SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we must use
punctuation to indicate these places of emphasis. This resource should help to clarify when and how to use various
marks of punctuation.

COMMAS: QUICK RULES (,)

The comma is a valuable, useful punctuation device because it separates the structural elements of
sentences into manageable segments. The rules provided here are those found in traditional
handbooks; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific purposes, these rules may be
broken.

The following is a short guide to get you started using commas. This resource also includes
sections with more detailed rules and examples.

QUICK GUIDE TO COMMAS

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven
coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.

The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.

Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main
clause.

a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after,
although, as, because, if, since, when, while.

While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.

Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.

If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.

When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it
(except for cases of extreme contrast).

Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.

Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.

Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct

because it is an example of extreme contrast)

b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and
infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional
phrases (over four words).

Having finished the test, he left the room.

To get a seat, you'd better come early.

After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.

The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.

c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.

Well, perhaps he meant no harm.

Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.

However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are
not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of
the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

 If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word,

does the sentence still make sense?
 Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the
flow of words in the original sentence?

 If you move the element to a different position

in the sentence, does the sentence still make
sense?

If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential
and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:

Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to

meet.

Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.

Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with
that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb
expressing mental action are always essential.

That clauses after nouns:

The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.

The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.

That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:

She believes that she will be able to earn an A.

He is dreaming that he can fly.

I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.

They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.

Examples of other essential elements (no commas):

Students who cheat only harm themselves.

The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.

The candidate who had the least money lost the election.

Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):

Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.

The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.

Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.

Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.

Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.

It is up to you, Jane, to finish.

She was, however, too tired to make the trip.

Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.

5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end

unemployment.

The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong

revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure
never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with
non-coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun;
neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are
coordinate by asking the following questions:

 Does the sentence make sense if the

adjectives are written in reverse order?
 Does the sentence make sense if the
adjectives are written with and between
them?

If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by
a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

He was a difficult, stubborn child. (Coordinate)

They lived in a white frame house. (Non-coordinate)

She often wore a gray wool shawl. (Non-coordinate)

Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (Coordinate)

The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-

coordinate.)

The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are

coordinate.)

7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to
indicate a distinct pause or shift.

He was merely ignorant, not stupid.

The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.

You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?

The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.

8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of
the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without
causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must
remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)

Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)

Incorrect: Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)

Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (Correct)

Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (Correct)

9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day),
addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.

July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington,

DC?

Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.

(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The

average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."

"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."

In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"

11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.

SEMICOLON (;)

Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:

I am going home; I intend to stay there.

It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.

You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the
following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore,
consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:

I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.

It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic anyway.

They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to camp for the

night.

Rule Use a semicolon in place of a period to separate two sentences where the
1. conjunction has been left out.

Examples Call me tomorrow; I will give you my answer then.

:
I have paid my dues; therefore, I expect all the privileges
listed in the contract.

Rule It is preferable to use a semicolon before introductory words such as

2. namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance
when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a
comma after the introductory word.

Examples You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example,
: sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing will make the trip
better.

As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag

and a tent are not optional.

Rule Use either a semicolon or a comma before introductory words such as

3. namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance
when they introduce a list following a complete sentence. Use a comma
after the introductory word.

Examples You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example,
: sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

You will want to bring many backpacking items, for example,

sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

Rule 4. Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the
units contain commas.
 Example This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho;
: Los Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee.

Rule Use the semicolon between two sentences joined by a coordinating

5. conjunction when one or more commas appear in the first sentence.

Examples When I finish here, I will be glad to help you; and that is a
: promise I will keep.

If she can, she will attempt that feat; and if her husband is
able, he will be there to see her.

THE COLON

A mark of punctuation ( : ) used after a statement (usually an independent clause) that introduces a
quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series.
Also, the colon often appears after the
salutation of a business letter and between numbers or groups of numbers in expressions of time
(3:00 a.m.) and ratios (1:5).

Rule Use the colon after a complete sentence to introduce a list of items when
1. introductory words such as namely, for example, or that is do not appear.

Examples You may be required to bring many items: sleeping bags, pans,
: and warm clothing.

I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.

I want an assistant who can do the following: (1) input data, (2)
write reports, and (3) complete tax forms.

Rule A colon should not precede a list unless it follows a complete sentence;
2. however, the colon is a style choice that some publications allow.

Examples If a waitress wants to make a good impression on her

: customers and boss, she should (a) dress appropriately,
(b) calculate the bill carefully, and (c) be courteous to
customers.

There are three ways a waitress can make a good impression

on her boss and her customers:
(a) Dress appropriately.
(b) Calculate the bill carefully.
(c) Be courteous to customers.

