Soil Borne Pathogens of Cereals: Cimmyt

''
CIMMYT
Soil Borne Pathogens of Cereals

Reference Material
Reference material to accompany the "Training Manual of the International Master

Class in Soil Borne Pathogens of Cereals"
Eski~ehir, Turkey, June 2003
Compiled by Dr J.M. Nicol, CIMMYT Pathologist
==============
Grains Research&
Development Corporation
Kirkhouse
Trust
PROGRAM MASTER CLASS ' Soil Borne Pathogens of Cereals' Turkey June 2003
Prepared by Dr Julie Nicol, CIMMYT International
Sponsored by ACI AR, CIMMYT, GRDC , !CARDA, GOAR, The ATSE CraWford Fund, The Kirkhouse Trust
Day Date Item Staff

Saturday 14th Participants arrive - welcome dinner hosted by Australian Embassador All
Sunday 15th Bus departure from Hote.1at 8.30am. Visit Cifteler Nematode Trial/Farmer discussion and stop for lunch at JN/NB
Sakarya and introduce each other.
Monday 16th 7. 30am breakfast
8.30-9.00am Opening, Course outline, Introduction to Staff and Housekeeping JN
9.00-9.45am Introduction and Donor Summary LB/JN
9.45-10.30am Key Features of Soil Borne Pathogens LB/IR
10. 30-11 .OOam Mornina Tea
11 .00-12.00am Introduction to Soil Borne Pathogens HW/RR
12.00-12.JOpm Student discussion about Soil Borne Pathogens Led by LB and JN
12.30-1. 30pm Lunch
1.30-5.30pm Practical covering use of microscopes, nematode extraction and isolation of fungi JN , Local staff, NB ,IR, LB
3.30-4.00pm Afternoon Tea

Take home message from each trainee exchanged
5.30-6.30pm spare time
6. 30- 7. 30pm Dinner
8.00-9.00pm Slide show and presentation by 4 lecturers - each lecturer 10 minutes and 5 minute LB and JN to lead
question
Tuesday 17th 7.30am breakfast

8.30-10.JOam Biology I Taxonomy of Fungi LB, BT
10.30-11.00pm Morning Tea
11.00-12.30pm Crown Rot Biology and Control LB . BT
12.30-1 .30pm Lunch
1.30-5.30pm Laboratory Session: Fusarium LB.BT
5.30-6.00pm Take home message from each trainee exchanaed
6. 30- 7. 30pm Dinner I
I
8.00-9.30pm Slide show and presentation by 6 trainees - each trainee 10 minutes plus 5 minutes LB and JN to lead
questioning
~
Wednesday 18th 7. 30am breakfast /')~

8.30-10.JOam Biology I Taxonomy of Plant Parasitic Nematodes IR, HE \1 \ ~ ,
10. 30-11 . OOpm Morning Tea - I I ' I

11.00-12.30pm Cereal Cyst Nematode and Root Lesion Nematode IR, RR I
12.30-1 .30pm Lunch

I
-
1.30-5.00pm Laboratory Session: CCN and RLN IR, RR , HE
4.00-4.20pm take home message from each trainee exchanged
4.30 pm trip into Eskisehir for tour and dinner
Thursday 19th 7.30am breakfast

8.30-9.30am Genetics of Resistance All staff
9.30-1 O.OOam Discussion about Resistance HW
10.00-10.30am Morninq Tea
11.30-12.30pm Screening for Soil Borne Pathogens and identified resistant sources i) root rots, ii) HW, RR
nematodes
12.30-1.30pm Lunch
1.30-3.00pm Breeding Techniques and Strategies for Soil Borne Pathogens HW, RR, MT
3.30-5.30pm Field Visit of Eskisehir Station Breeding Program HB/MK/NB
5.30-6.00pm Take home message from each trainee exchanged
6.30-7.30pm Dinner
8.00-9.30pm Slide show and presentation by 6 trainees - each trainee 10 minutes and 5 minutes LB and JN to lead
question
Friday 20th 6. OOam breakfast

6.45am departure for Konya
12.00pm Lunch in Konya; 12.40pm praying.
2.00-2.30pm Introduction Bahri Dadgas Field Station Mudur, AB , HH
2.30-5.30pm Root Rot Field Trials Ahmet Bagci/HH/NB/JN
Dinner in Konya at Hotel
Saturday 21st Free day - visit Caooadochia
Sunday 22nd early morning walk around Kanya (possibly visit Mevlana). Leave Konya 11.00am. Stop for tour seed
station with 1pm lunch. Then drive back to Eskishehir.
7.30pm Dinner Eskisehir
Monday 23rd 7.30am breakfast
8.30-10.00am Take-all and Common Root Rot Biology HW
10.00-10.30am Morning Tea
10.30-12.30am Other Soil-Borne FungalNiral diseases BT, NB , HW, JN
12. 30-1 .30pm Lunch
1.30-5.00pm Laboratory Session : Fungi LB , BT, HW, NB , RR, JN
5.30-6.00pm Take home 'message from each trainee exchanged
6. 30- 7. 30pm Dinner
question
.
Tuesday 24th 7.30am breakfast
8.30-10.JOam Population Dynamics and Yield Loss to Nematodes IR, RR, Input from JN
10.30-11 .00am Mornina Tea
11.00-12.JOam Other Plant Parasitic Nematodes IR, RR, input from JN
12.30-1.30pm Lunch
1.30-3.30pm Laboratory Session: Other Plant Parasitic Nematodes HE, IR, RR
3.30-4.00pm Afternoon· Tea
4.00-5.JOpm Integrated Disease Management AY
5.30-6.00om Take home messaae from each trainee exchanaed
6.30-7.30pm Dinner
question
Wednesday 25th 7. 30am breakfast

8.30-9.30am Molecular Technologies MT
9.30 -10.00 am Active Discussion about Molecular Tools
10.00-10.30am Molecular Diagnostics and Marker Assisted Selection. MT, LB, RR
10.30-11.00pm Mornina Tea
11.00-12.30am Laboratory Session: Marker Assisted Selection. MT, LB, RR
12.30-1.30pm Lunch
1.30-3.00pm Web Access Alison Bentley, RZ
3.30-4.00pm Networking JN
4.00-5.30pm Group Work on Soil Disease Management Problem All staff
6.30- 7. 30pm Dinner
5.30-6.00pm Take home messaae from each trainee exchanaed
Thursday 26th 7. 30am breakfast

8.30-10.30am International Breeding Programs and lntergration of Root Disease Resistance All staff
Breeding
10.30-11.00om Mornina Tea
11.00-12.00pm Field Day Visit Cifteler
12.00-1. 30pm Lunch with farmers
1.30-2.30pm Summary of Daily Reports JN
2.30-5.30pm Individual Work Plans and LaboratoryfText Consolidation Time all possible staff
5.30-6.00pm Take home messaae from each trainee exchanaed
6.30-7.30pm Dinner
Friday 27th 7.30am breakfast

8.30-9.JOam Exam
9.30-10.30pm Morning Tea
10.30-1.00pm Individual Work Plans and Laboratory/Text Consolidation Time all possible staff
1.00-2.00pm Lunch
.I 2 ;00-4 . 0~pm Work Plans Discosse.d ~ith staff in_sm_a ll groups. ,,Other time Lab9r.atoryfText all possible staff
, __
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I a: ion. . ' .~> < -;(J "- ~ . . .. "" ' --
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. ·- '-.I 4.00-4:30om Afternoon Tea ·- -
~ -;.. I ... 1. 4.30-5.30pm Ex ams returned and discussed all possible staff
5.30-6:00pm Round up discussions
,.. , 5. 30-6.30pm Free Time
7. OOpm Dinner in Eskisehir with Eskisehir Staff
Saturday 28th Travel to Ankara in morning ;(
Afternoon - visit around Ankara - finalising information

6.30pm Farewell Dinner
Sunday 29th Participants leave
(.
r
' RESOURCE CONTACT LIST
Abbreviations, Name and Position of person involved Email contact
1 ' AY - Dr Amor Yahyaoui, Pathologist !CARDA Syria A.YAHYAOUl@CGIAR.ORG
2 LB - Prof,.. Lester Burgess, Mycologist, Sydney University, Australia I. burgess@agec.us yd.edu .au
3 -, IR - Dr Ian Riley, Nematologist, Adelaide University, Australia ian.riley@adelaide.edu.au
4 HW - Dr Hugh Wallwork, Pathologist/Breeder, SARDI, Australia Wallwork.Hugh@saugov.sa.gov.au
5 ., . RR - Dr Roger Rivoal, Nematologist, INRA, France rivoal@lerheu.rennes.inra.fr
6 JN - Dr Julie Nicol, Pathologist/Breeder, CIMMYT, Turkey jnicol@cgiar.org
7 MT - Dr Mucella Tekeoglu, Molecular Biologist, ATAE, Eskisehir, Turkey TEKEOGLU@ttnet.net.tr
8
.. HE - Dr Halil Eleckioglu, Nematologist, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey halile@rnail.cu .edu.tr
9 BT - Dr Berna Tunali , Mycolgist, PPI, Ankara, Turkey berna tunali@ankara .taaem .aov.tr
10 ' ; . AB - Dr Ahmet Bagci, Lecturer, Selcuk Uni, Konya , Turkey. Formerly Agronomist/Breeder TBDAE, Konya, Turkey bagcia@hotrnail.com
11 , NB - Dr Necmettin Bolat, Pathologists, ATAE, Eskisehir, Turkey necbolat@hotrnail.com
12 · MK - Dr Mesut Keser, TAGEM, Ankara (former Breeder/Pathologist, ATAE, Eskisehir), Turkey mesutkeser@hotmail.com
13 ;!: ..... HB - Dr Hans Braun, Breeder/Pathologist, CIMMYT, Turkey H.J.BRAUN@CGIAR.ORG
14 . HH - Mr Hakan Hekinman, Pathologist, TBDAE, Konya , Turkey hakanhekirnhan@hotrnail.com
15 . -. NC - Nail Cola!(, Breeder, ATAE ,'Eskisehir, Turkey
16
17
~
.. AB - Ms Alison Bentley, University of Sydney, Australia

RZ - Dr Rebec.ca Zwart, Lesley Research Centre, Toowoomba , Qld, Australia
aben2271@rnail.usyd.edu.au
Rebecca.Zwart@dpi.qld.gov.au
Reference Collection -Soil Borne Pathogens of Cereals
51
Compiled by Dr Julie M Nicol, CIMMYT Pathologist, to accompany the Training Manual of the 1
International Master Class in Soil Borne Pathogens, Turkey June 2003.
Fungal Related
Book. Laboratory Manual for Fusarium Research - 3rd Edition

Burgess L.W., Summerell B.A., Bullock S., Gott K.P. and Backhouse D. 1994.
Fusarium Research Laboratory, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Sydney and Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
University of Sydney, Australia.
ISBN 0-86758-849-7 pg. 133.
1. Crown Rot of Wheat

Burgess L.W., Backhouse D., Summerell B.A. and Swan L.J. 2001.
Chapter 20 in Fusarium - Paul E Nelson Memorial Symposium. Edited by Summerell B.A., Leslie J.F., Backhouse D.
Bryden W.L and Burgess L.W. APS Press, The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of
America
ISBN 0-89054-268-6. pgs. 271-294.
2. Root Rots
Nicol J.M. (2003)
Chapter in Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategies. In: Royo C., Nachit M.M., di Fonzo N.,
Araus J.L., Pfeiffer W.H. and Slater GA (eds). Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategies. N.Y. The
Haworth Press, Inc. Book chapter accepted.
3. Fusarium
Windels C.E. 1992.
Chapter in Methods for Research on Soilbome Phytopathogenic Fungi. Edited by Singleton L.L., Mihail J.D. and Rush
C.M .. APS Press, The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America., H. FAO Plant
Production and Protection Series No. 30.
ISBN 0-89054-127-2. pgs. 115-128.
4. Bipolaris
Stack R.W. 1992.
C.M .. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America., H. FAO Plant Production
and Protection Series No. 30.
ISBN 0-89054-127-2. pgs. 94-99.
5. Pythium
Martin F.N. 1992.
ISBN 0-89054-127-2. pgs. 39-49.
6. Rhizoctonia
Carling D.E. and Sumner D.R. 1992.
Chapter in Methods for Research on Soi/borne Phytopathogenic Fungi. Edited by Singleton L.L., Mihail J.D. and Rush
ISBN 0-89054-127-2. pgs. 157-165.
7. Methods for Measurement of Crop Losses Caused by Soilborne

