top running Top running Top running Top running
Purlin Orientation On edge On edge On edge On edge
Number of Internal Seams 2 2 2 2
Wood Properties
Purlin Size 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch 2- by 4-inch
Purlin Species and Grade No.1 & 2 SPF No.1 & 2 SPF No.1 & 2 SPF No.2 SYP
Rafter Species and Grade No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP No. 1 SYP
Stitch Fastener
Type None Screw Screw EZ Seal Nail
Length, inches 1.0 1.0 2.5
Diameter #10 #10 8d
On Center Spacing, inches 24 24 24
Sheet-to-Purlin Fasteners
Type Screw Screw Screw EZ Seal Nail
Length, inches 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.5
Diameter #10 #10 #10 8d
Location in Field In Flat In Flat In Flat Major Rib
Location on End In Flat In Flat In Flat In Flat
Avg. On-Center Spacing in Field, in. 12 12 12 12
Avg. On-Center Spacing on End, in. 6 6 6 12
60d Threaded 60d Threaded 60d Threaded 60d Threaded
Purlin-to-Rafter Fastener
Hardened Nail Hardened Nail Hardened Nail Hardened Nail
Engineering Properties
Ultimate Strength, Pu, lbf. 2140 3390 3220 1930
Allowable Shear Strength, va, lbf/ft 71 113 107 64
Effective In-Plane Stiffness, c ,lbf/in 1625 2720 2720 1590
Effective Shear Modulus, G, lbf/in 1220 2040 2040 795
Wee &
Reference Anderson, 1989 Anderson, 1989 Anderson, 1989
Anderson, 1990
va (diaphragm) = 130 lbf/ft Wee, C.L. & Anderson, G.A. (1990). Strength and
stiffness of metal clad roof section. ASAE Paper No.
904029. ASABE, St. Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org.
7.8 References 7.8.2 Normative References
7.8.1 Non-Normative References ANSI/ASAE EP484.2 Diaphragm design of metal-clad,
Anderson, G.A. (1989) Effect of fasteners on the wood-frame rectangular buildings.
stiffness and strength of timber-framed metal-clad ASAE EP558 Load tests for metal-clad wood-frame
roof sections. ASAE Paper No. MCR89-501. ASAE, diaphragms
St. Joseph, MI. www.asabe.org.
Post Design
Contents 8.1 Introduction
8.1 Introduction 8-1 Wood posts are the identifying characteristic of a post-
8.2 Post Definitions 8-1 frame building system, and thus post-frame building
design is largely centered around post design.
8.3 Relative Cost 8-2
8.4 Preservative Treatment 8-3 A designer has many different post types from which to
choose. These different types were introduced in
8.5 Corrosion Potential 8-4 Chapter 1. Section 8.2 repeats and expounds on these
8.6 Bending Characteristics 8-4 definitions.
8.7 Structural Framing Requirements and Options 8-6 Section 8.2 is followed by six sections intended to assist
8.8 Thermal Considerations 8-8 designers in post type selection. These six sections
8.9 Post Analysis 8-9 address relative cost, preservative treatment, corrosion
potential, bending characteristics, structural framing
8.10 Reference Design Values 8-13
requirements and options, and thermal requirements.
8.11 Adjustment Factors 8-20 Given that selection criteria can change throughout a
8.12 Controlling Design Equations 8-31 building, it is not uncommon for more than one post type
8.13 Example Calculations 8-32 to be featured in the same building.
8.14 References 8-35 Section 8.9 covers determination of post forces; Section
8.10 contains reference design values for different post
types; Section 8.11 addresses adjustment factors for
reference design values; Section 8.12 overviews
controlling design equations; and Section 8.13 provides
example post design calculations.
Glued-laminated post (or glulam post): Post Vertically-Laminated Post: A mechlam or glulam post
consisting of suitably selected sawn lumber primarily designed to resist bending loads applied
laminations joined with a structural adhesive. parallel to the planes of contact between the individual
layers (figure 8-1(d)).
Mechanically-laminated post (or mechlam post):
Post consisting of suitably selected sawn lumber
laminations or structural composite lumber (SCL)
laminations joined with nails, screws, bolts, and/or
other mechanical fasteners.
Pole: A round, naturally tapered, unsawn, wood
post. Poles are sometimes slabbed to aid in
attaching other framing members to the pole.
Mechlam posts are further categorized by the type of (a) (b)
mechanical fastener used to join individual wood layers.
Nail-laminated (or nail-lam) posts are mechlams that
only use nails, and screw-laminated (or screw-lam)
posts are mechlams that only use screws. Although not Y X
covered in Chapter 1, a mechanically laminated post can
also be formed by bolting together individual wood
layers.
Individual layers in glulam and mechlam posts often X X Y Y
contain end joints. Such end joints can have a significant
impact on assembly behavior and thus require special
design consideration. An unspliced post is one in which
all laminations behave as unspliced members. A Y X
lamination behaves as an unspliced member when it does
(c) (d)
not contain any end joints, or when the end joints it
contains are certified structural glued end joints. A Figure 8-1. (a) plank loading, (b) beam loading, (c)
spliced post is one in which individual laminations are horizontally-laminated, (d) vertically laminated.
fabricated by end-joining shorter wood members without
the use of certified structural glued end joints. These end
joints are generally either unreinforced butt joints, 8.2.3 Base Support
mechanically-reinforced butt joints, or they are glued Wood posts anchored in the soil are defined as
scarf joints and glued finger joints that do not meet the embedded posts, whereas those supported by concrete
strength criteria to be designated as certified structural piers, slabs and walls are defined as non-embedded
glued end joints. posts. Embedded posts are further classified as
constrained and non-constrained. A constrained
8.2.2 Direction of Loading
embedded post is one that is restrained from significant
Post bending strength must frequently be calculated for horizontal movement at or near the ground surface,
bending about one or both post axes. Depending upon typically by a concrete slab, whereas a non-constrained
which axis a post is being bent for the calculation at embedded post has no such lateral restraint at or near the
hand, one of the following definitions will apply. ground surface.
Plank Loading: An LVL post with a bending load 8.2.4 Post Location
applied perpendicular to individual plies (figure 8-1(a)),
or an LSL or PSL post with a bending load applied As defined in Section 1.2.3, a post is frequently defined
perpendicular to the wide faces of strands. by its location within a structural frame as either an
endwall, sidewall, corner, jamb or interior post. Post
Beam Loading: An LVL post with a bending load location generally dictates boundary conditions relating
applied parallel to individual plies (figure 8-1(b)), or an to lateral support and post end fixity.
LSL or PSL post with a bending load applied parallel the
wide faces of strands.
8.3 Relative Cost
Horizontally-Laminated Post: A mechlam or glulam
post primarily designed to resist bending loads applied Proper cost comparison of posts requires that material,
perpendicular (or normal) to the interlayer planes (figure fabrication, storage, handling, transportation, and
8-1(c)). erection costs be considered.
8.3.1 Material Costs posts, Use Category UC4B or better treatment extend a
minimum of 16 inches (40 cm) above the ground or
With respect to material costs, the most expensive posts waterline. Posts that are located above ground, but are
are SCL posts and posts laminated using SCL materials. exposed to all weather cycles, including prolonged
The relative high cost of SCL can be attributed to the wetting, should be treated in accordance with AWPA
cost of SCL manufacturing facilities, as well as the Use Category UC4A ore better.
limited number of such facilities which increase the cost
of transporting material to and from the facilities. Retention levels for Use Categories UC4A and UC4B
are provided in Section 6 of AWPA U1. Section 6
The total material cost associated with glulam and categorizes retention levels by commodity. AWPA U1
mechlam posts fabricated from dimension lumber is Commodity Specification A covers solid-sawn posts and
almost always less than that of solid-sawn posts, even post fabricated from dimension lumber; AWPA U1
when the cost of adhesive, fasteners and joint reinforcing Commodity Specification F covers posts comprised of
is included. This is because laminated posts are pieced structural composite lumber.
together from smaller, shorter, less expensive dimension
lumber. As laminated post length increases, material cost AWPA U1 retention levels are considered minimums
per foot of post stays relatively constant. Conversely, and are tabulated in units of lbm/ft3 and kg/m3. In
solid-sawn posts become increasingly more expensive addition to Use Category, minimum retention levels are a
(on a unit length basis) in lengths over 16 ft (4.9 m). function of preservative type. In some cases, wood
Additional savings in material costs, specifically in wood species and component size can also influence the
preservative, may be realized if spliced posts are used minimum required retention level.
when only one post end requires treatment. As an example of the difference between Use Categories
8.3.2 Fabrication Costs UC4A and UC4B, the minimum required retention level
for CCA-treated dimension lumber of any wood species
Whether or not it is feasible to use glulam and mechlam is 0.40 lbm/ft3 for Use Category UC4A, and 0.60 lbm/ft3
posts is largely dependent on labor and equipment costs for Use Category UC4B.
associated with post fabrication. Glulam post assembly
involves planing operations to prepare surfaces for Because use of certain treatments in certain SCL
gluing and then to remove excess glue. Equipment for materials is associated with a reduction in design
clamping layers together is essential in glulam post strengths, consult manufacturer’s literature for
fabrication and is often used in the fabrication of appropriate treatment adjustment factors.
mechlam posts. If metal plate connectors will be used to 8.4.2 Uniformity of Treatment
reinforce end joints in mechlam posts, equipment with
the capacity to embed the plates is also required. The Uniformity of treatment is dependent on wood species,
initial cost of equipment is highly dependent on the presence of heartwood, and incising. Although incising
degree to which the assembly process will be automated. is associated with a reduction in strength, it is commonly
Machines specifically built to manufacture nail- used prior to treatment of non-Southern Pine species.