I want an assistant who can (1) input data, (2) write reports,
and (3) complete tax forms.

Rule Capitalization and punctuation are optional when using single words or
3. phrases in bulleted form. If each bullet or numbered point is a complete
 Examples I want an assistant who can do the following:
: (a) input data,
(b) write reports, and
(c) complete tax forms.

The following are requested:

(a) Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
(b) Wet suits for snorkeling.
(c) Introductions to the local dignitaries.
OR
The following are requested:
(a) wool sweaters for possible cold weather
(b) wet suits for snorkeling
(c) introductions to the local dignitaries

NOTE: With lists, you may use periods after numbers and
letters instead of parentheses.

These are some of the pool rules:

1. Do not run.
2. If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
3. Have fun!

Rule Use a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences when the
4. second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no
coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the sentences. If only one
sentence follows the colon, do not capitalize the first word of the new
sentence. If two or more sentences follow the colon, capitalize the first
word of each sentence following.

Examples I enjoy reading: novels by Kurt Vonnegut are among my

: favorites.

Garlic is used in Italian cooking: It greatly enhances the flavor

of pasta dishes. It also enhances the flavor of eggplant.

Rule 5. Use the colon to introduce a direct quotation that is more than three lines
in length. In this situation, leave a blank line above and below the quoted
material. Single space the long quotation. Some style manuals say to
indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent
only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.

Example The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter:
:
Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate
patterns of burned moth wings in the translucent glass of the
overhead light. Her father was in “hyper mode” again where
nothing could calm him down.

He’d been talking nonstop for a week about remodeling

projects, following her around the house as she tried to escape
his chatter. He was just about to crash, she knew.
 Rule 6. Use the colon to follow the salutation of a business letter even when
addressing someone by his/her first name. Never use a semicolon after a
salutation. A comma is used after the salutation for personal
correspondence.

Example Dear Ms. Rodriguez:

:

The colon is not necessary in the sentence above because the verb does the work of introducing the
three friends. You can check this sentence by using the test we just mentioned. It would seem
awkward to read this sentence, “My three favorite friends are, namely, Evelyn, Marlyne, and Ronni.”
The fact that the sentence is awkward when you read it with namely is an indication that the colon
is unnecessary. Remember, the colon shows emphasis and, therefore, you want the reader to stop at
the colon before preceding on to whatever it is you are introducing.

PARENTHESIS ( )

USE PARENTHESES [ ( ) ] TO INCLUDE MATERIAL THAT YOU WANT TO DE-EMPHASIZE or that wouldn't
normally fit into the flow of your text but you want to include nonetheless. If the material within
parentheses appears within a sentence, do not use a capital letter or period to punctuate that
material, even if the material is itself a complete sentence. (A question mark or exclamation mark,
however, might be appropriate and necessary.) If the material within your parentheses is written as
a separate sentence (not included within another sentence), punctuate it as if it were a separate
sentence.

1. Use a set of parentheses around a word or phrase in a sentence that adds information or
makes an idea more clear. (Punctuation is placed inside the parentheses to mark the
material in the parentheses. Punctuation is placed outside the parentheses to mark the
entire sentence. When the material in parentheses is longer than one sentence [such as
this information], then the punctuation for the final sentence is placed inside the
parentheses.)

Example: Your essay (all nine pages of it) is on my desk.

2. Do not use parentheses within parentheses. Use brackets in place of the inner
parentheses.

Example: Please refer to Julius Caesar (Act IV, scene i [page 72]).

DASH (_)

The dash should be used to indicate a sudden change of ideas, but should be used sparingly.

The dash may be used for emphasis or for visual effect.

1. Use a pair of dashes to indicate a sudden interruption in a sentence. (One handwritten

 dash is twice as long as a hyphen. One typewritten dash is one hyphen followed by
another.)

Example: There is one thing--actually several things--that I need to tell you.

2. Use a dash to attach an afterthought to an already complete sentence.

Example: Sarah bought a new pet yesterday--a boa constrictor.

3. Use a dash after a series of introductory elements.

Example: Murder, armed robbery, assault--he has a long list of felonies on his record.

QUOTATION MARKS (“ “)

The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either
spoken or written) that has come from somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to
designate speech acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them
when working with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical
defense against accidental plagiarism and an excellent practice in academic honesty. The
following rules of quotation mark use are the standard in the United States, although it may
be of interest that usage rules for this punctuation do vary in other countries.

The following covers the basic use of quotation marks. For details and exceptions consult
the separate sections of this guide.

DIRECT QUOTATIONS

Direct quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.

1. Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the
end of the quoted material.

2. Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete
sentence.

Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, "The alien spaceship

appeared right before my own two eyes."

3. Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the
original material's complete sentence.

Although Mr. Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the spaceship

"certainly takes the cake" when it comes to unexplainable activity.

4. If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the
quotation.
"I didn't see an actual alien being," Mr. Johnson said, "but I sure wish I had."

5. In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes
before the final quotation mark. It is important to realize also that when you are using MLA
or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.

When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly
in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and
enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that."
The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and
the error is not your own.

Mr. Johnson says of the experience, "it's made me reconsider the existence of

extraterestials [sic]."

6. Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short.
Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing original
thought or material (they may also bore a reader who wants to know primarily what YOU
have to say on the subject).

INDIRECT QUOTATIONS

Indirect quotations are not exact wordings but rather rephrasings or summaries of another
person's words. In this case, it is not necessary to use quotation marks. However, indirect
quotations still require proper citations, and you will be commiting plagiarism if you fail to
do so.

Mr. Johnson, a local farmer, reported last night that he saw an alien spaceship on his own

property.

Many writers struggle with when to use direct quotations versus indirect quotations. Use
the following tips to guide you in your choice.

Use direct quotations when the source material uses language that is particularly striking
or notable. Do not rob such language of its power by altering it.

Martin Luther King Jr. believed that the end of slavery was important and of great hope to

millions of slaves done horribly wrong.

The above should never stand in for:

Martin Luther King Jr. said of the Emancipation Proclamation, "This momentous decree

came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in

the flames of withering injustice."

Use an indirect quotation (or paraphrase) when you merely need to summarize key
incidents or details of the text.

Use direct quotations when the author you are quoting has coined a term unique to her or
his research and relevant within your own paper.

When to use direct quotes versus indirect quotes is ultimately a choice you'll learn a feeling
for with experience. However, always try to have a sense for why you've chosen your quote.
In other words, never put quotes in your paper simply because your teacher says, "You must
use quotes."

ADDITIONAL PUNCTUATION RULES WHEN USING QUOTATION MARKS

Use a comma to introduce a quotation after a standard dialogue tag, a brief introductory
phrase, or a dependant clause.

The detective said, "I am sure who performed the murder."As D.H. Nachas explains, "The

gestures used for greeting others differ greatly from one culture to another."

Put commas and periods within quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference
follows.

He said, "I may forget your name, but I never forget a face."

History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "civilization."

Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing" (24).

Place colons and semicolons outside closed quotation marks.

Williams described the experiment as "a definitive step forward"; other scientists

disagreed.

Benedetto emphasizes three elements of what she calls her "Olympic journey": family

support, personal commitment, and great coaching.

Place a question mark or exclamation point within closing quotation marks if the
punctuation applies to the quotation itself. Place the punctuation outside the closing
quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the whole sentence.

Phillip asked, "Do you need this book?"}

Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?
QUOTATION MARKS USE

1. Use quotation marks before and after a direct quote. If the speaker tag interrupts
the quoted material, then two sets of quotation marks are needed. However, do
not put quotation marks around the speaker tag.

Example: "I think my leg is broken," Jesse whimpered.

Example: Did Mrs. Steele just say, "We are going to have a test today"?

Example: "I can't move." Maria whispered, "I'm too scared."

2. Put quotation marks around the titles of short works, such as articles, songs, short
stories, or poems.

Example: Have you heard the song "Love Me Tender," by Elvis Presley?

3. Place quotation marks around words, letters, or symbols that are slang or being
discussed or used in a special way. (Underlining can be used for the same
purpose.)

Example: I have a hard time spelling "miscellaneous."

Example: I have a hard time spelling miscellaneous.

4. Use single quotation marks for quotation marks within quotations.

Example: "Have your read the poem, 'The Raven,' by Edgar Alan Poe?" I asked Chris.

5. Any punctuation used goes to the left of a quotation mark. However, if the
punctuation is used to punctuate the whole sentence and not just what is inside
the quotation marks, then it goes to the right.

Example: Have you read the poem, "Annabel Lee"?