Fungal Pathogens Johnson K.B. 1992.
Chapter in Methods for Research on Soi/borne Phytopathogenic Fungi. Edited by Singleton LU, Mihail J.D. and Rush
Page 1
ISBN 0-89054-127-2. pgs. 236-242.
8. Wheat root heath management and environmental concerns

Cook R.J. (1992)
Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 14: 76-85.
9. Management of wheat and barley root diseases in modern farming

systems
Cook R.J. (2001)
Australasian Plant Pathology 30: 119-126.
Nematode Related
10. Important nematode pests

Nicol J.M. 2002.
Chapter in Bread Wheat Improvement and Production. Edited by Curtis B.C., Rajaram S. and Gomez Macpherson, H. FAO
Plant Production and Protection Series No. 30.
ISBN 92-S-104809-6. pgs. 345-366.
11. Nematode Pests of Cereals

Rivoal R. and Cook R. 1993.
Chapter 7 in Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Temperarte Agriculture. Edited by Evans K., Trudgill D.L. and Webster J.M.CAB
International, CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxon, United Kingdom.
ISBN 0-85198-808-3. pgs. 259-303.
12. Global Importance of Cyst (Heterodera spp.) and Lesion Nematodes

(Pratylenchus spp.) on Cereals: yield loss, population dynamics, use of
host resistance and integration of molecular tools.
Nicol J. M., Rivoal R., Taylor S and Zaharieva M. (In Press). Submitted to the International Journal of Nematology.
Book. Advisory Services for Nematode Pests - Operational Guidelines

Stirling G., Nicol J.M. and Reay, F. 1999.
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Kingston ACT Australia.
ISBN 0-642-57835-4. pg. 111.
13. Genetics of resistance and parasitism.

Cook R. and Rivoal R. 1998.
Chapter 13 in The Cyst Nematodes. Edited by Sharma, S.B. Chapman & Hall, London
ISBN 0 412 75530 0. pgs. 322-252.
14. Resistance to Plant-parasitic Nematodes: History, Current Use and

Future Potential
Starr J.L., Bridge J. and Cook R. 2002.
Chapter 1 in Plant Resistance to Parasitic Nematodes. Edited by Starr J.L., Cook R. and Bridge J. CAB International, CABI
Publishing, Wallingford, Oxon, United Kingdom.
ISBN 0-85199-466-0. pgs. 1-22.
15. Concepts and Consequences of Resistance

Roberts P.A. 2002.
ISBN 0-85199-466-0. pgs. 23-42.
Page 2
16. Population Dynamics and Control of Heterodera avenae - A Review
with some Original Results
Andersson S. 1982
EPPO Bulletin 12(4): 463-275
17. Cyst Nematodes: Globodera and Heterodera Species

Cook R. and Noel G.R. 2002.
Chapter 4 in Plant Resistance to Parasitic Nematodes. Edited by Starr J.L., Cook Rand Bridge J. CAB International, CABI
ISBN 0-85199-466-0. pgs. 71-106.
18. Ditylenchus Species

Plowright R.A., caubel G. and Mizen K.A. 2002.
ISBN 0-85199-466-0. pgs. 107-140.
19. Migratory Endoparasites: Pratylenchus and Radopholus Species

De Waele D. and Elsen A.. 2002.
ISBN 0-85199-466-0. pgs. 175-206.
General Section - Field related

Book -Cereal Root and Crown Diseases.
Wallwork H., 2000.
GRDC Publications Coordinator, Kingston, canberra, Australia.
ISBN: 1-875477-80-2. pg. 58.
Book - Wheat Diseases and Pests: a guide for field identification.

Prescott J.M., Burnett P.A., Saari E.E. et al., 1986.
CIMMYT. Mexico, D.F., Mexico. pg. 135.
Book - Common Diseases of Small Grain Cereals - A Guide to

Identification.
Zillinksky F.J., 1983.
Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo. pg. 141.
Book - Seed Testing of Maize and Wheat - a Laboratory Guide.

Edited by Warham E.J., Butler L.D. and Sutton B.C.
CIMMYT and CAB International
ISBN: 968-6923-70-5. pg. 84.
Book - Cereal Root Diseases - Trace Elements and Interactions- Farmer

Training Resource Manual 2002.
Hannam R.J., AgAcademy™ 2002. pg. 50.
Book- Guide to Bread Wheat Breeding at CIMMYT.

Van Ginkel M., Trethowan R.M., Ammar K., Wang J. and Lillemo M. 2002.
Wheat Special Report No. 5 (Revised Edition). Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT
ISSN: 0187-7787
Page3
General Section - Laboratory Related
Book -Practical Guide to the Identification of Selected Diseases of Wheat

and Barley - Book.
Gilchrist-Saavedra L., Fuentes-Davila G., and Martinez-Cano C. 1997.
Mexico, D.F.:CIMMYT, pg. 64.
Book - Cereal Disease Methodology Manual

Stubbs R.W., Prescott J., Saari E.E. and Dubin H.J. 1986.
Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, Mexico. pg. 46.
20. Appendix A (media for working with soil borne fungi)

Appendix A in Methods for Research on Soi/borne Phytopathogenic Fungi. 1992. Edited by Singleton LL., Mihail J.D. and
Rush C.M .. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America., H. FAO Plant
Production and Protection Series No. 30.
ISBN 0-89054-127-2. pgs. 243-259.
21. CIMMYT's approach to identify and use resistance to Nematodes and

Soil-Borne Fungi, in developing superior wheat germplasm.
Nicol J.M., Rivoal R., Trethowan R.M., van Ginkel M., Mergoum M. and Singh R.S. 2001.
In Wheat in a Global Environment Edited by Bedo Z. and Lang L., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
ISBN 0-7923-6722-7. pgs. 381-389.
Page 4
Chapter 20
CROWN ROT OF \VHEAT
Lester W. Burgess, David Backhouse, Brett A. Summerell

and Linda. J. Swan
Introduction
Crown rot is one of a number of diseases of smal I gram cereals caused by
Fusarium species. Its characteristic feature is infection of the crowns, or
stem tissue at or near the soil surface, by soil or residue borne inoculum.
Crown rot, caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum (formerly known as
Fusarium graminearum Group 1) (I), is the most important Fusari11111
disease of wheat in Australia and is important in a number of other
regions. The disease is generally associated with semi-arid areas where
wheat normally matures under hot dry conditions. The crown rot fungus
has a wide host range and affects most temperate cereals and a number of
grasses, but is most important economically on bread and durum \vheats,
barley and triticale. In Australia the practice of retaining stubble residues
on the soil surface rather than stubble burning has led to a s1g111ficant
increase in disease mcidence over the last decade in some areas. The
increasing popularity of durum wheats, which are quite susceptible to the
crown rot fungus, has also contributed to this increase in disease
incidence.
The symptoms of the disease, its economic importance, the nature
of the pathogen and the influence of environmental factors and cultural
practices on the parasitic phase and survival phases of the disease cycle,
are considered in the opening sections of this chapter. The subsequent
sections are concerned with the key factors affecting the epidemiology of
crown rot together with a summary of approaches to managing the
disease. The parasitic phase is defined as the period immediately prior to
penetration of the plant when the pathogen is exposed tot he e fleets of
other microflora and fauna and the post-penetration phase when the
activity of the pathogen is largely mediated by the host-parasite
interaction. The survival phase is taken as the period from harvest to the
initiation of the pre-penetration phase of infection.
Distribution and economic importance