laminated posts are in use. With or without incising, preservative penetration depth
is limited in all species. For this reason, it is not
8.3.3 Miscellaneous Costs uncommon for the center of a large, solid-sawn post to
Costs associated with storage, handling, transportation, be void of preservative (figure 8-2(b)). This becomes
and erection influence post selection to a lesser degree. problematic when the untreated center is exposed by
Maintaining a large inventory of SCL or solid-sawn drilling, sawing, or the formation of a primary check.
posts in a variety of lengths adds to overhead costs. Thus Since thinner lumber will be more uniformly treated
builders who predominately use laminated posts are able through its entire cross-section, use of laminated posts
to reduce their inventory of posts. fabricated from layers of preservative treated lumber
(figure 8-2(a)) minimizes the situation illustrated in
figure 8-2(b). For this reason, individual laminations of
8.4 Preservative Treatment a treated glulam post are generally preservative-treated
8.4.1 Requirements before they are glued together.
Any post or portion thereof that is in ground contact or in 8.4.3 Treating Option for Spliced Posts
freshwater should be pressure preservative-treated in Laminated posts in which each layer consists of treated
accordance with AWPA U1 Use Category UC4B or wood that has been end-jointed to non-treated wood can
better. ANSI/ASAE EP559 requires that for mechlam be used where only one post end requires preservative
treatment (frequently the case with embedded posts).
Although this practice saves preservative treatment, the 8.6 Bending Characteristics
cost savings of using less preservative treated wood must
be weighed against: (1) the additional manufacturing 8.6.1 Uni- Versus Biaxial Bending Strength
costs associated with splicing, and (2) the reduction in
Post selection is largely dictated by post bending
post strength and stiffness that may be required
properties. In some cases, post bending strength and
depending on the type of end joints used.
stiffness about a single axis is important. For other
applications, post bending strength about both axes is
important.
Solid-sawn, SCL and glulam posts that are square will
have similar bending properties about both axes. This is
not the case for mechlam posts, and thus mechlam posts
are typically not an optimal choice where an application
requires similar bending strength about both posts axes.
This is frequently the case with a post that is not laterally
supported in any direction between its base and its top.
(a) (b)
Figure 8-2. (a) Cross section of a glulam post with
preservative that penetrates 100% of each piece of
dimension lumber, and (b) cross section of a nominal
6- by 6-inch member with poor envelope penetration
of preservative.
oriented and designed to resist the highest bending considered along with the relative increase in post
moments in bending about axis Y-Y. When this is done, strength. Reinforcing in most laminated posts consist of
the posts are classified as vertically laminated 16 to 24 gauge: steel sheets, nail plates, or metal plate
assemblies. connectors. This type of joint reinforcing would be
considered "light". Heavier reinforcement is generally
8.6.3 Effect of End Joint Type not cost effective.
The bending strength of a spliced mechlam post about
8.6.4 Relative Bending Strength
the Y-Y axis is highly dependent on the type of end
joints used in the assembly. When end joints are If solid-sawn, SCL, glulam, unspliced mechlam, and
structural glued end joints, the post behaves and can be spliced mechlam posts of equal size were fabricated
treated as an unspliced post (i.e., a post that does not using material from the same log and then compared on
contain end joints) as shown in figure 8-4(a). At the the basis of bending strength about their strongest axis,
other end of the spectrum are spliced mechlams with the rating (from strongest to weakest) would be:
unreinforced butt joints. Such joints increase interlayer
1. SCL and glulam
slip and significantly reduce post bending strength in the
vicinity of the joints (figure 8-4(b)). In fact, the bending 2. Unspliced mechlam and spliced mechlam with
strength about axis Y-Y in the splice region of a certified structural glued end joints
mechlam post with unreinforced butt joints will typically
be less than one-half the bending strength about axis Y-Y 3. Solid-sawn
in the unspliced regions of the same post. This reduction 4. Spliced mechlam without certified structural glued
due to splicing is even worse if the splice region is not end joints
laterally supported when the post is bent about the Y-Y
axis. Without lateral support, lateral torsional buckling If the same posts were compared on the basis of bending
will increase the likelihood of delamination (figure 8- about their weak axis, the rating (from strongest to
3(c)), especially in nail-laminated assemblies. weakest) would be:
1. SCL and glulam
2. Solid-sawn
3. Unspliced mechlam and spliced mechlam with
Vertical certified structural glued end joints
Finger 4. Spliced mechlam without certified structural glued
Joint
end joints
The main advantage that SCL, mechlam and glulam
Horizontal
Finger
posts have over solid-sawn posts is that they have more
Joint uniform strength and stiffness properties. This is because
laminating spreads out natural and seasoning defects and,
consequently, they are not concentrated in a particular
area to the extent that they are in solid-sawn posts. This
characteristic translates into greater reliability and
(a) (b) therefore higher design stresses are justified for SCL and
glulam posts.
Figure 8-4. Mechanically-laminated posts bent about
axis Y-Y showing: (a) negligible interlayer slip at a 8.6.5 Face Plates
glued finger joint, and (b) significant interlayer slip
and a higher required fastener density at an Where bending strength of a mechlam about the X-X
unreinforced butt joint. axis is important, or where a mechlam requires greater
stability for bending about the Y-Y axis, face plates can
8.6.3.1 Butt-Joint Reinforcement be added to the post as shown in figure 8-5. In many
cases this is a less expensive option than switching to a
In between unspliced mechlams and spliced mechlams solid-sawn, SCL or glulam post.
with unreinforced butt joints, are spliced mechlams with
butt-joint reinforcement. The main objective when In most cases, face plates must extend the full length of
designing butt joint reinforcement is to obtain a the post (Bohnhoff and Gadani, 2002) to be effective.
significant increase in bending strength about axis Y-Y Face plates must also be properly attached. Typical
without substantially increasing assembly cost. Because attachment consists of 12d to 16d nails driven into every
of this, the cost of adding reinforcement must always be mechlam layer on a one- to two-foot spacing.
as blocking and should not be more than one to two feet entirely or partially fabricated at the job site. In
in length. This process is illustrated in figure 8-7 for a applications where spliced posts are being embedded, the
three-layer post used to support the end of a truss. The lower (treated) portion of the post can be fabricated and
same method is frequently used with double trusses and set in place before the top half is assembled. This has
four-layer mechlams. Gaps are reduced by setting the two advantages. First, it is often easier to set only the
truss/rafter on the block, using C-clamps to draw the lower part of the post. Second, the length of the bottom
outside layers tight to the truss/rafter and block, and then portion of each post can be adjusted prior to fabrication
fastening the truss/rafter and block in place. to account for differing elevations of the embedded
portions (figure 8-8). This procedure eliminates the need
for additional adjustments for truss attachment after the
top of the post has been erected (e.g., blocking as
illustrated in figure 8-7 is no longer needed).
Tongued column
Inset girt
From purely a minimization of heat transfer perspective, Forces are generally only determined in posts that are
an I-section assembly (figures 8-6 and 8-9) is the best part of the critical post-frame (i.e., the post-frame with
post option. the greatest horizontal eave displacement). This frame
should be evaluated for each applicable load combination
8.9 Post Analysis from ANSI/ASCE 7-10 (Section 3.5).
Roof Gravity Loads
Post analysis refers to determination of the bending
moments, shear forces and axial forces induced in a post
by the applied structural loads. This is accomplished
with the aid of (1) a plane-frame structural analysis s x qwr s x qlr
program, or (2) direct application of equations of static
equilibrium. These two methods are overviewed in
Sections 8.9.1 and 8.9.2, respectively.
8.9.1 Post Forces by Plane-Frame
Structural Analysis Q
The simplest and most direct way to determine the forces Ceiling Gravity Loads
s x qww
s x qlw
induced in posts by applied structural loads is to conduct
a plane-frame structural analysis. The frame analog used
for this analysis is very similar to that used to determine
eave load, R (see Section 6.5.2 and figure 6-17). The
only difference is that the vertical roller support used to (a)
determine R is replaced by the total sidesway restraining
force, Q (figure 8-11(a)). Alternatively, the vertical
roller support can be replaced by a series of distributed Roof Gravity Loads
forces applied to the frame such that they align with the
plane of each diaphragm (figure 8-11(b)).
Restraining force Q accounts for the resistance to s x qwr s x qlr
movement provided by diaphragm action, and thus
equals zero (0) for a frame that does not receive
diaphragm support. Various methods for determining Q q p,a q p,b
are covered in Section 6.6.6. q p,c
Of the two options presented in figure 8-11, application
of the single force Q is easier to implement, but would be
Ceiling Gravity Loads
s x qww
s x qlw
shown in figure 8-11(b). In general, the biggest relative
difference between the two analogs in figure 8-11 would
be in predictions of post axial forces.