ITALICS

THE APOSTROPHE

The apostrophe has three uses:

Forming Possessives of Nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..."
phrase. For example:

the boy's hat = the hat of the boy

three days' journey = journey of three days

If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is
needed!

room of the hotel = hotel room

door of the car = car door
leg of the table = table leg

Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to
create one.

 add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):

The owner's car

James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable. For plural, proper nouns that are
possessive, use an apostrophe after the’s’: "The Eggles' presentation was good."
The Eggles are a husband and wife consultant team.)

 add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:

the children's game

the geese's honking

 add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:

two cats' toys

three friends' letters

 add 's to the end of compound words:

my brother-in-law's money

 add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:

Todd and Anne's apartment

Showing omission of letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which
one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission.
Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to
create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are
some examples:

don't = do not
I'm = I am
he'll = he will
who's = who is
shouldn't = should not
didn't = did not
could've= could have (NOT "could of"!)
'60 = 1960

Forming plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule
appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To
form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for
apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep
in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some
examples:

p's and q's = a phrase taken from the early days of the printing press when letters were set
in presses backwards so they would appear on the printed page correctly. The expression
was used commonly to mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also
indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thank-yous."

Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.

three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4

There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom.

many &s = many ampersands

That printed page has too many &s on it.

the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969

The 1960s were a time of great social unrest.

Don't use apostrophes for personal pronouns, the relative pronoun who, or for noun plurals.

Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns
already show possession — they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are
all possessive pronouns. However, indefinite pronouns, such as one, anyone, other, no one,
and anybody, can be made possessive. Here are some examples:

wrong: his' book

correct: his book
correct: one's book
correct: anybody's book
wrong: Who's dog is this?
Correct: Whose dog is this?

Wrong: The group made it's decision.

Correct: The group made its decision.

(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a
possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple
way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive
his or hers, so don't do it with its!)

wrong: a friend of yours'

correct: a friend of yours

Wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.

Correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.

Proofreading for apostrophes

A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following
strategies to proofread for apostrophes:

 If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see
if it needs an apostrophe.
 If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify
it with a rule for using apostrophes.

APOSTROPHE USE

1. Use an apostrophe in a contraction to show where letters have been omitted, or

left out.

Example: I don't think I can do this. (The apostrophe shows that the letter

2. Use an apostrophe when you leave out the first two numbers of a year.

She was in the class of '93.

3. For a singular noun that does not end in -s, add’s.

Example: The lady's hands were trembling.

4. For a one syllable singular noun that ends in possessive.

Example: It is my boss's birthday today.

5. If a singular noun has more than one syllable and ends in -s it is acceptable to use’s
OR to use only an apostrophe after the -s. (It is important to remain consistent.)

Example: The metropolis's citizens were very friendly during our visit.
Acceptable: The metropolis' citizens were very friendly during our visit.

6. To form the possessive of a singular proper noun ending in -s, it is acceptable to

add’s OR to add only an apostrophe. (It is important to remain consistent.)

Example: Mr. Ness's classroom is very inviting.

Acceptable: Mr. Ness' classroom is very inviting.

7. If a plural noun ends in -s, add an apostrophe after the -s.

Example: The ladies' restroom was a mess.

8. If a plural noun does not end with an -s, form the possessive by using an
apostrophe before an -s.

Example: The mice's tails were caught in a trap.

9. For a compound noun, place the possessive ending after the last word.

Example: My mother-in-law's car was in the garage during the hail storm. (singular)

Example: My brothers-in-law's cars were damaged in the hail storm. (plural)

10. To show possession of the same object by more than one noun, only make the last
noun in the series possessive.

Example: I'm looking for Mrs. Garcia, Mrs. Lee, and Miss Carter's office. (They all share
the same office.)
Example: I'm looking for Mrs. Garcia's, Mrs. Lee's, and Miss Carter's offices. (Each
person has her own office.)
11. Use an apostrophe to form the plural of a number, letter, sign, or word used as a
word.

Example: Check to see that you used the +'s and -'s correctly.

HYPHEN

Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one
word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the
same listings for the following compounds:

hair stylist

hairsplitter

hair-raiser

Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is
obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the
uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.

1.Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:

a one-way street

chocolate-covered peanuts

well-known author

However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

The peanuts were chocolate covered.

The author was well known.

2.Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

Forty-six

sixty-three

Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3.Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)

semi-independent (but semiconscious)

shell-like (but childlike)

4.Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect;
between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:

ex-husband

self-assured

mid-September

all-inclusive

mayor-elect

anti-American
T-shirt

pre-Civil War

mid-1980s

5.Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break
only between syllables:

pref-er-ence

sell-ing

in-di-vid-u-al-ist

6.For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:

mass-

produced

self-

conscious

7.For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is
doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at
the suffix itself:

plan-ning

run-ning

driv-ing

call-ing

8.Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't
put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:

Lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)

Eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of

a line.)

WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to
write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and
revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a
piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an
organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to One Paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you
begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some
simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea
and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have
several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the
paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of
them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a Paragraph

To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity,

Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these
traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you
construct effective paragraphs.

SPELLING