Crown rot of wheat was first recorded on wheat in 1951 on the Darling
Downs in Queensland (Qld), Australia by McKnight and described later
by McKnight and Hart (55) and Purss (64). However the pathogen, and
disease, may have been present in Australia well before that. Hynes ( 41)
collected perithecia of Gibberella saubinetii from oat stubble with foot rot
Cited Reference: Burgess L.W., Backhouse D., Summerell B.A. and Swan L.J. 2001. Chapter 20 in
Fusarium - Paul E Nelson Memorial Symposium. Edited by Summerell B.A., Leslie J.F., Backhouse
D. Bryden W.L and Burgess L.W. APS Press, The American Phytopathological Society, St.
Paul,Minnesota, United States of America ISBN 0-89054-268-6. pgs. 271-295.
Crown Rot of Wheat - Burgess et al.
symptoms from coastal New South Wales (N.S.W.). His drawings and
descriptions of ascospores and conidia confirm synonymy with Gibberella
zeae. The inability to produce perithecia in culture, compared with
abundant perithecial formation by a North American isolate, suggest that
Hynes' fungus was F. pseudograminearum. Hynes (41) would thus be the
earliest reliable record of the occurrence of this organism. There arc a
number of early reports of Fusarium foot rot of wheat in Australia where
the disease was attributed to F. culmorum (3, 25, 36, 54). It is likely that
some of these were in fact reports of crown rot where F. cul111orum
occurred in a complex with F. pseudograminearum.
In Australia, crown rot is generally of most economic importance
in the central and northern wheat belt of N.S. W. and in Qld.(57). It also
occurs in the winter cereal areas of Victoria (Vic.), South Australia (S.A.)
and Western Australia (W.A.) (14, 20, 27, 28, 53, 63, 82). The fungus has
been recorded in many uncultivated grassland soils but is generally more
prevalent in temperate and subtropical areas. In the areas where crown rot
is a serious problem F. pseudograminearum has often been recovered
from grassland soils prior to cultivation.
Crown rot is also a significant problem int he Pacific Northwest
and Kansas wheat areas of the U.S.A. (29, 69, 70 Bowden pers. comm.)
and was previously a problem in California (61 ). In addition, the disease
has been reported in the Orange Free State and Cape Province wheat areas
of South Africa (44, 79) as well as Italy (4, 6), Egypt, and Syria (Burgess,
unpublished). The fungus also occurs in Morocco (1). A disease of winter
cereals with symptoms which appear similar to crown rot was reported in
Argentina in 1961 (26).
There is very little objective information on the economic
importance of crown rot on a regional basis, and thus it is not possible to
accurately estimate the I osses caused by the disease. The incidence and
severity oft he disease can vary significantly within and between farms,
localities and regions, even in the same season. In individual fields the
incidence of whiteheads can range from a few scattered plants to 100% of
plants with whiteheads (46). In addition, the disease can reduce grain
yield without the formation of whiteheads, and the disease can also reduce
grain quality (46).
Symptoms
Small necrotic lesions on the coleoptile, subcrown intemode or leaf
sheaths a re the first symptoms of the disease. However, the presence of
uniform browning of the stem bases is the first visually obvious symptom
of crown rot and is normally observed after flowering. Stem browning can
progress up the stem, occasionally as high as the fourth or fifth intemode.
Salmon coloured sporodochia of the fungus may form on nodes,
particularly under leaf sheaths in humid conditions. The crown rot fungus
is primarily a pathogen of the crown and stem tissues.
The formation of whiteheads, heads in which little or no grain is
formed, is the most conspicuous symptom of the disease. The heads, stem
272
and leaves ripen prematurely as a result of disruption to the translocation
system at the base of the plant. The fungus normally does not colonize the
head.
Very occasionally the crown rot pathogen, F. pseudogrami11earu111,
causes head blight in Australia (21 ). This disease only occurs in very wet
seasons when prolific sporulation ofthe fungus occurs on the culm of the
plant. Rainsplash disperses macroconidia from the culm to the head, a
process facilitated by partial lodging during storm rain.
Fusarium graminearum 1 is capable of producing the mycotoxins
zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in infected grain ( 12, 15, 21 ). However,
there is no information on mycotoxin production in stem tissue.
Pathogen
In Australia crown rot is the accepted name for the disease caused by the
fungus Fusarium pseudograminearum. Two populations, designated
Groups 1 and 2, were distinguished within the anamorph species
F. grami11earum (35) following earlier studies by P urss ( 65, 6 6), which
indicated differences in pathogenic abilities within F. graminearum based
on host and disease of origin. Members of the Group 1 population rarely
formed fertile perithecia in nature and did not do so in culture on
carnation leaf-piece agar from a single macroconidium, indicating that
they were heterothallic or poorly fertile or both. Members of the Group 2
population formed abundant perithecia, both in culture and in nature and
were homothallic. The teleomorph of the Group 2 population was
Gibberella zeae. The Group 1 population caused crown rot of temperate
cereals and many grasses, while Group 2 caused head scab of temperate
cereals, stalk and cob rot of maize and stub rot of carnations. The two
populations could not be readily distinguished by the morphology of their
macroconidia.
The results of recent studies by Benyon (9, I 0) and Schilling (67)
on the genetic affinity of Group I and Group 2 of F. graminearum, using
RFLP and RAPD markers, respectively, indicated that these two
populations should be distinguished at species level. Group I and Group 2
were found to be as genetically distinct from each other as either was from
F. culmorum or F. crookwellense. The distinction between Groups I and
2 was confirmed by Aoki and O'Donnell using ~-tubulin gene sequences
(I). These authors described F. pseudograminearum as a new species (I)
and subsequently described the teleomorph, Gibberella coronicola, from
heterothallic crosses in culture (2).
Systematic surveys of the eastern grain belt of Australia (Vic.,
N.S.W., Qld) in the 1970s indicated that F. pseudograminearum was the
dominant pathogen associated with crown rot in this region (24).
Fusarium culmorum was isolated rarely in these surveys. However
subsequent studies by Burgess and Dodman (unpublished) based on a
larger sample size, I 00 diseased plants per site, showed that F. culmorum
was associated with crown rot in 30% of fields on the Darling Downs in
Qld, usually at low levels, but was the dominant pathogen in a few fields.
273
Similar studies in northern N.S.W. failed to detect F. culmorum (45).
Recent results indicate that F. culmorum is more common than previously
thought in the medium and higher rainfall wheat areas of Vic. and is the
dominant crown rot pathogen in some fields (40).
Other fungi are isolated regularly from the crown and stem regions
of plants affected by crown rot in Australia, particularly late in the season.
These fungi include F. equiseti, F. acuminatum, F. ave11aceum,
F. crookwellense and Bipolaris sorokiniana. Of these only
F. crookwellense and B. sorokiniana are pathogens. The latter is common
in some years and is the cause of common root rot. Fusarium
crookwellense is isolated rarely. In comparative studies (5, 49) F.
crookwellense caused more severe root necrosis than F.
pseudograminearum, but was less aggressive as a stem base pathogen.
Fusarium equiseti and F. acuminatum can be common in senescing tissue
and are regarded as saprophytes which act as aggressive secondary
colonizers ( 16, 20, 23).
Paul Nelson had a close association with the studies that led to the
differentiation of the two populations within the anamorph species
F. graminearum and the description of F. crookwellense. He arranged a
colloquium on Fusarium species pathogenic to cereals at the Fusarium
Research Center during a visit by the senior author in 1974. Dr Jack
Oswald, then President of Pennsylvania State University, was a participant
and brought along old records and photos of Fusarium spp. associated
with his earlier studies of cereal crown and foot rots in California.
Following an examination of cultures it became clear that F.
pseudograminearum was the fungus regularly isolated in earlier studies on
crown and foot rot of winter cereals in California. Cultures collected by
the senior author from cereals in California and Washington State in 1974
were confirmed as being morphologically identical to F.
pseudograminearum cultures from Australia during the above visit.
Host range
Fusarium pseudograminearum has been isolated from all winter cereals
and many grass genera including Avena, Agropyron, Bromus, Danthonia,
Dicanthium, Hordeum, Panicum and Phalaris (14, 55, 65, 66, 81, 85, 89).
There are no substantive records of dicotyledonous plants being colonized
parasitically by F. pseudograminearum although it undoubtedly hast he
potential for superficial colonization, especially of plants with weakened
defence mechanisms. It has, for example, been isolated from roots of
subterranean clover from pastures in Vic. but does not cause disease (22).
Of the winter cereals, F. pseudograminearum extensively
colonizes wheat and barley (64). Cereal oats and the grass weed wild oats
or black oats (Avenafatua and A. ludoviciana) are symptomless hosts but
are usually colonized to a lesser extent than wheat or barley. Cereal oats
has been used as a rotation crop to reduce the levels of crown rot using
livestock on the oat stubble to reduce the residues (60). A number of grass
weeds play an important role in the epidemiology of crown rot. 8 arley
274
grass, Hordeum /eporinum, and wild phalaris or paradoxa grass (Phalaris
paradoxa) are important hosts of the fungus in central and northern
N.S.W. These hosts also are colonized extensively and occur commonly
as dense infestations thus generating significant levels of inoculum.
Although wild oats is a symptomless host it can also contribute to
inoculum levels as it is a major in-crop and fallow weed.
Infection, colonization and disease development

Infection of wheat plants occurs through the crown region, including the
subcrown internode, crown, the basal internode of the stem and lower leaf
sheaths. Infection of the roots does not appear to be common (49, 64) and
the proximal sections of crown roots are colonized by growth of the
fungus from colonized crown or stem tissue. The principal site of
penetration is determined by the vertical distribution of inoculum, which
is influenced by stubble management (76). Penetration occurs mainly in
the crown and basal stem region where infested residue is retained above
the soil surface as in minimum tillage or no-tillage systems. In contrast,
penetration occurs mainly in the sub-crown intemode and lower crown
region where infested residue is incorporated into the soil by cultivation.
Indeed, the fungus does not necessarily colonize the sub-crown internodes
of diseased plants where penetration occurs above the crown. This feature
must be considered when isolation procedures are being designed to
assess the incidence of infected plants in a crop. Infection of the sub-
crown internode and crown region occurs from infested residue in close
proximity to the plant, but it is not known how far the fungus can grow
through soil before infection. Infection of the basal stem region
presumably occurs from mycelium in infested residue in direct contact
with the plant. However, the authors' isolation data from annual surveys
indicate that infection can occur by splash dispersal of inoculum from
infested residue slightly remote from the stem under high rainfall
conditions.
There is no evidence that F. pseudograminearum forms any
specialized structures to facilitate infection. However, critical
histopathological studies of the early stages of penetration and
colonization remain to be done. The limited evidence available indicates
that the fungus initially colonizes the parenchyma tissues, but may
penetrate and develop in the vascular tissues later in the season (78).
Infection can occur at any growth stage and has been recorded
from seedling emergence through to maturity (20, 64, 75). The incidence
of infected plants in a crop usually increases gradually throughout the
growing season (20, 64, 77) but can be inhibited during extended dry
periods when the surface soil is near air-dry (Fig. I) as demonstrated in
recent studies by Swan (77).
Soil moisture has a significant influence on infection, with
infection only occurring in relatively moist soils, with an optimum water
potential of -0.3 to -0.6 MPa (50, 51, 52). This phenomenon can be used
to manipulate infection in glass house studies, by maintaining soil around
275
the inoculum in an air-dry state and then watering to initiate infection, a
technique referred to as the delayed-infection technique (50). The critical
role of soil moisture in all stages of crown rot development has been well
documented through laboratory, greenhouse and field studies.
The low infection rates in both wet and dry soils are noteworthy,
since growth of the fungus in culture occurs over a range of water
potential greater than the optimum for infection (84). Liddell and Burgess
(51) have postulated that microbial antagonism in both wet and dry soils
may suppress the activity of F. pseudograminearum. It is thought that
bacteria are involved in suppression in wet soils and actinomycetes are
involved in dry soil. Bacteria are more active at high water potentials and
are able to move through soil in films of water (39). Actinomycetes are
present in soils over a range of water potentials, but are thought to
produce abundant levels of antibiotic compounds at lower water potentials
(94). Evidence to support this theory has been provided by Beddis (7)
who studied microbial activity on the surface of straw pieces infested with
F. pseudograminearum at a range of water potentials in 'natural' soil
using quantitative and qualitative techniques, the latter with the scanning
electron microscope.
The formation of whiteheads is largely dependent on soil moisture
levels. ~ action of the fungus in attacking the crown and subcrown
intemode precludes the effucti vc ti a us pun of moisture rrom the semmal
roots stem. Thus the lant IS dependent on the crown roots for the supply
water. I t e surface soil moisture is inadequate and secondary roots are
not formed, t ere no e ec 1v y o moisture to the plant,
especially if dr conditions occur late in the season. This will prevent
gram 1 , hence causing whitehead formation. Whitehea s may form even
if secondary roots are well developed if there is severe necrosis of the
stem bases together with moisture stress. Any factor which exacerbates
moisture stress such as high rates of nitrogen will favour crown rot
severity in a similar way to the influence of nitrogen on foot rot caused by
F. culmorum ( 30, 6 2). Whiteheads rarely form if an adequate supply of
moisture is available to the plant. The disease is most severe when high
soil moisture early in the season favours a high incidence of infection and
rapid plant growth, but a hot, dry finish promotes whitehead formation.
The distribution of crown rot both in Australia and on a world-
wide basis and field observations suggest that temperature has a
significant role in disease development. Warm to hot weather conditions
appear to favour disease development in the field, an observation
supported by the results of studies with seedlings which show that
seedling disease is more severe at 25°C than at lower temperatures (14,
88). However, infection occurs in the field at all growth stages (64) so the
temperature range for infection is likely to be broad.
The incidence of infected plants as measured by the isolation of the
pathogen from plant tissue on selective medium, does not appear to differ
significantly between host cultivars or species at maturity. However, there
is evidence that the rate of increase in the incidence of infected plants
276
Crown Rot of Wheat- Burgess et al.
does differ between cultivars and species (64, 77). This issue will be
considered later in relation to cultivar reaction. Similarly, all host cereal
cultivars tend to be colonized to a similar extent at maturity, measured by
distance up the stem from which the fungus can be isolated. However,
there is some evidence that the rate of linear colonization is lower in oats
than in wheat or barley (58, 59). It is not known whether the quantity of
mycelium per unit of infected tissue differs between susceptible and
tolerant cultivars.
The fungus usually colonizes the first three internodes of infected
plants (20, 64) but also occasionally colonizes up to the penultimate
internode before the head. The heads are not colonized by mycelial
growth from the stem. The degree of colonization is affected by soil water
potential and hence, plant water potential. Drought stress in seedlings after
infection can increase the extent of colonization, presumably by disrupting
host defence mechanisms (8).
There is some evidence that the incidence of infection and
colonization are favoured by high levels of soil nitrogen and that this is
independent of the effect of nitrogen on soil moisture status (34, 91 ).
Recent studies on the influence of Zn and genotypes differing in Zn
efficiency indicate that below-optimum levels of Zn in soil favour
colonization of wheat by F. pseudograminearum (38). However, Zn levels
did not appear to affect the incidence of infected plants. Plants low in Zn
may be predisposed to colonization by F. pseudograminearum through
disruption to defence mechanisms as it is known that Zn has an important
role in the structural and functional integrity of cell plasma membranes
(11,38).
Three common herbicides, atrazine, chlorsulfuron and glyphosate,
did not affect the in vitro growth of the pathogen or the incidence of wheat
plants infected by the pathogen or colonization at recommended rates of
application (42, 43).
Cultivar reaction
Resistance expressed as a significant reduction in incidence of infection
by F. pseudograminearum has not been found on Triticum spp., triticale
or barley despite extensive evaluations of germplasm from diverse sources
(64, 89, Ellison and Burgess, unpublished). However, useful differences
in tolerance to the crown rot fungus, first reported by McKnight & Hart
(55) and confirmed by field evaluations in the classic study by Purss (64)
have been exploited to minimise yield loss from crown rot.
In this context we define tolerant cultivars as those showing
significantly lower levels of stem browning and whitehead formation than
intolerant cultivars. It must be emphasised as reported by Purss (64) that
'differences between varieties (in tolerance) are considered to be due to a
differential rate of development of the disease rather than to any
difference in actual infection.' Although cultivars differing in tolerance
usually differ in the rate of progress of infection as measured by isolation
methods, the terminal incidences of infection are not usually significantly
277
Crown Rot of Wheat~ Burgess et al.
different at maturity ( 64, 7 7). l tis possible that differences in infection
rate earlier in the season may reflect differences in rate of colonization so
affecting the detection of the fungus by isolation methods. The rate of
increase in disease severity can differ between cultivars differing in
tolerance (64, 80).
The evaluation of germplasm for tolerance or resistance and
studies on screening methodology has been the focus of continuing
research on crown rot by Dodman and Wildermuth (31, 33, 88, 89, 90) at
the Queensland Wheat Research Institute (now the Leslie Research
Centre) since the first reports of tolerance (55, 64). Advanced lines in the
wheat breeding programs in Queensland and in N.S.W. at the University
of Sydney's I .A.Watson Grains Research Centre at N arrabri ~ve 1ong
~en evaluated for tolerance to the crown rot fungus in field plots or m
crown rot nurseries. Field evaluations have usuall involved either seed
oculat1on nocu um added as colonized plant material to the soil
(31 ). Dodman and Wildermuth (31) found that treating wheat seed with
benomyl minimised seedling I oss from the crown rot fungus in infested
soil so allowing plants to grow to maturity for evaluation of stem
browning and whitehead formation. The proportion of tillers with stem
browning provides the most reliable parameter for assessmg the level oT
tolerance provided standard culttvars are used for comparison. The
pro OrtIOn of whiteheads IS not a reliable arameter for evaluation of
tolerance in unprotected field lots as their formati
moisture stress and higher temperatures. It is also influenced by the length
of growing season, which in turn reflects the maturity rating of the plant
(cultivar) and actual sowing date. However, whitehead formation can be
manipulated in crown rot nurseries through the use of large rain shelters to
ensure moisture stress after flowering.
Field evaluation of tolerance is laborious and slow and is restricted
to one cycle of assessment per growin season. Consequently, there have
been vanous stu 1es on the reliability of seedling screening procedures as
indicators of tolerance under field conditions. Purss (64) found no
correlation between seedling blight in glasshouse tests and tolerance to
crown rot as measured in mature plants under field conditions, using a
~ed inoculation technique. hlowever, subseguent reports of results of tests
for seedling reaction which gave reasonable correlat10ns with field
~valuations oftolerance (13 31 47. 80)
More recently Wildermuth and McNamara (88) developed a..
seedling test m steam-air treated soil which rovides an assessment of
nt react10n that correlates well, with field evaluations of the same lines.
This 3-week seedling test involved the use of the delayed infection X
Techniq~e or tiaaeTi and Burgess (50), using banded inoculum and
mampulat10n of the surface soil m01sture to initiate infection after
seecflmg emer ence. I he test 1s done at 25°C which was found to favour
ymptom development (88 . T the necrosis score 0-4) of each
o the basal three ea sheaths was found to give the most rnnsjstent
€elation with field evaluations oftcl11rance Reliable seedling screening
278
methods such as the above will enable cost-effective screening of a greater
number of breeding lines at an earlier stage of the selection process.
Furthermore, they provide a method for assessing the nature of tolerance
or partial resistance as expressed at the seedling stage. Factors that may
contribute to tolerance or partial resistance such as Zn deficiency, crown
depth, and differential effects on plant surface microflora are worthy of
further research (90).
There does not appear to be any correlation between resistance to
head blight caused by F. graminearum and tolerance to crown rot caused
by F. pseudograminearum (66). Independent mechanisms of resistance to
head blight and stem base diseases caused by Fusarium species may be a
general feature of small grain cereals (56).
It would be timely to determine if cultivars tolerant to F.
pseudograminearum are also tolerant to F. culmorum given the
overlapping distribution of these pathogens in some regions of Australia
(40) and the U.S.A. (69). In rye, foot rot resistance to F. graminearum is
not as strongly correlated with resistance to F. culmorum as are the
respective resistances to head blight (56). This suggests that some cereal
genotypes may show practically significant differences in their reaction to
stem base diseases caused by different Fusarium species.
Persistence and inoculum distribution