(b)
Force Q can be converted to a series of distributed in-
plane forces (q p,i values) with the following equation Figure 8-11. Example structural analogs for
which is based on equations 6-23, 6-24 and 6-25. determination of post forces using (a) a single
sidesway restraining force, and (b) uniformly
q p,i = Q (c h,i / Ch ) / b i (8-1) distributed in-plane forces to model the resisting
where: influence of diaphragms.
q p,i = in-plane force applied to the frame per unit 8.9.2 Post Forces by Equations of Static
length of diaphragm section i, lbf/ft (N/m) Equilibrium
Q = total sidesway resisting force acting on the
frame, lbf (N) Determination of post forces via application of static
ch,i = horizontal shear stiffness of diaphragm section equilibrium equations is a two step process:
i with width s, lbf/in. (N/mm)
Step 1: Determine post shear forces and post bending
Ch = horizontal shear stiffness for a width s of the
moments for all posts in the critical frame. This step
roof/ceiling assembly, lbf/in. (N/mm)
requires knowledge of (1) the load(s) applied to the side
bi = horizontal span (distance measured parallel to
of each post, and (2) the horizontal eave displacement
the frame) of diaphragm section i, ft (m)
(from diaphragm analysis) of the critical post-frame.
Step 2: Determine axial post forces. This step requires displacement of the top of the post, then both w and
knowledge of (1) all loads acting on the critical post- must be input with the same sign.
frame, and (2) shear forces and bending moments (from
Step 1) in each post of the critical frame. Calculation of shear forces and bending moments for
embedded posts requires that the rotation of the post at
8.9.2.1 Step 1: Determination of Shear grade θb first be calculated. For non-constrained
Force and Bending Moment embedded posts, this rotation calculation must be
followed with a calculation of the horizontal movement
Table 8-1 contains equations for calculating shear forces of the post at grade Δb. All calculations associated with
and bending moments at any above-grade location in a embedded posts require calculation of the dimensionless
post. Equations are provided for the eight post fixity variable C which is a measure of soil stiffness relative to
cases illustrated in figure 8-12. The last four of these post bending stiffness. When calculating C it is
cases are applicable to posts embedded in soil whose important to use a consistent set of units so the resulting
modulus of elasticity increases linearly with depth. value is indeed dimensionless.
Equations apply only to posts with a constant flexural
rigidity EI. The embedded post equations assume that No truss/rafter is capable of completely preventing
the below-grade portion of the posts has infinite flexural rotation of the top of a post. For this reason, Table 8-1
rigidity EI. equations for fixity cases 2, 4, 6 and 8 will produce
results that may significantly differ from those obtained
In addition to post and soil properties, application of the from a plane-frame structural analysis (PFSA) of the
Table 8-1 equations requires knowledge of the wind entire post-frame. Conversely, when posts are assumed
pressure w tributary to the post (generally equal to zero to be pin-connected to a truss/rafter (fixity cases 1, 3, 5
for posts that are not part of an exterior wall), frame and 7), Table 8-1 equations will produce values nearly
spacing s, and the horizontal eave displacement of the identical to those obtained from a PFSA of the entire
critical post-frame. In all cases, the wind load is post-frame. The one exception is that for PFSA output to
assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire match values obtained using Table 8-1 equations for
height H. fixity cases 5 and 7, the embedded portion of the posts
Figure 8-13 illustrates positive sign conventions for the would have to be modeled with completely rigid links.
variables defined and used in Table 8-1. The important The error introduced by assuming an infinitely rigid post
rule of thumb to follow is that things moving in the same below grade was demonstrated and discussed in Section
direction have the same sign. Thus if wind pressure is 5.3.5.
acting in the same direction as the horizontal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Free Non- Free Non- Free Non- Free Non-
Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational Rotation Rotational
Grade
Line
Table 8-1. Equations for Post Shear Forces and Bending Moments (a)(b)
Post Top
Fixity Base
Restrained from Applicable Equations (d)
Case (c) Connection (c) (c)
Rotating
Vy = sw(H/2-y)
1 Pinned at y = 0 No
My = swy(H-y)/2
Vy = 3EIΔ/H3 + sw(3H/8 - y)
2 Pinned at y = 0 Yes
My = 3EIΔy/H 3 + swy(3H/8 - y/2)
Vy = 3EIΔ/H 3 +sw(5H/8 - y)
3 Fixed at y = 0 No
My = 3EIΔ(y - H)/H 3 - sw(H 2 - 5Hy + 4y2)/8
Vy = 12EIΔ/H 3 + sw(H/2 - y)
4 Fixed at y = 0 Yes
My = 6EIΔ(2y - H)/H 3 - sw(H 2/6 - Hy + y2)/2
(9+6d/H)Δ/H + swH(6H 2 + 20dH – 12d 2/C)/(16EI)
θb =
C + 4.5(d/H)2 + 12d/H + 9
Embedded, Non-
5 No Δb = [θb(3d + 4H) + swH 3d/(2EIC)]/(4 + 6H/d)
Constrained
Vy = 3EI(Δ - Δb - θb H)/H 3 + sw(5H/8 - y)
My = 3EI(y - H)(Δ - Δb - θb H)/H 3 - sw(H 2 - 5Hy + 4y2)/8
(18 + 24d/H)Δ/H + swH(H 2/4 + dH - d 2/C)/(EI)
θb =
C + (d/H)2(18 + 6/C) + 24d/H + 12
Embedded, Non-
6 Yes Δb = [θb(3d + d/C + 2H) + swH 3d/(6EIC)]/(4 + 3H/d)
Constrained
Vy = 6EI(2Δ - 2Δb - θb H)/H 3 + sw(H/2 - y)
My = 6EI[(Δ-Δb)(2y/H-1) + θb (2H/3-y)]/H 2 - sw(H 2/6-Hy+y2)/2
Embedded, θb = [swH 3/(24EI) + Δ/H]/(1+C)
7 Surface- No Vy = 3EI(Δ - θb H)/H 3 + sw(5H/8 - y)
Constrained My = 3EI(y - H)(Δ - θb H)/H 3 - sw(H 2 - 5Hy + 4y2)/8
Embedded, θb = [swH 3/(36EI) + 2Δ/H]/(4/3+C)
8 Surface- Yes Vy = 6EI(2Δ - θb H)/H 3 + sw(H/2 - y)
Constrained My = 2EI(6yΔ/H - 3Δ + 2θb H - 3yθb)/H 2 - sw(H 2/6 - Hy + y2)/2
(a) Equations for embedded posts assume post has an infinite flexural rigidity (EI) below grade and a constant EI above
grade. Soil modulus of elasticity ES is assumed to increase linearly with depth z as ES = AE z.
(b) From Bohnhoff (1992)
(c) See figure 8-12 for graphical depiction of the eight fixity cases.
(d) Definitions (see figure 8-13 for sign convention).
Vy = shear at height y, (0 < y < H).
My = moment at height y, (0 < y < H).
θb = rotation at grade (i.e., groundline).
y = distance above grade.
H = distance from grade to the post-to-truss/rafter connection.
d = distance from grade to the top of a detached footing, or distance from grade to the bottom of an attached footing.
Δb = horizontal displacement of post at grade.
Δ = horizontal displacement of post at y = H (assumed equal to eave displacement) from post-frame structural
analysis (Section 6.6.2 or 6.6.3).
s = frame spacing.
w = uniform wind pressure tributary to the side of the post. Positive if in same direction as Δ.
E = modulus of elasticity for above-grade portion of post.
I = moment of inertia for above-grade portion of post.
C = d 4AE H /(6 EI)
AE = increase in Young’s modulus for soil per unit increase in depth z below grade.
H q p,a q p,b
sw
q p,c
y
b
+Vy
s x qww
+My
s x qlw
b
d Vbl Vbr
Mbl Mbr
Where there are no more than two posts per frame, free
body diagrams can be used to accurately determine post
s x qwr s x qlr
axial forces. When drawing these diagrams, posts are
typically "cut" at grade (figure 8-14(a)) or at the post-to-
truss connection (figure 8-14(b)). Shear forces and
q p,a q p,b
bending moment determined using the Table 8-1
equations are applied to the cut ends, and the two q p,c
unknown axial forces are determined by (1) summing Vt l Vt r
moments around one of the cut ends, and then (2) Mt l
summing forces in the vertical direction. Mt r
analysis programs, use of these classical method of laminates, veneers or strands, the statistical probability of
structural analysis is virtually unheard of. In other having a strength-reducing characteristic (such as a knot)
words, use a plane-frame structural analysis program as running through the entire cross section is greatly
outlined in Section 8.9.1 to determine forces in post- diminished. Consequently, such built-up posts have more
frames comprised of more than two posts. uniform strength and stiffness properties than solid-sawn
posts. This increased reliability results in higher
8.10 Reference Design Values allowable design values.
Compiled in this section are reference design values for 8.10.1 Solid-Sawn Posts
commonly used solid-sawn posts, structural composite Reference design values for solid-sawn posts common to
lumber (SCL) posts, glulam posts, round timber poles, post-frame building construction are given in Table 8-2.
and mechlam posts. These design values are applicable for members that fall
Reference design values and the applicable adjustment into the size category of “posts and timbers” which
factors in Section 8.11 are included in this manual includes rectangular lumber 5 inches or more in nominal
primarily for comparison purposes (i.e., to enable thickness with a width that is not more than 2 inches
designers to quickly ascertain strength differences greater than it thickness. The species combination
between post types, species and grades) . For a complete Douglas Fir-Larch includes both Douglas Fir and
compilation of reference design values, see the National Western Larch; Northern Pine includes Jack Pine,
Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction Norway (Red) Pine and Pitch Pine; and Southern Pine
(ANSI/AWC, 2012). includes Loblolly Pine, Longleaf Pine, Shortleaf Pine
and Slash Pine.
When a post is fabricated using individual wood
No.1
No.1
No. 3 No. 3
No. 2 No. 2
No. 1 No. 1
Tension Lam Tension Lam
In contrast to the relatively square glulams used as posts, the NDS (ANSI/AWC, 2012).
deep glulam beams (e.g. door headers, girders) are
Fabrication procedures for glulams must conform to
generally designed to only handle bending loads about
ANSI/AITC A190.1 (AITC, 2007) which covers
one axis. These assemblies are designed as horizontally
physical construction issues as well as quality control,
laminated components with higher grade lumber in outer
testing and marking procedures. The rigorous
laminates where bending stresses are higher (figures 8-
requirements outlined in this standard essentially
19(b) and 8-19(c)).
eliminate the possibility of on-site fabrication of glulams.
Reference design values for glulams fabricated with a
Several companies now manufacture and market glulams
single species and grade of softwood lumber are
specifically for use in post-frame buildings. These posts
compiled in Table 8-5. The values in this table are for
are intended for soil embedment, with pressure
glulams primarily loaded parallel to the wide face of
preservative treated wood on one end, and non-treated
laminations, or stressed primarily in axial tension or
wood on the other. Fabrication of such posts requires
compression. Table 8-5 values and layups and
special resins and procedures for joining and laminating
associated design values for horizontally-laminated
treated wood to non-treated wood.
glulams are compiled in AITC 117 (AITC, 2004) and in
(a)
Table 8-4. Reference Design Values for Structural Composite Lumber (SCL)
Modulus
Compression
of elasticity
(lbf/in2)
Tension Shear (103 lbf/in2) Shear
Bending parallel parallel For Modulus Specific
SCL Product Orien- (lbf/in2) to grain to grain Perpen- Parallel Beam (103 Gravity
Grade
Type Name tation(b) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) dicular to Mean and lbf/in2)
to grain grain Column
Stability
Fb Ft Fv Fc Fc E Emin G SG
SolidStart 1730Fb-1.35E Beam 1730 1300 410 750 1650 1350 686 84.4 0.50
SolidStart 1730Fb-1.35E Plank 1910 1300 155 440 1650 1350 686 84.4 0.50
SolidStart 2360Fb-1.55E Beam 2360 1750 410 750 2175 1550 788 96.9 0.50
SolidStart 2360Fb-1.55E Plank 2620 1750 155 440 2175 1550 788 96.9 0.50
SolidStart 2500Fb-1.75E Beam 2500 2100 410 950 2450 1750 880 96.9 0.50
LSL
SolidStart 2500Fb-1.75E Plank 2800 2100 155 440 2450 1750 880 96.9 0.50
Timberstrand 1.3E Beam 1700 1075 400 680 1400 1300 661 81.3 0.50
Timberstrand 1.3E Plank 1900 1075 150 435 1400 1300 661 81.3 0.50
Timberstrand 1.55E Beam 2325 1600 400 800 2050 1550 788 96.9 0.50
Timberstrand 1.55E Plank 2615 1600 150 485 2050 1550 788 96.9 0.50
Microlam 1.9E Beam 2600 1555 285 750 2510 1900 966 118.8 0.50
Microlam 1.9E Plank 3075 1555 190 480 2510 1900 966 118.8 0.50
SolidStart 2250Fb-1.5E Beam 2250 1350 285 750 2350 1500 778 93.8 0.46
SolidStart 2250Fb-1.5E Plank 2200 1350 140 450 2350 1400 726 87.5 0.46
SolidStart 2950Fb-2.0E Beam 2950 1800 290 750 3200 2000 1037 125.0 0.46
SolidStart 2950Fb-2.0E Plank 2910 1800 140 450 3200 2000 1037 125.0 0.46
Versa-Lam 1.7E 2650Fb Beam 2650 1650 285 750 3000 1700 881 106.3 0.50
Versa-Lam 1.7E 2650Fb Plank 2400 1650 190 450 3000 1700 881 106.3 0.50
LVL
Versa-Lam 2.0E 3100Fb Beam 3100 2150 285 750 3000 2000 1037 125.0 0.50
Versa-Lam 2.0E 3100Fb Plank 3100 2150 190 450 3000 2000 1037 125.0 0.50
Versa-Lam 1.4E 1800Fb Beam 1800 1250 225 525 2500 1400 726 87.5 0.50
Versa-Lam 1.4E 1800Fb Plank 1800 1250 150 450 2500 1400 726 87.5 0.50
Versa-Lam 1.7E 2400Fb Beam 2400 1650 285 750 3000 1700 881 106.3 0.50
Versa-Lam 1.7E 2400Fb Plank 2400 1650 190 450 3000 1700 881 106.3 0.50
Versa-Lam 2.0E 2800Fb Beam 2800 2150 285 750 3000 2000 1037 125.0 0.50
Versa-Lam 2.0E 2800Fb Plank 2800 2150 190 450 3000 2000 1037 125.0 0.50
Parallam 1.8E Beam 2500 1755 230 600 2500 1800 915 112.5 0.50
Parallam 1.8E Plank 2400 1755 190 425 2500 1800 915 112.5 0.50
PSL
Parallam 2.0E Beam 2900 2025 290 750 2900 2000 1016 125.0 0.50
Parallam 2.0E Plank 2900 2025 210 525 2900 2000 1016 125.0 0.50
(a) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by factors specified in
Section 8.11 where applicable.
(b) Beams are members loaded parallel to the wide faces of strands (see figure 8-1b). Planks are members loaded perpendicular to the wide
faces of strands (see figure 8-1a).
(a)(b)
Table 8-5. Reference Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Timber
All Loadings Axially Loaded
Modulus of Elasticity Tension
Compression
Compression Parallel to
For Beam and Parallel to Grain
ID Perpendicular Grain
Grade (c) Mean Column
Number to Grain 2 or More 4 or More 2 or 3
(103 lbf/in2) Stability (103 (lbf/in2) Laminations Laminations Laminations
lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
E Emin Fc Ft Fc Fc
Douglas Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
1 L3 1500 780 560 900 1550 1200
2 L2 1600 830 560 1250 1950 1600
3 L2D 1900 980 650 1450 2300 1850
4 L1CL 1900 980 590 1400 2100 1900
5 L1D 2000 1040 650 1600 2400 2100
Hem Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
14 L3 1300 670 375 800 1100 980
15 L2 1400 730 375 1050 1350 1300
16 L1 1600 830 375 1200 1500 1450
17 L1D 1700 880 500 1400 1750 1700
Southern Pine – Visually Graded Laminations
47 N2M14 1400 730 650 1200 1900 1150
48 N2D14 1700 880 740 1400 2200 1350
49 N1M16 1700 880 650 1350 2100 1450
50 N1D14 1900 980 740 1550 2300 1700
Douglas Fir – E-Rated Laminations
27 1.9E-2 1800 930 560 900 1750 1200
28 2.1E-2 2000 1040 650 1100 2000 1400
29 2.3E-2 2200 1140 650 1250 2250 1550
30 1.9E-6 1800 930 560 1550 2100 1700
31 2.1E-6 2000 1040 650 1800 2400 1950
32 2.3E-6 2200 1140 650 1800 2400 2200
62 2.2E-2 2100 1090 650 1150 1850 1500
63 2.2E-6 2100 1090 650 1950 2300 2000
Hem Fir – E-Rated Laminations
33 1.6E-2 1500 780 375 800 1050 950
34 1.9E-2 1800 930 500 900 1500 1200
35 2.1E-2 2000 1040 500 1100 1550 1400
36 1.6E-4 1500 780 375 1200 1450 1350
37 1.9E-6 1800 930 500 1550 1950 1700
38 2.1E-6 2000 1040 500 1800 2400 1950
Southern Pine – E-Rated Laminations
54 2.1E-2 2000 1040 740 1100 2300 1400
55 2.3E-2 2200 1140 740 1250 2400 1550
56 1.9E-6 1800 930 650 1550 1850 1700
57 2.1E-6 2000 1040 740 1800 2300 1950
58 2.3E-6 2200 1140 740 1800 2400 2200
(a) For: (1) assemblies primarily loaded parallel to the wide face of laminations (i.e., vertically-laminated assemblies,
assemblies bent about axis Y-Y), (2) assemblies stressed primarily in axial tension or compression, and (3) two- and
three-layer assemblies bent about axis X-X.
(b) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by
factors specified in Section 8.11 where applicable.
(c) See AITC 117-2004 Annex C (AITC, 2004) for AITC Grading Handbook for Laminating Lumber.