Fusarium pseudograminearum persists between host crops mainly as
hyphae in plant tissue, primarily stem residues, colonized during the
parasitic phase of the disease cycle oft he fungus ( 17, 8 3 ). There is no
evidence to suggest that the fungus survives in significant numbers as
chlamydospores in Australia, since Wearing and Burgess (83) did not
recover chlamydospores in extensive sampling of wheat soils in which
crown rot was known to occur. Subsequent sampling has failed to reveal
the presence of true chlamydospores (author's unpublished data).
Modified macroconidia with some characteristics of chlamydospores
have, however, been recovered from wheat belt soils (83). These
structures appear to be transient and thus are unlikely to have a significant
role int he survival of the fungus between crops. Chlamydospores of F.
pseudograminearum have been reported to occur in the Pacific Northwest
(68). However, Sitton and Cook (68) showed that these chlamydospores
were short lived, and did not survive as long as conidial chlamydospores
of F. culmorum.
The hyphae of F. pseudograminearum in wheat stubble residue can
persist for at least two years, and probably longer given suitable
conditions (17, 73). The proportion of inoculum that survives depends
primarily on environmental conditions and cultural practices. Survival of
the fungus has been shown to be greater in cool, dry conditions, and
decreases as the relative humidity rises and temperature increases (17).
Warm moist conditions favour residue breakdown and microbial activity
(74), and with the degradation of the residue and the antagonism of other
microorganisms survival of the fungus is reduced (17, 73).
279
Management practices which result in the retention of stubble
residues on the soil surface favour the survival of F. pseudograminearum
whereas incorporation of stubble residues tends to be less favourable for
survival (73). The process of incorporation of stubble results in the
fracturing of the straw and an increased contact between the straw and the
soil. This increase in straw surface area in intimate contact with soil
microorganisms promotes decomposition and is inimical to the survival of
the fungus. In contrast, straw deliberately retained on the soil surface is
normally less damaged mechanically and remains dry for extended
periods, both factors that favour survival of the fungus. Thus conservation
farming practices, particularly minimum tillage or no-tillage, generally
favour the survival of the fungus over more traditional fanning practices.
Similarly dry periods, particularly dry summer fallows, will have little
impact on the amount of stubble residue and inoculum. There is less soil
disturbance in dry summer fallows as weed growth is inhibited and
consequently, tillage operations are reduced.
The survival of the crown rot fungus is also affected by host
species and cultivar (72, 73). Survival of the fungus decreased more
rapidly in stubble of bread wheat cv. Kite than in stubble of cv. Suneca.
Stubble of cv. Kite decomposed more rapidly than Suneca stubble in
laboratory and field experiments (74). The nature of the host crop residue
may affect inoculum distribution. Summerell et al. (75), comparing the
incidence of infection of wheat sown into stubble of different bread wheat
cultivars which had been disc ploughed, found that the initial rate of
infection was higher with Sunstar stubble than Suneca stubble. The
inoculum potential of both stubble types had been shown to be equivalent,
and the final incidence of infection did not differ between wheat sown into
the two stubble types. It was postulated that the initial difference was due
to the difference in the distribution of the stubble of the two cultivars.
Sunstar stubble was less robust and more easily incorporated than Suneca
stubble so that residue broke into a greater number of fragments of
infested straw. This facilitated early infection, particularly in the subcrown
internode and lower crown regions, probably because environmental
conditions in the soil were more favourable for infection than on the soil
surface. The decomposition rate of certain host species may differ, for
example, stubble of some cultivars of barley has been shown to
decompose more rapidly t ban wheat stubble ( 58, 7 4). Thus it would be
expected that the crown rot fungus would survive for shorter periods in
barley stubble.
The extent to which grass weed hosts of the crown rot fungus
contribute to inoculum levels depends on environmental conditions during
both the parasitic phase and the survival phase, the degree of resistance or
tolerance of the weed host species, the incidence of infection, weed
density and the decomposition rate of the weed residue. Residues of some
grass weed hosts may often be more ephemeral than cereal residue.
However the plant density of weeds is normally far greater than cereal
plant densities, which may compensate for the faster decomposition rate.
280
Field observations indicate that when grass weeds infected by the crown
rot fungus are killed by herbicide the fungus proliferates in and on the
dead weed probably generating greater levels ofinoculum than ifthe weed
had senesced naturally. A weed killed by herbicide or sub-tillage offers an
opportunity for rapid colonization by the crown rot fungus if it has already
infected a part of the plant as there will be little competition from other
micro-organisms. This contention is supported by evidence from
greenhouse studies (42).
The distribution of inoculum in and on the soil reflects the
distribution of infested residues. This depends on a number of factors, the
most important being the management practices used during the fallow
period, the nature of the previous host species and the density of infected
plants. Weed hosts, such as wild phalaris and barley grass, often
germinate in extremely high densities and can result in increase in
inoculum of the crown rot fungus across a field, giving an even and high
distribution of inoculum. The density of infected plants can also be
influenced by environmental factors such as soil type and moisture.
Epidemiology
Our understanding of the factors which influence the development of
crown rot within the growing season and inoculum levels over successive
years is based on complimentary laboratory and greenhouse studies and
field trials, as well as observations and data collected at permanent
sampling sites. The influence of soil moisture, temperature and nutrients
on infection, colonization and symptom development, as studied in the
laboratory and greenhouse, has been considered earlier.
Methodology The incidence of infected plants has been used as a key

parameter in epidemiological studies by Burgess and co-workers. The
incidence of infected plants in trial plots or at permanent sampling sites
has been assessed on the basis of a 50 plant sample collected at random
along an arc or a zig-zag (W) walk through the sampling site. A section
from each plant including the subcrown intemode, crown and stem base of
the leading tiller of each plant is washed, surface sterilized and plated on
selective medium. Fusarium pseudograminearum can be readily isolated
from diseased tissue on a number of media, including peptone PCNB agar
(Nash-Snyder medium) and a modified PDA (containing dichloran and
having half of the usual concentration of potato) (23). A plant is scored as
infected if F. pseudograminearum is isolated from any part of the section.
It is important to include a part of the stem base in the section plated as
the pathogen does not necessarily colonize the sub-crown intemode if
penetration occurs through the crown, stem or leaf sheath.
The incidence of infected plants has been used to monitor the
progress of infection during the growing season and the plotting of disease
progress curves. This measure of the incidence of infected plants may
underestimate the real value to a minor extent when there is discrete
infection, remote from the crown, oft he main ors econdary tillers. The
281
incidence of infected plants at the late grain-fill stage is a reflection of the
inoculum levels prevailing through the growing season and also indicates
the potential new inoculum to be made available after harvest.
Consequently the incidence of infected p Iants has been used to monitor
inoculum levels over successive seasons ( 18). However, the extent of
vegetative growth of diseased plants also affects the inoculum levels
available to infect next season's crop.
The incidence of diseased plants has also been used as a parameter
in field studies of stubble management and tillage practices on crown rot
(32, 91, 92, 93). The incidence of diseased plants generally shows a
positive correlation with the incidence of infected plants except in wet
seasons when symptom development is inhibited.
Soil type, topography and climate