Table 8-5. (Cont.) Reference Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Timber
Bending About X-X Axis
Bending About Y-Y Axis
Loaded Perpendicular to
Loaded Parallel to Wide Faces of Laminations
Wide Faces of Laminations
ID Bending, 4 or Bending, Shear Bending,
Grade Bending, 3 Shear Parallel
Number More 2 Parallel to 2 Laminations to
Laminations (d)(e)(f) (g) to Grain (c)
Laminations 2 Laminations Grain 15 in. Deep
(lbf/in ) (lbf/in2)
(lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
Fby Fby Fby Fvy Fbx Fvx
Douglas Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
1 L3 1450 1250 1000 230 1250 265
2 L2 1800 1600 1300 230 1700 265
3 L2D 2100 1850 1550 230 2000 265
4 L1CL 2200 2000 1650 230 1900 265
5 L1D 2400 2100 1800 230 2200 265
Hem Fir – Visually Graded Laminations
14 L3 1200 1050 850 190 1100 215
15 L2 1500 1350 1100 190 1450 215
16 L1 1750 1550 1300 190 1600 215
17 L1D 2000 1850 1550 190 1900 215
Southern Pine – Visually Graded Laminations
47 N2M14 1750 1550 1300 260 1400 300
48 N2D14 2000 1800 1500 260 1600 300
49 N1M16 1950 1750 1500 260 1800 300
50 N1D14 2300 2100 1750 260 2100 300
Douglas Fir – E-Rated Laminations
27 1.9E-2 1450 1250 1000 230 1250 265
28 2.1E-2 1650 1450 1150 230 1500 265
29 2.3E-2 1900 1650 1350 230 1700 265
30 1.9E-6 2400 2400 2100 230 1800 265
31 2.1E-6 2400 2400 2400 230 2100 265
32 2.3E-6 2400 2400 2400 230 2400 265
62 2.2E-2 1800 1550 1250 230 1800 265
63 2.2E-6 2400 2400 2400 230 2200 265
Hem Fir – E-Rated Laminations
33 1.6E-2 1200 1050 850 190 1100 215
34 1.9E-2 1450 1250 1000 190 1300 215
35 2.1E-2 1650 1450 1150 190 1850 215
36 1.6E-4 2100 1900 1700 190 1400 215
37 1.9E-6 2400 2400 2100 190 1800 215
38 2.1E-6 2400 2400 2400 190 2100 215
Southern Pine – E-Rated Laminations
54 2.1E-2 1650 1450 1150 260 1500 300
55 2.3E-2 1900 1650 1350 260 1700 300
56 1.9E-6 2400 2400 2100 260 1800 300
57 2.1E-6 2400 2400 2400 260 2100 300
58 2.3E-6 2400 2400 2400 260 2400 300
(d) Fvy shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.84 or 0.95 for members with 2 or 3 laminations, respectively.
(e) Multiply Fvy by 0.4 for members with 5, 7 or 9 laminations manufactured from multiple piece laminations (across
width) that are not edge bonded. Multiply Fvy by 0.5 for all other glulams comprised of multiple piece laminations
with unbonded edge joints. This reduction shall be cumulative with the adjustments in footnotes (d) and (f).
(f) Multiply Fvx and Fvy by 0.72 for non-prismatic members, notched members, and all members subject to impact or
cyclic loading. Use the reduced design value for glulam connections that transfer shear by mechanical fasteners.
(g) For members greater than 15 inches deep and without special laminations, multiply Fbx by 0.88. This factor shall not
be applied cumulatively with the adjustment in footnote (g).
(a)(b)
Table 8-6. Reference Design Values for Round Timber Construction Poles
Modulus of Elasticity
Shear Compression Compression (103 lbf/in2)
Bending Parallel Perpendicular Parallel to For Specific
Species (lbf/in2) to Grain to Grain Grain Mean Stability Gravity
(lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2)
Calcs.
Fb Fv Fc Fc E Emin G
Douglas Fir 2050 160 490 1300 1700 690 0.50
Lodgepole Pine 1275 125 265 825 1100 430 0.42
Ponderosa Pine 1200 175 295 775 1000 400 0.43
Red Pine 1350 125 270 850 1300 520 0.42
Southern Pine 1950 160 440 1250 1500 600 0.55
Western Hemlock 1550 165 275 1050 1300 560 0.47
Western Larch 1900 170 405 1250 1500 660 0.49
Western Red Cedar 1250 140 260 875 1000 360 0.34
(a) Naturally round and tapered members graded per ASTM D3200. Tabulated values are from Table 6B of the
National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction.
(b) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by
factors specified in Section 8.11 where applicable.
Table 8-7. Reference Design Values for Visually Graded Dimension Lumber (a)(b)(c)
Compression Modulus of elasticity
Tension Shear
Perpendi- 5th pct
Nomi- Bending parallel parallel Parallel Mean
cular to divided by
Grade nal (lbf/in2) to grain to grain to grain (103
2 2 grain 2 2 1.66
Width (lbf/in ) (lbf/in ) (lbf/in ) lbf/in )
(lbf/in2) (103 lbf/in2)
Fb Ft Fv Fc Fc E Emin
Douglas Fir-Larch (Specific Gravity = 0.50)
Select Structural 2 inches 1500 1000 180 625 1700 1900 690
No. 1 and 1000 675 180 625 1500 1700 620
No. 2 wider 0900 575 180 625 1350 1600 580
Hem-Fir (Specific Gravity = 0.43)
Select Structural 2 inches 1400 925 150 405 1500 1600 580
No. 1 and 975 625 150 405 1350 1500 550
No. 2 wider 850 525 150 405 1300 1300 470
Southern Pine (Specific Gravity = 0.55)
Select Structural 5 to 6 2100 1450 175 565 1800 1800 660
No. 1 inches 1350 875 175 565 1550 1600 580
No. 2 wide 1000 600 175 565 1400 1400 510
Select Structural 2300 1350 175 565 1700 1800 660
8 inches
No. 1 1950 800 175 565 1500 1600 580
wide
No. 2 925 550 175 565 1350 1400 510
Select Structural 10 1700 1150 175 565 1650 1800 660
No. 1 inches 1050 700 175 565 1450 1600 580
No. 2 wide 800 475 175 565 1300 1400 510
Select Structural 12 1600 1100 175 565 1650 1800 660
No. 1 inches 1000 650 175 565 1400 1600 580
No. 2 wide 750 450 175 565 1250 1400 510
(a) From the National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction (ANSI/AWC, 2012)
(b) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by
factors specified in Section 8.11 where applicable.
(c) Dimension lumber includes rectangular, solid-sawn wood members whose minimum dimension is greater or equal to
2 nominal inches but less than 5 nominal inches.
Table 8-8. Reference Design Values for Machine Graded Lumber (a)(b)(c)
Tension Comp. Modulus of elasticity
Bending parallel to parallel to 5th pct divided
2 Mean
Grade name (lbf/in ) grain grain by 1.66 Grading Rules Agency
(103 lbf/in2)
(lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (103 lbf/in2)
Fb Ft Fc E Emin
Machine Stress Rated (MSR)
1350f-1.3E 1350 750 1600 1300 660 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
1450f-1.3E 1450 800 1625 1300 660 NLGA, WCLIB, WWPA
1650f-1.5E 1650 1020 1700 1500 760 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
1800f-1.6E 1800 1175 1750 1600 810 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
1800f-1.8E 1800 1200 1750 1800 910 WCLIB, WWPA
1950f-1.7E 1950 1375 1800 1700 860 NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
2100f-1.8E 2100 1575 1875 1800 910 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
2400f-2.0E 2400 1925 1975 2000 1020 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
2550f-2.1E 2550 2050 2025 2100 1070 NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
2700f-2.2E 2700 2150 2100 2200 1120 NLGA, SPIB, WCLIB, WWPA
2850f-2.3E 2850 2300 2150 2300 1170 NLGA, SPIB, WWPA
Machine Evaluated Lumber (MEL)
M-10 1400 800 1600 1200 560 NLGA, SPIB
M-11 1550 850 1675 1500 700 NLGA, SPIB
M-14 1800 1000 1750 1700 790 NLGA, SPIB
M-19 2000 1300 1825 1600 750 NLGA, SPIB
M-21 2300 1400 1950 1900 890 NLGA, SPIB
M-23 2400 1900 1975 1800 840 NLGA, SPIB
M-24 2700 1800 2100 1900 890 NLGA, SPIB
(a) From the National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood Construction (ANSI/AWC, 2012) .
(b) Reference design values are for normal (10 yr) load duration and dry service conditions, and must be adjusted by
factors specified in Section 8.11 where applicable.
(c) Design values for shear and for compression perpendicular to grain for mechanically graded lumber are species
dependent and shall be obtained from Table 8-9.
Volume Factor
Size Factor
Description
Section 8.11.X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Fb’ = Fb x CD - Ct - - CF - CL - - - -
Solid-Sawn Posts
(Post & Timber
Ft’ = Ft x
Size Category)
CD - Ct - - - - - - - - -
F v’ = F v x CD - Ct - - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct - - - - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - - Ct - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - - Ct - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - -
Ft’ = Ft x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Glulam Posts
Vertically-
Laminated
F v’ = F v x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - -
Ft’ = Ft x CD CM Ct - - - CV - - - - - -
Lumber Posts
Composite
Structural
F v’ = F v x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD - Ct - - CF - - - - - Cct -
Construction
F v’ = F v x CD - Ct - - - - - - - - Cct -
Round
Fc’ = Fc x
Poles
- - Ct - - - - - - Cb - Cct -
F c’ = F c x CD - Ct - - - - - - - CP Cct Ccs
E’ = E x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Fb’ = Fb x CD CM Ct Ci Cfu CF CV Cr CL - - - -
Laminated Posts
Ft’ = Ft x
Mechanically-
CD CM Ct Ci - CF CV - - - - - -
Unspliced
F v’ = F v x CD CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - -
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct Ci - - - - Cb - - -
F c’ = F c x CD CM Ct Ci - CF - - - CP - -
E’ = E x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - -
Resistance Factor
Flat Use Factor
Incising Factor
Volume Factor
Size Factor
Description
Section 8.11.X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 - -
Fb’ = Fb x λ - Ct - - CF - CL - - - - 2.54 0.85
Solid-Sawn Posts
(Post & Timber
Ft’ = Ft x λ
Size Category)
- Ct - - - - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
F v’ = F v x λ - Ct - - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct - - - - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - - Ct - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - - Ct - - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
Fb’ = Fb x λ CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - - 2.54 0.85
Ft’ = Ft x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
Glulam Posts
Vertically-
Laminated
F v’ = F v x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
Fb’ = Fb x λ CM Ct - - - CV - CL - - - - 2.54 0.85
Ft’ = Ft x λ CM Ct - - - CV - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
Lumber Posts
Composite
Structural
F v’ = F v x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct - - - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct - - - - - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct - - - - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
Fb’ = Fb x λ - Ct - - CF - - - - - Cct - 2.54 0.90
Construction
Fc’ = Fc x
Poles
Ft’ = Ft x λ
Mechanically-
CM Ct Ci - CF CV - - - - - - 2.70 0.80
Unspliced
F v’ = F v x λ CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - - 2.88 0.75
Fc’ = Fc x - CM Ct Ci - - - - Cb - - - 1.67 0.90
F c’ = F c x λ CM Ct Ci - CF - - - CP - - 2.40 0.90
E’ = E x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - - -
Emin’ = Emin x - CM Ct Ci - - - - - - - 1.76 0.85
8.11.1 Load Duration and Time Effect 8.11.2 Wet Service Factor, CM
Factors, CD and Wood strength and stiffness decrease as wood moisture
Wood has the property of carrying significantly greater content increases. Since reference design values are
maximum loads for short durations of loading. In ASD, applicable to seasoned (dry) wood, they must be reduced
this relative increase in strength is accounted for with the in accordance with Table 8-14 when exposed to a high
load duration factor (Table 8-12). In LRFD, this increase moisture environment for an extended time period.
is accounted for with the time effect factor (Table 8-13) Specific wet service factors are not tabulated for
structural composite lumber as such factors may be
Table 8-12 Load Duration Factor, CD (a) influenced by adhesives and fabrication techniques used
Load Duration CD Typical Design Loads in product manufacture - adhesives and manufacturing
Permanent 0.9 Dead load techniques which have not been standardized for these
Ten year 1.0 Occupancy live load products. Tabulated reference design values for round
Two months 1.15 Snow load construction poles are applicable to both wet and dry
Seven days 1.25 Construction load service conditions, and thus CM does not apply to poles.
Ten minutes 1.60 Wind/earthquake load Table 8-14 Wet Service Factors, CM
Impact (a) 2.0 Impact load
Material
(a) Load duration factors greater than 1.60 shall not Reference Design
(In Service CM
apply to connections or structural members Property
Moisture Content)
pressure-treated with waterborne preservatives or
Fb (when Fb•CF <
fire retardant chemicals 1.00
1.150 kips/in2)
Fb (when Fb•CF >
Table 8-13 Time Effect Factors, (a) 1.150 kips/in2)
0.85
Time Ft 1.00
LRFD Load Combination (b) Effect Dimension Lumber Fc (when Fc•CF <
Factor, (greater than 19%) 0.750 kips/in2)
1.00
1.4·D 0.6 Fc (when Fc•CF >
1.2·D + 1.6 H + 0.5·(Lr or S or R) 0.6 0.80
0.750 kips/in2)
1.2·D + 1.6·L + 0.5·(Lr or S or R) (c) Fv 0.97
1.2·D + 1.6·(Lr or S or R) + (x·L or 0.5·W) 0.8 F c 0.67
1.2·D + 1.0·W + x·L + 0.5·(Lr or S or R) 1.0 E, Emin 0.90
1.2·D + 1.0·E + x·L + 0.2·S 1.0 Fb, Ft, Fv, E, Emin 1.00
0.9·D + 1.0·W 1.0 Solid Sawn Timber
Fc 0.91
0.9·D + 1.0·E 1.0 (greater than 19%)
F c 0.67
(a) Time effect factors, , greater than 1.0 shall not Fb 0.80
apply to connections or to structural members Ft 0.80
pressure-treated with water-borne preservatives or Fv 0.875
Glulams
fire retardant chemicals.
(16% or greater) F c 0.53
(b) x = 1.0 for garages, areas of public occupancy, and
Fc 0.73
values of L greater than 100 lbf/ft2. When L is less
than or equal to 100 lbf/ft2, set x equal to 0.5. E, Emin 0.833
(c) 0.7 when L is from storage; 0.8 when L is from Structural
See manufacturer
occupancy; 1.25 when L is from impact. Composite Lumber
recommendations
(16% or greater)
When induced stresses are due to a combination of loads,
the ASD load duration factor associated with the shortest 8.11.3 Temperature Factor, Ct
duration load in the combination should be applied for As wood is cooled below normal temperatures, its
that load combination since the combined load will only strength increases; when heated, its strength decreases.
be acting as long as the load with the shortest duration is This temperature effect is dependent on wood moisture
present. content. Up to 150F, the effect of temperature is
The time effect factor differs from the load duration assumed by design codes to be reversible. Prolonged
factor CD in that it is linked to specific load combinations heating to temperatures above 150F can cause
via the reliability of the various loads in the combination. permanent loss of strength. For structural members and
The time effect factor also differs from the load duration connections exposed to temperatures less that 150F,
factor in that the baseline load duration for is 10 reference design values are multiplied by the factors in
minutes, whereas that for CD is 10 years. Table 8-15. No adjustment is needed unless temperatures
exceed 100F for extended periods of time. For example, 8.11.6 Size Factor, CF
the adjustments are not required in applications where
The relative size of a wood member has an effect on its
diurnal temperatures occasionally exceed 100F.
unit strength. This general behavior is known as the size
Table 8-15. Temperature Factors, Ct effect. There are two adjustment factors used to adjust
Reference End-Use for member size: the size factor and the volume factor.
Ct (a)
Design Moisture The size factor applies to visually-graded dimension
Value Content 100<T< 125 125<T<150 lumber and timber. The volume factor is used for glulam
members and structural composite lumber.
Ft, E, Emin, Dry or Wet 0.9 0.9
F b , F v, F c, Dry 0.8 0.7 Reference design stresses for bending, tension, and
compression parallel-to-grain for all visually graded
F c , Wet 0.7 0.5 dimension lumber except Southern Pine between 2 and
(a) T = sustained temperature, F 4-inchs in nominal thickness are multiplied by the size
factors in Table 8-18. These factors are from equations
8.11.4 Incising Factor, Ci appearing in ASTM D1990 and are based on the in-grade
testing program. The reason for exempting Southern
Reference design values for dimension lumber shall be Pine between 2 and 4-inches in nominal thickness from
multiplied by the appropriate incising factor, Ci, from the adjustment in Table 8-18 is because the tabulated
Table 8-16 when the lumber is incised to increase reference design values appearing in the NDS for
penetration of treatments with incisions cut parallel to Southern Pine in these thicknesses already include a size
grain with a maximum depth of 0.40 inches, a maximum adjustment. This explains why the values for Southern
length of 0.375 inches, and a maximum density of 1100 Pine appearing in Table 8-7 are a function of width
per square foot. Incising factors shall be determined by whereas those appearing in Table 8-7 for other species
test for incising patterns exceeding these limits. The are not a function of width.
incising factor does not apply to solid-sawn posts,
glulams, round poles or structural composite lumber. Table 8-18. Size Factors, CF, For Nominal Two-
Inch Thick Dimension Lumber (a)
Table 8-16. Incising Factors for Dimension
Lumber, Ci Nominal Width,
Grade Fb (b)and Ft Fc
Reference Design Value Ci inches
E, Emin 0.95 4 and less 1.5 1.15
Select 5 1.4 1.1
Fb, Ft, Fc, Fv 0.80 Structural,
6 1.3 1.1
F c 1.00 No.1 &
8 1.2 1.05
Btr., No.1,
10 1.1 1.0
8.11.5 Flat Use Factor, Cfu No. 2, No.
3 12 1.0 1.0
With respect to post design, the flat use factor only 14 and wider 0.9 0.9
applies to mechlam posts fabricated from dimension (a) For nominally two-inch thick Southern Pine, the
lumber. In such posts, the factors in Table 8-17 are used value of CF is 1.0 for all properties and all sizes 12
to increase the bending strength of individual laminates inches in width and less. For mechanically graded
when they are being bent about the post’s X-X axis (see dimension lumber (Table 8-8), the value of CF is
figure 8-1(c)). 1.0 for all properties and all sizes.
(b) For bending about the strong axis only.
Table 8-17. Flat Use Factors for Nominal Two-
Inch Thick Dimension Lumber, Cfu
For visually graded timbers (reference design values in
Nominal Width, inches Cfu
Table 8-2) whose actual depth, d, exceeds 12 nominal
6 1.15
inches, multiply Fb by CF where CF is given as: CF =
8 1.15
(12/d)1/9. CF is equal to 1.0 for all other visually graded
10 and wider 1.20
timber properties.
While there is a flat use adjustment factor for glulams, it
does not apply to the reference design values for bending
8.11.7 Volume Factor, CV
in Table 8-5, as the effect that orientation has on bending The volume factor CV is used to account for the size
strength has already been effectively incorporated into effect in structural glued-laminated timber and structural
the tabulated reference design values in Table 8-5. composite lumber. Historically, the size effect in
glulams was accounted for by multiplying the reference
load distributing element transfers between the Table 8-22. Minimum Required Interlayer Shear
individual components. The less variation in bending Capacities for Mechlams Bent About Axis Y-Y
stiffness, the lower the magnitude of load that is (Figure 7-1)(a)
transferred, and the lower will be the repetitive member
Minimum required interlayer shear
factor. The less variation in bending strength between
Actual face capacity per interface per unit length of
individual members, the less there is to be gained from
width of assembly, lbf/in.
load-sharing, and thus the lower will be the repetitive
laminations, Load and
member factor as well. Allowable Stress
inches Resistance Factor
Design (ASD)
The ultimate in load-sharing occurs between layers in (LRFD) Design
vertically-laminated assemblies (figure 8-1(d)) especially 5.5 12 16
when individual layers contain numerous strength- 7.25 15 20
reducing knots. For glulams, this load sharing is already 9.25 19 26
incorporated into the reference bending design strength 11.25 24 32
Fby and thus no further increase for repetitive member (a) For unspliced mechlams, mechlams with either
use is allowed. For mechanically-laminated assemblies, common glued end joints and/or certified structural
multiply Fb for bending about the Y-Y axis by the glued end joints, and unspliced regions of mechlams
applicable repetitive member factor from Table 8-21. with butt joints.