In Australia crown rot is most prevalent on the deep alkaline heavy clay
soils (black earths and grey clays) in the central and northern grain areas
of N.S.W. and in southern Qld, within the summer rainfall region of
Australia (20). However, this association probably reflects the fact that
these soils are predominant in this region, other features of which favour
the disease. There is no evidence that these soils are conducive to the
disease. Indeed, crown rot can be severe on lighter soils of varying pH in
southern Australia (82), a winter rainfall region. Similarly, crown rot also
occurs on light soils in the Pacific Northwest of the U.S.A. and in the
Orange Free State in South Africa (30, 70, 79).
In Australia crown rot is probably more prevalent on the deep
heavy clay soils because, until recently, continuous wheat has been a
common practice on these soils. Continuous wheat and stubble retention
exacerbate the incidence of the disease. The disease normally causes
greater yield loss through whitehead formation in this region as moisture
stress during grain fill is more common than in the southern region. In the
northern sum mer rainfall region thew inter crop relies mainly on stored
subsoil moisture from the summer fallow and partly on in-crop rainfall. If
in-crop rainfall is low, especially late in the season, severe moisture stress
develops in the crop promoting the formation of whiteheads on diseased
plants. In the southern region rotation to non-host crops or legume
dominant pastures is normal practice and consequently inoculum levels
are generally lower. Furthermore, in the southern region, the crop is
grown largely on in-crop rainfall and given the greater reliability of winter
rains in the south late season moisture stress is less common. However,
crown rot has become more prevalent in the southern region on a variety
of soil types in Victoria where stubble is now being retained (40) and in
S.A. in areas where successive crops of the more susceptible durum
wheats are now being grown.
The incidence and severity of crown rot is usually greater in the
lower areas of fields and in localized depressions (gilgais) (45, 55). These
areas tend to have higher soil moisture early in the season favouring
infection and good vegetative growth. The increased growth presumably
282
depletes sub-soil moisture, making the plant more susceptible to moisture
stress and whitehead formation I ate int hes eason. Wild p halaris also is
more common in wetter low-lying areas and may add further to inoculum
build-up in such areas. This weed of the crop and fallow period is a major
problem after very wet years so its role in crown rot tends to be cyclical.
There is little information on the effect of soil reaction on the
incidence and severity of crown rot. Although the majority of soils on
which crown rot is a problem are neutral to alkaline, it is not known
whether this has an important role in crown rot development. Similarly,
the interaction between soil nutrients and crown rot is poorly understood.
However, stimulation of root growth and plant vigour, for example, by
nitrogen application may increase the risk of late season moisture stress
(30, 62) and hence favour whitehead formation and yield loss. The
application of zinc has been reported to reduce colonization and crown rot
levels (71 ). The effect of other trace elements and macronutrients is not
known, but their roles should be examined given their importance in the
epidemiology of other diseases caused by Fusarium species.
There have been several detailed studies on the incidence of
infected p !ants and the development of the disease through the growing
season (64, 75, 77). Swan (77) assessed the influence of several variables
on the incidence of infection by comparing the area under the disease
progress curves. The incidence of infected plants increases gradually
through the growing season but can be inhibited by dry surface soil,
specifically surface soil drier than a water potential of -l.5MPa (77),
irrespective of the water potential of the subsoil (Fig. 1). However, Swan
(77) found that the incidence of infection continued to increase late in the
season in 1994 and 1996 despite dry surface soil in this period. High
humidity and dew formation within the crop canopy facilitated infection
during this period. Where crops are planted through dry surface soil into
moist subsoil with moisture seeking tines infection is delayed until the
first significant in-crop rainfall event. Infection occurs after the growing
plant makes contact with infested residue in or on the soil surface subject
to suitable available moisture. lnoculum levels presumably decline slowly
through the growing season as there is no mechanical disturbance of the
residues after planting and decomposition would be inhibited under winter
temperatures. lnoculum levels depend not only on the incidence of
infected plants but also on the vegetative growth of infected plants in the
previous crop. Vegetative growth is generally correlated with grain yield.
Following droughts with low-yielding crops of small plants the incidence
of crown rot may decline as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Vegetation present prior to cultivation in areas where crown rot is a
problem appears to be the source of inoculum initiating crown rot in the
first winter cereal crop. Open woodlands and native grasslands are the
major vegetation group in the northern wheat belt and many of the native
grasses are hosts to F. pseudograminearum (55, 65, 66, 81). In addition,
some naturalized grasses such as barley grasses can become dominant in
grazing areas and are very susceptible to F. pseudograminearum (65, 85).
283
Fig. 1. The progress of infection of wheat plants by F

pseudograminearum in relation to surface soil moisture during the 1994
growing season and the 1996 growing season. (a) weekly rainfall, ( b)
surface soil moisture content (the dashed horizontal line corresponds to
the moisture potential of -1.5 MPa) and ( c) incidence of plants infected
by F. pseudograminearum in stubble retained (D) and stubble
incorporated (cr) treatments. Vertical bars indicate standard errors (n=4).
1994 1996
30 (a I 35 (a I
30
25
25
-20
E 20
E.1s
15
: 10
10
35 (t I 30
30 '
~25
25
20
..
~20
15
~15
E 10
'610
"'
10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
Weeks after sowi Weeks after sow1
284
Growth of p
60 6
Incidence
;;?'
0
50 5
,.-.._
<!) 40 4 c<l
..c
<J ...__
::::: ......
<!) 30 3 '-'
~ ::3
<J 20 2 -~
......::::: >--
10 1
0 0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Fig. 2 Relationship of yield as an indicator of vegetative growth to the

incidence of plants infected by F. pseudograminearum in stubble retained
plots (authors unpublished data).
Tillage, stubble management and crop rotation - long-

term trends in the incidence of crown rot in the northern
grain belt of New South Wales
The incidence of infected plants depends on the level of inoculum and its
distribution, both factors determined by the preceding cropping sequence
and agronomic practices. The following discussion of the key factors
affecting inoculum levels is based on long-term field trials and studies at
permanent sites in the northern wheat belt of eastern Australia, a semi-arid
region characterized by summer dominant rainfall.
Rainfall in the eastern areas of this region is higher and generally
more reliable than that in the western areas and crops normally depend on
stored subsoil moisture to achieve reasonable yields. Wheat has been
grown in areas of this region for at least 60 years with a significant
expansion into the drier western areas over the last three decades. The
traditional fallow practice in continuous wheat cropping involved a
postharvest bum and regular cultivation for weed control, a practice still
followed by a minority of growers. However, over the past three decades
an increasing proportion of growers has adopted conservation tillage
practices including stubble retention, a practice which favours crown rot.
Crown rot became a major problem in continuous wheat and barley
between the 1940s and 1960s in the wetter eastern areas, then the major
production areas. Since the late 1960s crown rot has declined in
importance in these areas as crop rotation became an established practice.
Dodman and Wildermuth (32) have reported a similar decline in the
wetter eastern areas (Darling Downs) in Queensland. However, as wheat
Crown rot of wheat - Burgess et al.
production expanded in the drier western areas crown rot has become a
major problem as continuous cropping to wheat and barley remains a
common practice in these areas. Suitable resistant alternative crops are
limited in these areas and growers have concerns about the economic
viability of such crops. The problem has been accentuated by the shift
towards stubble retention and the recent popularity of the very intolerant
durum wheats. Indeed, inoculum levels have increased to such an extent
that many growers have returned to burning, albeit an autumn (pre-
sowing) bum, so that stubble can be retained to protect the fallow during
the summer period when there is a high risk of thunderstorms and water
erosion.
Stubble management, crop rotation and host species and c ultivar
arc the key determinants of inoculum levels in the field. There are several
stubble management practices used for winter cereals in this region
including postharvest stubble burning, fire-harrowing in autumn, stubble
incorporation by disc cultivators that invert the soil and surface residue
and stubble retention on the soil surface either with sub-tillage or no-
tillage. The practice of postharvest stubble burning in winter cereal
cropping is now uncommon except in years when diseases caused by
stubble-borne pathogens are quite severe as in the 1998 wet season. The
crown rot fungus is capable of considerable growth up the stem usually in
the range of I 0 to 20 cm and thus, in favourable years for vegetative
growth of the host plant, can produce large quantities of inoculum, often
filling the lumen with hyphae. An effective postharvest stubble burn
removes all the stubble except the crown and about 1-5 cm of stem thus
reducing the i noculum 1oad by approximately 9 0 percent. Radiant heat
may also partially sterilize the remaining tissue. As a consequence, stubble
burning greatly reduces the incidence of crown rot, but does not eliminate
the disease ( 18, 19, 48, 75). An effective postharvest bum reduces the
incidence of infected plants in the succeeding crop to approximately 10%
of that in the preceding crop ( 18). The reduction in disease incidence is
proportional to the intensity of the burn and the amount of inoculum
removed. Frequently the intensity of the stubble bum will not be sufficient
to remove all of the residue, and burning will not, in any case remove
infested crowns buried in soil. This explains the presence of the disease,
although generally not at high levels, in periods when stubble burning was
a normal practice.
Stubble incorporation, for example by disc ploughing would be
expected to have an effect on disease incidence since it promotes the
fragmentation and decomposition of stubble (73). The infection rate
during the season is lower when stubble is incorporated rather than
retained (75, 76, 77), leading to significantly lower area under the disease
progress curve. However, the terminal incidence, measured at harvest
maturity, is usually not significantly different between the two treatments
(18, 75). The reasons for this are uncertain. It is possible that stubble
incorporation leads to greater dispersion and more uniform distribution of
inoculum, which compensates for a reduction in total inoculum. In order
to understand the effects of mechanical disturbance to stubble on disease,
286
fundamental studies on the relationships between residue size and

dispersion, and pathogen survival and infection, are needed.
In continuous wheat the incidence of infected plants increases
gradually ifthe stubble is incorporated or retained (18, 32, 48, 75, 92, 93)
usually reaching a maximum between 50-65%. However, incidences of
infection over 90% have been recorded in some crops in paddocks with
high levels of inoculum in seasons which favoured infection (45).
There has been no evidence of a major crown rot decline
analogous to the take-all decline (3 7) in the various long-term trials in the
northern grain belt of eastern Australia (18, 75, 92). However, the
incidence of infected plants has always been limited to an approximate
maximum of 65% regardless of whether stubble was retained or
incorporated (18, 92, 93). Wildermuth et al. (92) suggested that some
form of biological suppression may be operating to limit maximum
incidence. An alternative hypothesis is that uneven distribution of
inoculum makes it unlikely that every plant will come into contact with
infested residue.
Some evidence for development of suppression is that in two long-
term trials there are indications of a gradual decline in the incidence of
infected and diseased plants in stubble retained treatments, regardless of
tillage practice (18, 92). Furthermore, N. J. Donovan (pers. com.) has
shown recently in field trials in northern N.S.W. that the parasitic activity
of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici was reduced in intact soil cores
from no-tillage or reduced tillage treatments where stubble was retained
by comparison with treatments where stubble had been burnt. This
enhanced suppression occurred in soils from areas where take-all has
never been recorded. Thus the retention of infested residues may be
contributing to a generalised biological suppression. Wildermuth (86, 87)
has shown that F. pseudograminearum could induce suppression to itself
and G. graminis var. tritici in glasshouse studies. Certainly further studies
on the factors responsible for these upper limits on the incidence of
infected plants, and hence disease, in long-term trials should be done. In
addition, studies are warranted on practices which might enhance this
apparent general suppression. It is known that under certain soil
conditions, specific fungi can significantly reduce the survival of the
crown rot fungus. In separate studies Penicillium species (17) and
Trichoderma sp. (95) have proved antagonistic to the crown rot fungus in
infested straw in contact with soil.
Rotation to resistant crops or pastures is the recommended practice
for reducing inoculum of the crown rot fungus (19, 34). Crop rotation
essentially controls crown rot by starving the fungus of a suitable host. To
be effective the period of rotation needs to be a minimum of two years as
F. pseudograminearum can survive in stubble residues for periods of two
years or possibly longer if there is little decomposition of the infested
residues (73). Consequently those rotations which are shorter than two
years are likely to be less effective.
Ideally resistant crops should be grown after a pasture phase before
the first winter cereals. This practice can reduce inoculum levels quite
287
Crown rot of wheat- Burgess et al.
significantly so that the incidence of infected plants in the first winter

cereal crop is less than 0. I%. As a consequence it takes a number of
successive crops before the incidence of infected plants reaches damaging
levels.
One approach to optimising the benefit of crop rotation in reducing
inoculum levels involves autumn burning of stubble (19) before the last
wheat crop preceding a rotation phase. This reduces the level of infested
residue entering this phase.
There are several winter and summer crops suitable for rotation
with wheat and barley to minimise the incidence of crown rot in the
northern grain belt of eastern Australia. These summer crops include
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) ( 19), mungbeans (Vigna radiata) and dry land
cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and the winter crops include chickpeas
( Cicer arietinum) (34 ), faba beans (Vici a faba ), field peas (Pisu111
arvense) and canola (Brassica napus).
Control
The successful control of crown rot depends largely on the manipulation
of management practices and the use of tolerant cultivars. As stubble
retention is the preferred management practice for stubble, it is essential
that more research be undertaken to ensure that growers have confidence
that the current alternative crops that are resistant to the crown rot fungus
can be grown profitably on a regular basis. Indeed the success of these
crops depends on effective conservation of subsoil moisture during the
fallow period, a process for which stubble retention and no-tillage or
minimum tillage are essential components. The key practices which a re
currently used to minimise the incidence of severity of crown rot in the
northern wheat belt of eastern Australia are as follows:
• crop rotation, with at least two years out of susceptible cereals
• tolerant cultivars
• grass weed host control
• careful choice of nitrogen application rates
• application of zinc where it is deficient in soil
• conservation tillage to enhance subsoil moisture in fallow and reduce
risk of late season moisture stress
• autumn fire-harrow burn (last resort option)
• laboratory assay of incidence of infected plants at near-maturity to
enable prediction of disease potential in the succeeding season.
Further field studies are needed on the interacting roles of nitrogen
and soil moisture as determinants of disease severity and yield.
Conclusion
The adoption of stubble retention as a key practice in conservation
farming systems has favoured significant increases in the incidence and
severity of crown rot caused by F. pseudograminearum, in Australia.
Modification of management practices provides the major approach to
minimising losses from the disease. In order for growers to make rational
and profitable decisions concerning disease control, there is a need for a
288
robust, farm-based system for predicting the risk of disease in the coming
season. Much of the quantitative data needed for such an exercise is
already available. Disease progress within and over successive seasons is
reasonably well understood in relation to stubble management, crop
rotation, water, nitrogen and vegetative growth of the crop. It is now time
to bring the quantitative descriptions of the various parts of the
epidemiology of crown rot together in a single model. This could initially
be done using a spreadsheet, because of its interactivity and capacity for
using data or formulae in a wide variety of formats. Experience to date
suggests that such a computer-based mathematical model will be of most
use to researchers. It should be possible to reduce the predictions to a
look-up table, slide rule or dichotomous key which would be of more
immediate use on-farm. The testing of a computer-based mathematical
model would enable shortcomings in our existing data and their
interpretation to be identified.
Acknowledgements
The senior author sincerely acknowledges the advice and support
provided by many colleagues and graduate students over many years.
Special acknowledgements are due to Gordon Purss (for suggesting
studies which differentiated the two populations of F. graminearum), the
late P.E. Nelson, T.A. Toussoun, the late John Fahey, and Neil and Sylvia
Uebergang. Special thanks to a succession of wheat industry funding
agencies and now the Grains Research and Development Corporation and
the Prime Wheat Association, for invaluable support over 25 years.
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95. Wong, P.T.W., Mead, J.A., and Croft, G. 1999. Accelerated reduction of
Fusarium graminearum inoculum in wheat stubble by Trichoderma species.
Page 118 in: Proceedings of the First Australasian Soilborne Disease
Symposium. Magarey, R.C. (ed.) Bureau of Sugar Experimental Stations,
Brisbane, Australia.
294
Source: Nicol, J.M. 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Royo, C. M.M. Nachit, N. di Fonzo,
J.L. Araus, W.H. Pfeiffer and G.A. Slafer (eds). Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategies.
N. Y. The Haworth Press, Inc. Book chapter accepted.
Root Rots
Julie M. Nicol'
1
ClMMYT lnternat1onal Wheat Program, PK 39, Emek, 065 l l, Ankara, TURKEY.
Email: j.nicol@cgiar.org
DISTRIBUTION AND IMPORTANCE
Root Rots of cereals including bread (Triticum aestivwn L.) and durum (Triticum durum) wheat
mvolve several soilbome pathogens and have been described with many names, such as
common root rot, crown rot, foot rot, pink rot, and stalk rot, which are words used for the
disease caused by a pathogen or a collection of pathogens.
In this chapter reference is made only to the dry land or rainfed root rots; hence only the most
commonly reported pathogens involved in these environments will be discussed. From the
literature this includes Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc. in Sorok.) Shoem. (syns. Helminrhosporium
sativum P.K. & B., H. sorokinianum Sacc. ex Sokak., Teleomorph Cochliobolus sativus (Ito
&Kurib.) Dresch. ex Dast.), and several species of the genus Fusarium (Wiese, 1987). The two
most reported Fusarium species are F. pseudograminearwn O'Donnell & Aoki (Teleomorph
Gibberella coronicola Aoki & O'Donnell) (formerly F. graminearum Schwabe Group 1), and F.
culmorum (W.G.Smith) Sacc., while several others such as F. acuminatum Ell. and Ev. sensu
Gordon, F. avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc., F. crookwellense Burgess, Nelson & Toussoun, and F. poae
(Peck) Wollenw. have been reported (Wiese, 1987). Another fungus that may be considered
part of the rain fed root rot complex is bare patch (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn), however this is not
referred to in this chapter.
Depending on the environment, some of the fungi involved in root rot also are considered
important in causing seedling blight, leaf spots, and grain diseases of wheat (see Chapter: Foliar
Blights - spot blotch and tan spot by E. Duveiller in this Book), but these fungi tend to be found
Source: Nicol, J.M. 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Royo, C. M.M. Nachit, N. di Fonzo, 2
N.Y. The Haworth Press, Inc. Book chapter accepted.
in higher rainfall or irrigated environments and hence are not alluded to in detail here. Other
fungi in this more favorable environment include Sharp Eyespot (Rhizoctonia cerealis), take-all
( Gaewnannomyces gram in is) and eyespot (Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides: Teleomorph
Tapesia yalfundae and T. acuformis).
Dryland root rots occur below the ground and are insidious and persistent, making the damage
caused difficult to assess from year to year due to differences in the location, management (soil
type, cropping history), and climatic factors (Statler and Darlington 1972, Lyamani 1988;
Tinline and Ledingham, 1979). Root rots on cereals occur worldwide (see reviewed by
Mergoum et al. 1995) in counties including the United States of America, Canada, Australia,
Brazil, India, England, Italy, Hungary, France, Morocco, and Poland. Further published reports
of dryland root rots have come from Syria (van Leur and Bailey, 2000), Turkey (Mamluk et al.,
1997; Akta~ et al., 1999), Kazakhstan (Shurgurov and Petrova, 1991 ), Russia (Sidorova et al.,
1992), China (Xiang et al., 1995), South Africa (Van Wyk et al., 1987), and Tunisia (Nsarellah
et al., 2000).
In order to evaluate the economic importance of these pathogens, a good understanding of both
the environment and cropping systems in which they are located is necessary. In particular it is
well known that a severe and acute phase of root and crown rot occurs under moisture-restricted
conditions (Piening et al., 1976; Cook, 1981; Bailey et al., 1989). Given that North America and
the Mediterranean Basin produce the bulk of the world's durum wheat and that over one-third of
total annual production is from the five West Asian/North African countries (Algeria, Morocco,
Syria, Tunisia and Turkey), most of which is rainfed (Belaid, 2000), then the importance of
these pathogens should not be understated.

J.L. Araus, W.H. Pfeiffer and G.A. Slafer (eds). Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategics
The economic importance of root rots in bread wheat production has been studied extensively,
whereas only !united studies have been done for durum wheat. It is generally accepted however
that in durum wheat the susceptibility to root rot pathogens and yield losses are equivalent if not
greater than for bread wheat (Mergoum et al., 1994; Mergoum et al., 1997; Wildermuth, pers.
comm., Wallwork, pers. comm.). Work in Italy and Australia indicates that durum wheat
cultivars are significantly more susceptible to infection by F. culmorum and F.
pseudograminearum and yield losses as a result were much greater (Corazza et al., 1998;
Burgess and Summerell, data unpublished). Root rots are implicated in causing yield losses of
3-50% on bread wheat in several countries (Cook, l 968a, b; Wiese, 1987; Ledingham et al.,
1973; Piening et al., 1976; Verma et al., 1976; Tinline and Ledingham, 1979; Purss, 1965;
Wildermuth et al., 1992; Klein et al., 1991 ).
Although their distribution is worldwide, biotic and abiotic soil borne problems recei\'e much
less attention than other types of stresses due to their chronic and endemic nature and to
difficulty in working with the soil medium. Van Leur et al., (l 997a) noted significant yield loss
in barley under dry growing conditions in Syria during 1989-91. In the West Central regions of
Morocco under natural conditions, losses to root rots in wheat of 4-6% were recorded (Lyamani,
1988). In fields artificially inoculated with B. sorokinana and F. culmorum, yield losses were
noted to be as high as 60% on the durum cultivar Marzack in the 1989-90 cropping season
(Mergoum, 1991; Mergoum et al., 1994), and to be 35% on susceptible durum wheats during
the 1992-94 field season (Mergoum et al., 1997). Recent work in Turkey during 1999-2001
found that root rots (B. sorokinana, F. culmorum, and F. avenaceum) caused an average 34%
yield reduction on a range of cereals, with the loss being highest (54%) on the Turkish durum
cultivar Kiziltan-91 and lowest (13%) on Turkish triticale cultivar Tatlicak-97 (Bagci et al.,
2001).
Source: Nicol, J.M. 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Royo, C. M.M. Nachit, N. u1, u11Lo, 4
SYMPTOMS
Depending on the pathogen complex present, the host and importantly the environment will
determine the root disease symptoms observed. Root rot symptoms on cereals are difficult to
define clearly but both the Fusarium species implicated in root rot and B. sorokinana affect the
roots, crown, sub-crown, coleoptile, and stem bases. Usually discoloration of these plant parts
occurs from brown to reddish/pink brown and often with necrosis (Simmonds et al., 1935;
Duzcek, 1989). Bipolaris sorokinana has more specifically been associated with lesion
development and discoloration of the subcrown intemode (Burrage and Tinline, 1960; Verma et
al., 1976; Wildermuth et al., 1992). Many of the symptoms of root rots have been linked with
above-ground yield parameters such as tillering capacity, plant biomass and yield (Cook, l 968b;
Duzcek and Jones-Flory; 1993, Ledingham et al., 1973; Verma et al., 1976).
Unfortunately due to the insidious and persistent nature of these pathogens, the above-ground
symptoms are often not readily apparent. Under high pathogen pressure it is common to find
stunting, late death of tillers, premature ripening, and the formation of white heads or dead
heads (Stack, 1982; Lyamani, 1988; Mergoum et al.,1994, 1997, Wallwork, pers.comm.).
LIFE CYCLE
Both Fusarium and Bipolaris belong to the Ascomycotina, although both are usually only
known to produce asexual spores called conidia. The asexual stage is the anamorph or
imperfect stage while the sexual stages are known as the teleomorph. Although there are known
sexual stages of B. sorokiniana=Cochliobolus sativus and F. pseudograminearum
(F.graminearum Group I)= Gibberella coronicola in the soil, both usually exist only as
mycelium and reproduce and cause infections with only the asexual condial stage.
Chlamydospores or survival spores have been demonstrated with F. pseudograminearum but

J.L. Araus, W.H. Pfeiffer and G.A. Slafer (eds). Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategics.
they do not appear to be an important mode of survival (Sitton and Cook, 1981 ). Fusarium
pseudogra111inearu111 survives as hyphae in soil stubble (Wearing and Burgess, 1977: Sumrnerell
and Burgess, 1988), while common root rot survives as spores of B. sorokinana in the soil
(Simmonds et al., 1950; Stack, 1992). The sexual stage of F pseudogra111inea111111 is
occasionally observed in nature in Australia and may play an important role in the development
of variability in the fungus (Summerell et al. 2001 ).
PATHOGEN VARIABILITY
Bipolaris sorokiniana: The biology of this pathogen is less complicated as it involves only the
expression of the asexual stage; hence the likelihood for new variation is much less than a
sexually reproducing pathogen. As they are soilbome pathogens, their inherent capacity to
multiply and spread is less in comparison with foliar fungal pathogens.
Fusarium pseudograminearum: As the sexual stage of this fungus, Gibberella coronicola, can
occasionally occur in nature (Summerell et al. 2001 ), it is possible that significant amounts of
variability could develop in the pathogen. Leslie (200 l) has demonstrated that even infrequent
sexual reproduction is enough to introduce significant amounts of genetic variation into
populations of other species of Fusarium. Consequently breeders attempting to introduce
resistance into cultivars must be aware of the potential for this fungus to exhibit significant
variability. An added complication with this fungus is that it is not uncommon for it to produce
conidiophores on the nodes of tillers and for these to be spread easily by wind and rain under
appropriate conditions. Consequently epidemics can develop more rapidly than would be
expected for true soilbome pathogens under certain environmental conditions.
It is well documented in the literature that pathogenicity differences are known for species
involved in the root rot complex. Fusarium pseudograminearum (reported as F gramincarum)