Lu
Member thickness
Twist
Member depth Actual member depth, d, for
(b) Loaded
bending about axis Y-Y
position near
midspan Figure 8-22. Variable definitions for post bending
(a) Unloaded position
about its Y-Y axis.
Lateral movement
Conservative estimates of Le are provided by the
Figure 8-21. Perspective view (top) and cross-
following equations.
sectional view (bottom) of lateral-torsional buckling
of a mechlam assembly loaded in bending about its Le = 2.06·Lu for Lu /d < 7 (8-3)
Y-Y axis.
Le = 1.63·Lu + 3·d for 7 < Lu /d < 14.3 (8-4)
The first step in calculating CL is to establish the Le = 1.84·Lu for Lu /d > 14.3 (8-5)
slenderness ratio, RB, which is given as:
For posts that are both loaded (in bending) and laterally
RB = (Le·d/be2)1/2 < 50 (8-2) supported by girts or other horizontal members that are
where: uniformly spaced, the effective span length can be
obtained using the equations in Table 8-24. For in-depth
RB = Slenderness ratio, dimensionless information on calculation of Le see Designing for
be = Effective member thickness, inches (mm) Lateral-Torsional Stability in Wood Members (AWC,
= b for all posts except mechlam posts 2003).
= 0.60 b for mechlam posts
b = Actual member thickness, inches (mm) Table 8-24. Effective Span Length for Posts With
d = Actual member depth, inches (mm) Bending Loads Applied by Girts (a)
Le = Effective span length, inches (mm) Number of Uniformly-Spaced Girts
Le (c)
ANSI/ASAE EP559 requires effective member thickness Between Top and Bottom of Post (b)
be to be set equal to 60% of actual total assembly 1 1.11 Lu
thickness. This reduced effective thickness accounts for 2 1.68 Lu
the interlayer slip (i.e. lack of complete composite 3 1.54 Lu
action) shown in figure 8-21 that occurs as the laminates 4 1.68 Lu
work to resist lateral movement. 5 1.73 Lu
6 1.78 Lu
The effective span length Le in equation 8-2 is a function 7 or more 1.84 Lu
of the laterally unsupported length Lu which is the actual
(a) Girts assumed to provide adequate lateral support at
distance between supports that prevent lateral
their point of attachment, and all loads applied to the
displacement under the applied bending load. In figure
side of the post are assumed to occur at these points
8-22, Lu is equal to the girt spacing when the post is
of attachment.
being bent out of the plane of the wall (i.e., being bent
(b) Do not count girts at very top and bottom of post.
about mechlam post axis Y-Y) and the girts themselves
(c) Girts uniformly spaced an amount Lu.
are prevented from shifting horizontally.
In accordance with equation 8-2, RB can not exceed 50. supports as shown in figure 8-23, the effective buckling
If it does, either member depth must be decreased, length between each set of supports may need to be
member thickness increased, and/or the distance between calculated unless it is obvious which one is the largest,
points of lateral support decreased. and hence will control buckling in the direction in
question.
Once the slenderness ratio has been determined, the
beam stability factor can be calculated as: Table 8-25. Effective Length Factors for Wood
Column Design
1 + b (1 + b) 2
b 1/2
(8-6)
CL = - -
2·c 4·c2 c
where:
FbE 1.20·Emin’
b = =
Fb* Fb*·RB2
c = 0.95
Fb* = Fb multiplied by all applicable adjustment
factors except Cfu, CV and CL, lbf/in2
FbE = Critical buckling design stress, lbf/in2
= 1.20·Emin’/ RB2 Theoretical Ke
Emin’ = Adjusted minimum modulus of elasticity, , value
0.5 0.7 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0
lbf/in2
RB = Slenderness ratio from equation 8-2 Recommended
design Ke when
8.11.10 Bearing Area Factor, Cb ideal 0.65 0.80 1.2 1.0 2.10 2.4
conditions are
The reference strength values for compression
approximated
perpendicular-to-grain, Fc, apply to bearings of any
length at the ends of a member, and to all bearings 6
inches or more in length at any other location. For
bearings less than 6 inches in length and not nearer than
3 inches to the end of the member Fc can be multiplied
Ke = 1.0 Lu Ke = 1.0
by the following bearing area factor, Cb:
Cb = (Lb + 0.375) / Lb (8-7) Ke = 1.0 Lu
where Lb is the bearing length measured parallel-to-grain Lu Ke = 1.0
in inches. For round bearing areas such as washers, Ke = 1.0 Lu
bearing length Lb, is taken as the diameter of the bearing
area.
Ke = 1.0 Lu Ke = 1.0
8.11.11 Column Stability Factor, CP
The column stability factor is used to reduce Fc values so Ke = 1.0 Lu Ke = 0.8
that buckling (instability) failures do not occur. When a
compression member is supported throughout its length
to prevent lateral displacement in all directions, CP = 1.0.
The first step in calculating CP is to calculate the
slenderness ratio, Le /d, for the column. Le is the Figure 8-23. Effective buckling length Le = Ke Lu will
effective column length of a compression member. It is vary along a post as Lu and Ke change. The
the distance between two points along the member length maximum value will control buckling for the direction
at which the member is assumed to buckle in the shape in question.
of a sine wave.
To calculate effective column length Le multiply the For all posts the slenderness ratio, Le /d, is taken as the
actual column length (or the length of the column larger of the ratios Ke·L1 /d1 and Ke·L2 /d2 as defined in
between lateral supports), Lu, by the appropriate effective figure 8-24. The slenderness ratio for solid columns,
buckling length factor, Ke from Table 8-25. Where a post Le/d, is not allowed to exceed 50, except during
has multiple inflection points due to multiple lateral construction when Le /d is not allowed to exceed 75.
Fc* = reference compression design value parallel- 8.12 Controlling Design Equations
to-grain for a single laminate multiplied by all
applicable adjustment factors except CP (see Of the major NDS equations for checking component
equation 21 definitions) strength, there are typically only three that are utilized
FcE = 0.822·Emin’/(Le/d)2 when sizing post-frame building posts. These include
Emin’ = Adjusted minimum modulus of elasticity for a equation 8-11 for shear, equation 8-12 for axial
single laminate compression without bending, and equation 8-13 for
Kf = 0.60 for nail- and screw-laminated assemblies axial compression with uniaxial bending.
where Le /d is equal to Ke L2 /d2
fv < Fv’ (8-11)
= 0.75 for bolt-laminated assemblies where Le /d
is equal to Ke L2 /d2 fc < Fc’ (8-12)
= 1.0 for mechlams where Le /d is equal to
( fc /Fc’ )2 + f b/{Fb’ [1 – ( fc / FcE)]} < 1.0 (8-13)
KeL1/d1
Le /d = Slenderness ratio for the assembly where:
= Maximum of Ke L1 /d1 and Ke L2 /d2 fv = actual shear stress
where: = 1.5 V/(bd) for rectangular members
Ke = Buckling length coefficient from Table 8-25 fc = actual compressive stress
L1 = Distance between supports running parallel to = P/(bd) for rectangular members
interlayer planes (see figures 8-23 and 8-24) fb = actual bending stress
L2 = Distance between supports running normal to = 6M/(bd 2) for rectangular members
interlayer planes (see figures 8-23 and 8-24) F v’ = adjusted shear design value
d1 = Face width of an individual laminate (see F c’ = adjusted compressive design value parallel-to-
figures 8-23 and 8-24) grain
d2 = Laminated assembly thickness (see figure 8- F b’ = adjusted bending design value
24) FcE = critical buckling design value for compression
= 0.822 Emin’/ ( Le / d )2
The Kf factors of 0.60 and 0.75 require that d = post dimension measured parallel to plane of
nailing/screwing and bolting are performed in bending (see figure 8-26)
accordance with the provisions of NDS 15.3.3 and b = post dimension measure perpendicular to
15.3.4, respectively. In lieu of meeting the plane of bending (see figure 8-26)
nailing/screwing requirements in NDS 15.3.3, the more Le = effective buckling length
conservative provisions in Table 8-23 can be followed. = Ke Lu where Lu is depicted in figure 8-26
8.11.12 Condition Treatment Factor, Cct
Reference design values for round construction poles are
based on air-dried conditioning. If either kiln-drying,
steam-conditioning, or boultonizing are used prior to
treatment, then the reference design values must be
reduced. This is accomplished by multiplying the design
values by a Cct of 0.90 for kiln-drying, 0.95 for boulton b
drying, 0.80 for normal steaming, and 0.74 for marine
steaming.
Lu
8.11.13 Critical Section Factor, Ccs
Reference compression design values parallel-to-grain d
for round construction poles, Fc, are based on the
strength at the tip of the pole. To increase this value at
other locations along the post, Fc can be multiplied by
the critical section factor Ccs calculated as:
Ccs = 1.0 + 0.004 Lc (8-10)
where Lc is the distance in feet from the tip of the pile to
the point at which Fc is being determined. This increase
for location cannot exceed 10% (Ccs < 1.10).