Source: Nicol, J.M. 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Rayo, c_ M.M. Nachit, N. di Fanzo, 6
J_L_ Araus, W.H_ Pfeiffer and G.A. Slafer (eds). Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategies.
was associated with more severe above-ground symptoms earlier than either F. croukwellense
or F. culmorum. Furthermore each fungus was found to differentially attack different parts of
the plant root and crown system (Liddell, 1985). Balmas et al. (1995) investigated the
comparative pathogenicity of F. pseudograminearum (reported as F. graminearum) and F.
crookwellense in the greenhouse with the Australian durum cultivar Yallaroi found F
pseudograminearum caused more severe above-ground damage symptoms of crown rot. It was
noted that competition is also present between species of Fusarium and B. sorokinana (Tinline,
1977).
Although there is some pathogen variability, evidence is increasing that identified sources of
resistance against root rots (B. sorokinana and F. psuedograminearwn) in the bread wheat lines
2-49 and 302-5 hold their partially identified resistances in Australia, Mexico, and Canada
(Bailey et al., 1995b; De Pauw et al., 1984; Wildermuth and Wallwork, pers. comm.; Nicol,
unpublished data).
CONTROL
This book focuses on breeding, and the only control measures discussed in detail are resistance.
Other options are well reported in the literature, and include rotation, cultural practices, and
biological and chemical control. Useful reviews for control of some of the pathogens may be
found in Stack, 1992; Tinline et al.; 1991; Mergoum et al., 1995; and Burgess et al. 200 I.
Resistance
Resistance, defined as a reduction in the multiplication of the pathogen, is one of the best
methods to control these diseases. As with most soilbome pathogens, however, assessing and
breeding for resistance is difficult because a) the pathogens are numerous and complex, b) the
Source: Nicol, J.M. 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Royo, C. M.M. Nachit, N. d1 Fonzo, 7
J.L Araus, W.H. Pfeiffer and G.A. Slafcr (eds). Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategies
pathogens occur below the ground, c) the environment influences the development or
symptoms, and d) repeatability of results is consequently a problem. Tinline et al. (1989)
provide a useful review of the issues involved in breeding for resistance to soil borne diseases.
There is unfortunately no standard protocol for assessing resistance with consistent inoculation
methodology and evaluation techniques (Ledingham et al., 1973; Verma et al., 1976; Dodman
and Wildermuth, 1987; Duezek and Wildermuth, 1993; van Leur et al., l 997a; Conner et al.,
1996).
Tolerance to root rot (i.e., the ability of a plant to yield well despite being attack by the pathogen) offers
some prevention of yield loss. Unfortunately, tolerance does not reduce the pathogen load 111 the soil,
whereby the pathogen population may increase to levels where tolerance no longer provides protection.
Unless cultivars have resistance or resistance coupled with tolerance, yield loss is likely to be inevitable.
Assessing resistance - disease screening methodology
Assessment of disease resistance can occur in the field and greenhouse, and both have
advantages and limitations. In the greenhouse, screening can be done in isolation or with a
mixture of species and conditions controlled, but screening to advanced plant stage is difficult.
In the field, screening with inoculum is possible to adult stage, but there is no complete control
on the total microbial spectrum and limited control of environmental conditions.
Regardless of whether screening is done in the greenhouse or the field, almost all published
studies indicate the use ofa qualitative scale to assess symptom severity of the root rot(s)
studied (Wildermuth, 1994, Mergoum et al., 1994, 1997; Nicol et al., 2000; Wallwork, pers.
comm. Stack, 1992), with exact parameters determined based on the screening method and
environment. Laboratory screening generally uses a qualitative scale to assess the lesioning on
coleoptiles, sub-crown internode, leaf sheaths, and whole seedlings. In many field studies,
plants are removed from the soil near maturity and root symptoms are scored as for the seedling
screen, whereas in other studies plants are scored only on the basis of above-ground symptoms
such as white heads, number of tillers, and in some cases grain yield in relation to non-
inoculated and inoculated plots.
Laboratory screening has been successful in several studies (Liddell et al. 1986; Dodman and
Wildermuth; 1987; Wildermuth, 1994; Nicol et al. 2000). Evidence exists that field and
greenhouse screening are correlated (Wildermuth, 1994; Nicol, unpublished data), implying that
the screening of seedlings will speed the selection ofresistant progeny in breeding programs.
However, other studies in which the response of both durum and bread wheat varieties have
been compared under field and greenhouse conditions indicate this is not possible due to
cultivar differences at different plant stages (Purss, 1966; Klein et al., 1985; Hill and Blunt,
1994; Mergoum et al., 1997; Wildermuth et al., 1999), implying that some resistances many not
be expressed in the seedling stage. Under field conditions, differences between plants are most
easily identified when there are plots with and without inoculum treatments (Dodman and
Wildermuth, 1987; Wildermuth et al., 1992; Mergoum 1991; Mergoum et al., 1994, 1997;
Bailey et al., 1997; Nicol et al., 2000, Wallwork, pers. comm.).
Sources of resistance in bread and durum wheat
There is no evidence of high or complete resistance in cultivated wheats against any of the root
rot pathogens implicated in this dryland root rot complex (Mergoum, 1991; Nicol et al., 2000).
The only exception to this is triticale, which is considered to offer a high degree of resistance
(Mergoum, pers. comm.). Most resistance screening studies have been carried out with bread
wheat and barley, and in only a few cases with durum wheat. Reports of partial sources of
resistance to various pathogens in the root rot complex for cereals other than durum wheat are
given in many references (Diehl, 1983; De Pauw et al., 1984; Klein et al., 1985; Conner et al.,
1994; Allam, 1994; Wildennuth et al., 1992; Wildermuth, 1994; Tinline et al., 1988; Bailey et
al., 1995a, b; Bailey et al., 1997; van Leur et al., 1997b; Wildermuth et al., 1999, Nicol et al.,
2000).
Hexaploid bread wheat offers more resistance than that of its durum tetraploid relative (Statler
and Darlington, 1972; Mergoum, 1991; Mergoum et al., 1994; Wildermuth et al., 1999),
suggesting that resistance may be more likely to be found in the D genome than in the A or B
genome. In Australia Wildermuth et al. (1999) recently screened 136 synthetic hexaploid
wheats in the greenhouse against F. graminearum Group 1 (renamed F. pseudogra111i11earum)
and found that more than 26% indicated partial resistance. Many of these results were also
confirmed with field screening
Field studies in Morocco (Mergoum, 1991; Mergoum et al., 1994) in which 20 durum and bread
wheats were screened with and without inoculum (mixture of F. culmomm and B. sorokinana)
showed significant differences between cultivar reaction, with the durum cultivars being more
susceptible than the bread wheats. Later screening of 1130 international durum wheat
accessions from Ethiopia, Portugal, Spain and Morocco with the same root rot pathogens
indicated that 140 of these offered good tolerance (defined in this case as a reduction of root rot
symptoms of plant emergence, tiller number, white head formation, and kernel and grain
weight), but only 29 of these were agronomically acceptable (Mergoum et al., 1997). Further
field screening in Morocco using the same pathogens and in Syria with F. culmoru111 has
identified a diverse genetic base of tolerance as indicated in Table I (Nsarellah et al., 2000.
pers. comm.), with several promising sources of resistance being incorporated into national and
international breeding efforts (CIMMYT/ICARDA and WAN AD DIN).

Source: Nicol, J.M. 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Royo, C. M.M. Nachit, N. di Fonzo, IO
In Bulgaria field and laboratory studies that screened durum wheat for resistance to F.
culmorum, F. pseudograminearwn pseudograminearum (reported as F. gra111i11earum Group I)
identified the variety Chirpan as having some resistance (Lalev, 1985). In Australia work by
Wildermuth et al. (1999) found no resistance in 81 Australian and overseas durums tested in the
field and greenhouse against F. pseudograminearum (reported as F. graminearum Group l ); all
were rated highly susceptible. A preliminary greenhouse and field screening by CIMMYT-
Mexico of 40 durum cul ti vars from different regions of the world against F.
pseudograminearum in identified Sooty_9/Rascon_37 (CID 148682, SID 27) as offering a high
level ofresistance equivalent to known spring bread wheat resistances (Nicol and Pfeiffer, data
unpublished). These data require confirmation in the regions of importance.
Key Location Disease Nursery 96-97 WANADDIN Nursery 96-97

£1111)· Pedigree Enuy Pedigree
14 Aw12/Bit 36 DF9-71/3Nz466//61-130/4 l 4-44/4/Ergene
69 Albit-9 46 Outrob2
77 Mna/ Rfm-7 ICARDA Durum Wheat Collection
85 NN90E3-14 (Mor)/ Mrb3 Pedigree
112 20048 Traikia (Mo) I Mrb5 II Stj3 BEZAIZ-AHF
139 M rb3/ Alb it3 BEZAIZ-SHF
141 Otb-1 2265 CATAL ICDW01440 ETH
142 Syrian-4 2325 CATAL ICDWOl546 ETH
149 Mna-1 2325 CATAL ICDWO 1545 ETH
152 Albit-9 Cam di Aboul73 7510CAT POR
154 Awl2/Bit Casa 7580 CA TAL POR
I )9 Ruff/Fg//Turk 1/3/Gi 13 Rubiao 9053 7600 CAT AL POR
179 Chai/ T.Dic.-Sy 20121// !CD 77- A.B.B 76IOCATALPOR
185/3/CD 20626
198 Kunduru 1149 S.Marta2442V76 7615 CATALPOR
Mourisco F.7619 CATAL POR
Colorado 11639V91 7724CATALPOR
Table l : Accessions designated as tolerant (as defined by Mergoum et al., 1997) to the root rot
complex identified from field screening work in Morocco and Syria (Nsarellah et al., 2000).
Sources of resistance in alien grasses

Source: Nicol, J_M_ 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Royo, C. M.M. Nachit, N. di Fonzo, 11
J.L. Araus, W.H. Pfeiffer and G_A. Slafcr (eds). Durum Wheat Breeding: Current Approaches and Future Strategies.
Wildermuth et al. ( 1999) assessing 64 tctraploids found all were as susceptible as commercial
durum varieties, with the exception of 4 Imes of T carthlicwn, indicating that resistance could
also be found on the A and/or B genome. The genomes G, M, and U of Triticum and Aegilops
were also found to offer higher resistance against B. sorokinana. Crosses between susceptible
bread wheats and Aegifops ova ta produced several lines of hexaploid wheat (302-1, 302-3, 302-
5 and 302-20) with improved levels of resistance and yields similar to agronomically adapted
cultivars (Bailey et al., 1993, l 995b). These lines have been introgressed and utlized in
Canadian, Australian, and CIMMYT bread wheat breeding programs. Although disease
resistance has been transferred to bread wheat, there is limited success to date with durum wheat
(Gilbert et al., 1996).
Application of molecular biology as a tool for breeding
The application of molecular tools to understand soilbome diseases and breed for resistance
offers an exciting opportunity to better understand and work with these problems. Currently
work in Australia is seeking to identify a molecular marker for the bread wheat "partial"
resistant source 2-49 (Wildermuth, pers. comm.), which will enable a marker-assisted selection
approach in breeding resistant bread wheats. It is highly probable that markers for other sources
of resistance may also be identified.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
The distribution of the root rot pathogen complex and current economic damage data indicate
that resistance to the pathogen should be an important breeding consideration, especially in
bread and durum wheats in dryland, rainfed cereal environments. The literature strongly
suggests that durum wheat is more susceptible to root rots, and further regional studies on
susceptibility and yield loss in durums are required to support these findings.
Source: Nicol, J.M. 2003. Increasing yield potential and yield stability in durum wheat. In: Royo, C. M.M. Nachit, N. di Fonzo. 12
Although a greater investment has been made in finding sources of root rot resistance in bread
wheats than in durums and the limited intensive studies suggest that durum wheat is more
susceptible to these pathogens, this strongly suggests that a similar level of investment would be
beneficial to the durum industry, even though 1t may be more difficult to find sources of
resistance in this tetraploid background. To make progress in breeding for genetic resistance to
these pathogens, the sources of resistance when identified need to be incorporated into
international and regional breeding programs where this diseases are considered to
economically important. It is also important to note that although resistance plays a major part
in controlling these pathogens, this control option should be part of an integrated pest
management approach.
As these pathogens are extremely difficult to work with, in the future it is hoped that the tools of
molecular biology may aid in diagnosing and understanding the pathogens and improve the
efficiency of incorporating new sources ofresistance into bread and durum wheat.
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;Joscr;ct{ ?~ oj I
Dr. JULIE M. NICOL