Figure 8-26. Variable description for axial
compression with uniaxial bending.
5 lbf/ft2
8 lbf/ft2
15 ft No. 2 SP posts
13. Typically the only time that bending moments are
not induced in a post is when it is both pin-connected on 24 ft
284.8 lbf/ft
56 0 ft-lbf 0 ft-lbf
ft lbf/
lbf/ ft
24
329 lbf 218 lbf
12
6
Q Left Post
64 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
15 ft 15 ft
Right Post
40 lbf/ft
64 lbf/ft
0 ft-lbf 0 ft-lbf
56 329 lbf
lb f/ft 218 lbf
f/ ft
24 lb
f/ft 32.
1
1 lb lbf/
32. ft Left Post
10.7
64 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
lbf/ft
15 ft 15 ft
Right Post
40 lbf/ft
40 lbf/ft
64 lbf/ft
Solution 2: Post Forces by Equations of Static The loads on the FBD in figure 8-30 include those for a
Equilibrium total sidesway restraining force of 1027 lbf, which
induces the in-plane diaphragm forces shown in Figure
As an alternative to using a plane-frame structural
8-28(b). With these loads, the axial forces match within
analysis program, post fixity factors were used to
round-off error (as expected) those shown in figure 8-
determine frame stiffness and eave load values, DAFI was
29(b). Using the 961 lbf sideway restraining force from
then used to determine eave displacements, and the
Analysis 1 in Table 8-26 results in axial forces of 4062
equations in Table 8-1 were used to determine shear force
lbf and 3349 lbf for the left and right posts, respectively.
and bending moments in the posts of the critical frame.
These are only 0.3% different from those in figure 8-30.
Two separate analyses were conducted. For the first
Roof dead + snow = 6835.2 lbf
analysis, posts were assumed to be fixed at grade and pin-
connected to trusses (i.e., post fixity case 3 in Tables 6-1, Vertical component of windward Vertical component of leeward
6-5 and 8-1). For the second analysis, the left post was roof pressure = 288 lbf roof pressure = - 672 lbf
treated as a surface-constrained embedded post pinned to + +
Vertical component of diaphragm Vertical component of diaphragm
the truss (post fixity case 7) and the right post was restraining force = 192.6 lbf restraining force = -192.6 lbf
modeled as a non-constrained embedded post pinned to
the truss (fixity case 5). Results of these two analyses are Horizontal component Horizontal component
of windward of roof of leeward of roof
summarized in Table 8-26. Color coding in this table pressure = 144 lbf pressure = -366 lbf
represents different steps in the analysis. Pink, green and + +
blue represent application of the equations in Tables 6-1, Horz. component of Horz. component of
diaphragm restraining diaphragm restraining
6-5 and 8-1, respectively. Yellow identifies values from forced = -385.2 lbf forced = 385.2 lbf
DAFI.
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft 6 ft
For No. 2 Southern Pine timber, the tabulated reference For an c of 0.689, CP from equation 8-8 is equal to
design values from Table 8-2 are: 0.552, and Fc’ = Fc* CP = 423 lbf/in2
Fb = 850 lbf/in.2 Actual stresses are based on maximum forces, which for
Fv = 165 lbf/in.2 the loading in Section 8.13.1 (figure 8-27b) are:
Fc = 525 lbf/in.2
E = 1,200,000 lbf/in.2 Mneg (at base) = 2265 ft-lbf = 27180 in-lbf
Emin = 440,000 lbf/in.2 Mpos (119 inches from base) = 10148 in-lbf
V (at base) = 631 lbf
Applicable adjustment factors for these design values P = 4078 lbf
from Table 8-10 are:
Actual maximum stresses:
Fb’ = Fb CD Ct CF CL
Fv’ = Fv CD Ct fb (at base) = M/S =27180 in-lbf/27.73 in3 = 980 lbf/in2
Fc’ = Fc CD CM Ct CP fb (at 119 in.) = 10148 in-lbf/27.73 in3 = 366 lbf/in2
E’ = E Ct fv = 1.5 V/A = 1.5(631 lbf)/ 30.25 in2 = 31.3 lbf/in2
Emin’ = Emin Ct fc = P/A = 4078 lbf/30.25 in2 = 135 lbf/in2
CD = 1.60 since the shortest duration load in the fv = 31.3 lbf/in2 < Fv’ = 264 lbf/in2 (O.K.)
combination of loads is wind Check of controlling equation 7-13 for combined loading
Ct = 1.00 for use under normal temperatures at the base of post (CP = 1.0 and Fc’ = 765 lbf/in2). In
CM = 0.91 for wood located near the soil surface this case, Le is taken to be very small because of
CF = 1.00 for nominal 6- by 6-inch No.2 Southern surrounding support (and thus the “fc/FcE” term in the
Pine equation approaches zero) and equation 8-13 becomes:
CL = 1.00 since post is square
CP = 1.00 at the base of the post where support is ( fc /Fc’ )2 + f b/Fb’ < 1.0
provided in both directions (135/765)2 + 980/1360 = 0.031+0.720 < 1.0 (O.K.)
CP = less than 1.00 between points of lateral
support. Calculated using equation 8-8 Check of controlling equation 8-13 for combined loading
at the point of maximum positive moment:
Substituting in known values yields:
( fc /Fc’ )2 + f b/{Fb’ [1 – ( fc / FcE)]} < 1.0
Fb’ = 850 lbf/in2(1.60)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0) = 1360 psi
Fv’ = 165 lbf/in2(1.60)(1.0) = 264 lbf/in2 (135/423)2 + 366/{1360[1-(135/527)]} =
Fc’ = 525 lbf/in2(1.60)(0.91)(1.0)CP = 765 CP psi 0.102 +0.362 = 0.463 < 1.0 (O.K.)
E’ = 1,200,000 lbf/in.2 (1.0) = 1,200,000 lbf/in.2
Emin’ = 440,000 lbf/in.2(1.0) = 440,000 lbf/in.2
For calculation of the column stability factor, Lu is taken
as the post height of 180 inches, and Ke is set equal to 8.14 References
0.80 resulting in an Le value of 144 inches and an Le/d 8.14.1 Non-Normative References
ratio 26.2. This value is assumed to far exceed the value
for buckling within the plane of the wall because of AWC. (2003). Designing for lateral-torsional stability in
lateral support provided in the plane of the wall by girts. wood members. Technical Report 14. American
Wood Council, Washington, DC. www.awc.org
Once the slenderness ratio is known, the critical buckling
design value for compression FcE can be calculated as: Bohnhoff, D. R. (1992). Estimating frame stiffness and
eave loads for diaphragm analysis of post-frame
FcE = 0.822·Emin’/(Le/d)2 buildings. Trans of the ASAE, 35(3):1043-1054.
= 0.822(440,000)/(26.2)2 = 527 lbf/in2
Bohnhoff, D. R. & Gadani, M.. (2002). Effect of
c is then calculated as FcE/Fc* where Fc* is the reference mechanically-attached face plates on strong axis
design value for compression multiplied by all factors bending of posts. Presented at the 2002 ASAE
except CP, or: Annual International Meeting, Chicago, IL. ASAE
c = FcE/Fc* = 527 lbf/in2/ 765 lbf/in2 = 0.689 Paper No. 024003. ASAE, St Joseph, MI.
Holstein A. J., & Bohnhoff., D. R. (2013). Bending ASTM D3200 Establishing recommended design
properties of wood I-sections fabricated with screws stresses for round timber construction poles. ASTM
and polyurethane adhesive. J. Struct. Eng., 139(11): International, West Conshohocken, PA.
2019-2027. www.astm.org
8.14.2 Normative References ASTM D5456 Standard specifications for evaluation of
structural composite lumber products. ASTM
AITC 117-2004 Standard specification for structural International, West Conshohocken, PA.
glued laminated timber of softwood species. www.astm.org
ANSI/AITC A190.1-2007 Structural glued laminated AWPA U1-13 User specification for treated wood.
timber. American Wood Protection Association,
ANSI/ASAE EP559.1 Design requirements and bending Stevensville, MD.
properties for mechanically laminated wood IIC-ES Evaluation Report ESR-1387. Evaluation
assemblies. Subject: Structural Composite Lumber:
ANSI/AWC NDS-2012 ASD/LRFD National Design Timberstrand® Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL),
Specification for Wood Construction. Parallam® Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL), And
Microllam® Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL);
ASTM A153 Standard specification for zinc coating Timberstrand® LSL Rim Board; And TJ® Rim
(hot-dip) on iron and steel hardware. ASTM Board. Report Holder: Weyerhaeuser. International
International, West Conshohocken, PA. Code Council Evaluation Service. www.icc-es.org
www.astm.org
IIC-ES Evaluation Report ESR-2403. Evaluation
ASTM D25 Specification for round timber piles. ASTM Subject: LP® Solidstart® Laminated Strand Lumber
International, West Conshohocken, PA. (LSL) and Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL). Report
www.astm.org Holder: Louisiana Pacific Corporation. International
ASTM D1990 Standard practice for establishing Code Council Evaluation Service. www.icc-es.org
allowable properties for visually-graded dimension IIC-ES Evaluation Report ESR-1040. Evaluation
lumber from in-grade tests of full-size specimens. Subject: Versa-Lam® and Versa-Rim® Laminated
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. Veneer Lumber. Report Holder: Boise Cascade
www.astm.org Wood Products, LLC. International Code Council
ASTM D2899 Practice for establishing allowable Evaluation Service. www.icc-es.org
stresses for round piles. ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org