Cereal Root Pathologist
c/o CIMMYT, Int.
Lisboa 2 7, Apdo Postal 6-641
Col. Juarez
06600 Mexico, D.F.
Methods for Research on
Soilborne
Phytopathogenic
Fungi
Edited by
Larry L. Singleton
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater
Jeanne D. Mihail
University of Missouri
Columbia
Charles M. Rush
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station
Bushland
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Fusarium
Carol E. Windels
University of Minnesota, Northwest Experiment Station

Crookston, Minnesota 56716
IDENTIFICATION accepted as a stable taxonomic character (Booth, 1971) and has

been utilized in systems developed since that date.
NOMENCLATURE AND SYNONYMY- Fusarium is a
form genus in the Hyphomycetes (subdivision GROWING CULTURES FOR IDENTIFICATION-
Deuteromycotina) that produces macroconidia, microconidia, Consistent and proper preparation of cultures will minimize, if
and chlamydospores. All species form macroconidia with a not eliminate, many of the problems associated with
foot-shaped basal cell (that may not be distinct for some identification of Fusarium species. Procedures outlined by
Acies), when produced in sporodochia (Garns and Nirenberg, Fusarium laboratories at The Pennsylvania State University
~9). Sclerotia may be produced, but they are not important (Department of Plant Pathology, 211 Buckhout Lab, University
taxonomically. The key taxonomic criterion is the shape of the Park, PA 16802) and The University of Sydney (Department
macroconidium. The teleomorph stage, if formed, is in the of Plant Pathology and Agricultural Entomology, Sydney, New
Hypocreales. Fusarium species comprise pathogens, parasites, South Wales, 2006, Australia) will be emphasized in this
and saprophytes and occur on all vegetative and reproductive chapter because they offer well-studied and reliable approaches
parts of plants. They are found on nearly all plant species in to inducing structures needed for identification.
most parts of the world. Some species cause disease in Fusarium species are highly variable because of their
humans and animals, and some species produce mycotoxins. genetic makeup and because they readily respond
More.over, they occur in soils of every continent except phenotypically to changes in their environment (Nelson et al,
Antarctica. 1983). Most Fusarium species isolated from nature produce
In the genus Fusariwn, 9 to over 90 species and varieties macroconidia in sporodochia. These "wild type" isolates will
are recognized, depending upon the taxonomic system used. be referred to as sporodochial types in this chapter. In nature
Table 1 depicts the relationship of sections of the Wollenweber and in culture, mutations can occur and the sporodochial type
and Reinking (1935) taxonomic system to species, cultivars, is lost. These variants often differ significantly from their
and varieties recognized in several selected taxonomic keys. sporodochial-type parents with respect to morphological and
These authorities grouped Fusarium species into sections physiological characteristics. Because morphology is the basis
according to certain characteristics they shared: shape of the for identification, standard culturing procedures must be
macroconidium, shape of the basal cell of the macroconidium, followed to enable degenerated cultural variants to be
presence or absence of microconidia, shape of the recognized and discarded. Mutations in pathogenic isolates also
microconidium, presence or absence of chlamydospores, and are important, as they often result in loss of virulence.
Acation of chlamydospores (interca1ary or terminal). Most of Starting from the sporodochial type, there are two possible
, e species presented in Table 1 are soilborne pathogens or phenotypic expressions of mutations (these appear as sectors or
saprophytes, but others such as F. decemcellulare Brick and F. throughout the entire colony). The "mycelial" phenotype
la1eritium Nees are primarily airborne pathogens of woody usually produces a white featureless, cottony colony with few
plants. Four recently described species are not assigned to a or no conidia. The "pionnotal" phenotype produces a slimy
section because they have characteristics of both the Elegans sheet of simple conidiophores bearing macroconidia which may
and Liseola sections (see Table 1). be distorted; the cultures often are more intensely pigmented
Teleomorphs of some Fusarium spp. are known and occur than the sporodochial type. Neither mutational type has been
in the genera Gibberella and Nectria (Garns and Nirenberg, known to reverse to the sporodochial type.
1989). Most plant pathologists do not work with this phase of The most important character used for the identification of
the fungus, nor is the teleomorph needed to differentiate Fusarium species is the shape of the macroconidium. Other
Fusarium species. For a discussion of the sexual phase of primary characters include the presence or absence of
Fusarium species the reader is referred to Booth (1971, 1981, microconidia, shape and mode of formation of microconidia,
1984) and Snyder and Toussoun (1965). and the conidiogenous cells bearing microconidia. The
Taxonomic systems and synonymy of species vary presence or absence of chlamydospores also is a useful primary
according to the interpretation of what comprises a species, as character but is Jess reliable than the other criteria. Colony
well as other factors. Before the importance of initiating morphology, pigmentation, and growth rates on potato-dextrose
cultures from single conidia was recognized, some species were agar (PDA) prepared from fresh ingredients also can provide
named that likely represented degenerate cultural variants helpful secondary characters. The relative importance of these
(mutants). Since 1971, the microconidiophore has been criteria vary with each species.
115
Tabk I. Comparison and relationship of sections of Wollenweber and Reinking to species, cuhivars, and varieties recognized by several taxonomic
systems for the genus Fusan"um •
Ndson. Toussoun.
s~ction• Snyd.:r & Hansen Messiaen & Cassini Booth & :v!arasas (NTM)
Eupionnotes F. episphaeria F. episphaeria F. dimerum
'Dimerum' var. dimerum
F. episphaen·a F. episphaena F. merismoides F. merismoides

F. episphaeria F. gigas
var. gigas
F. aquoeducruum F. aquoeducruum
F. aquoeducruum
var. medium
F. bu.rico/a
F. episrromum
F. me/anochlorum
F. sphaeriae
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·
Spicarioides F. rigidiuscula F. rigidiusuculum F. decemcellu/are F. decemcellulare
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Arachnites• F. niva/e F. niva/e F. nivale F. niva/e
F. sroveri
F. lllbacinum
F. dimerum
(=F. dimerum NTM)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sporotrich- F. rricinctum F. rricinctum F. rricinctum F. rricinctum
iella' F. spororridu.oides
F. ch!anrydosporum
F. poae F.poae
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Roseum• F. roseum F. roseum F. avenaceum (includes
'Avenaceum' var. avenac~um' F. arrhrosporioides)
F. graminum
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Arthrospor- F. roseum var. F. semirecrum F. semirecrum
iella' arrhrosporioides
F. semirecrum
var. majus
F. camproceras F. camproceras
F. avenaceum
( = F. avenaceum NTM)
F. spororrichioides
( = F. spororrichioides NIM)
F. fasarioides
(=F. chlamydosporum NTM)
F. polyphia/idicum•
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·
Gibbosum F. roseum F. roseum
'Gibbosum' var. gibbosum
F. roseum F. equiseti F. equiseti

'Equiseti'
F. longipes
F. scirpi 1
F. roseum F. acwninarum F. acuminatum
'Acuminatum'
F. concolor
F. arrhrosporioides
------------------------------------------------------------------------------·
116
Table I. (Continued)
Discolor F. roseum F. roseum var. F. culmorum F. culmorum

'Culmorum· culmo rum
F. roseum F. roseum var. F. graminearum F. graminearum

'Graminearum · graminearum
F. roseum F. roseum var. F. sambucinum F. sambucinum

'Sambucinum sambucinum
F. sambucinum
var. coeruleum
F. sulphureum
F. trichothedoides
F. heterosporum F. hererosporum
F. rericularum
F. buharicum
F. faxdferum
F. crookwe/lense
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lateritium F. lareririum F. lareririum F. lareririum F. lareririum
F. /areririum var. bu.ti
F. srilboides
F. xylarioides
F. udum
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lise-0la F. monilijomll! F. moniliforme F. moniliforme F. moniliforme
F. proliferarum
F. anrhophilum
F. monilifomll! F. moniliforme var. F. moniliforme var. F. subglurinans
'Subglutioaos' subglurinans subglurinaru
Elegaos F. axysporum F. axysporum F. axysporum F. axysporum

F. axysporum F. oxysporum (includes F. udum)
'Red-0lens' var. redolens
Martiella/ F. solani F. solani F. solani F. solani

Veotricosum F. solani F. solani
'Coeruleum' var. coeruleum
F. illudms
F. vmtricosum
F. tumidum
--------------------
Uncerta.io Affinity' F. bwmiforme
F. dlamini
F. napiforme
F. rrygamai
!
11Specieson the same line or bracketed are equivalent. Other species may be equivalent but are difficult to discern based on descriptions.
'Order of sections is based on Wolleoweber and Reiolc.iog (1935). Three sections (Macroconia, Submicrocera, and Pseudomicrocera) of the original 16
sections are not included in this table because the species within the three sections have not been seen since they were first described. Placement of
Frnarium species in the Snyder and Hansen and the Messiaen and Cassioi systems into sections is based on Wollenweber and Reiolc.ing's original
placement of equivalent species. Consult original publications for citation of authorities for Snyder and Hansen (1940, 194lb, 1945, 1954), Snyder
et al (1957), Toussouo and Nelson (1975), Messiaen and Cassini (1968), Booth (1971), and Nelson et al (1983).
'F. nivale has been reassigned to the anamorph genus Microdochium (Samuels and Hallett, 1983).
"Booth (1971) combined all species with polyblastic cooidiogenous cells in the section Arthrosporiella to demonstrllte their close relationship; Nelson et
al (1983) do not use the presence of polyblastic cooidiogenous cells as a section characleristic, and place F. avenaceum in the section Roseum, and
F. spororrichioitks and F. chlamydosporum ( = F. Jusarioide.r) in the section Sporotrichiella.
11iis species was described by Marasas et al, 1986.
'Description of this species was emended by Burgess et al, 1985.
•F. bwmiforme was described by Nelson et al (1987); F. dlamini by Marasas et al (1985); F. napiforme by Marasas et al (1987b); and F. nygamai by
Burgess and Trimboli (1986); all of these species have characteristics of both the Elegans and Liseola sections.
117
Culture media- Both carnation leaf agar (CLA) and PDA Booth (1971) made a simple modification that saves on use
(Appendix A) are used for identifying each culture. of glassware. Conidia are accumulated on the wet tip of a
Commercial formulations of PDA are not suitable for this needle and introduced into a drop of sterile water on a sterile
purpose. The microscopic features needed for species microscope slide. Under a dissecting microscope, conidia are
identification using the manual by Nelson, Toussoun and observed flowing from the needle tip into the water until they
Marasas (1983) are based on growth on CLA; culture are clearly distinguishable in the water and not obscured by
characteristics are based on growth on PDA. In fact, correct overlapping. The conidial suspension is touched with a loop
identifications may not be possible if other procedures are and then streaked across a dish of WA.
followed. Hyphal-Tip Method- Some Fusarium species are
Advantages of CLA over PDA include: sporulation is extremely unstable, especially when subcultured on rich media,
favored over mycelial growth; conidia and conidiophores are and they mutate rapidly, e.g., F. longipes Wollenw. &
produced in abundance and they are uniform in shape and size; Reinking and some formae speciales of F. oxysporum Schlecht.
and phenotypic variation is minimized. Other green herbaceous emend. Snyd. & Hans. Also, mutant cultures occasionally
materials embedded in water agar ry/A) also are suitable, e.g., develop from single conidia of sporodochial-type isolates grown
leaves and stems of com (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticwn on CLA or PDA. When mutants develop, new
aestivum L.) straw, alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), and other sporodochial-type cultures may be initiated from parent cultures
grasses (Booth, 1971; Hansen and Snyder, 1947; Nelson et al, by hyphal-tipping (Nelson et al, 1983). Mycelium of the
1983; Snyder and Hansen, 1947). Seeds are not recommended sporodochial-type parent is placed on WA that is poured thin,
because they are high in available carbohydrates and are more so that a sparse thallus develops. Hyphal tips are located using
difficult to sterilize (Nelson et al, 1983). Conidia formed in a dissecting microscope and a single hyphal tip is removed in
cultures growing on PDA often are too variable in siz.e and the same manner used as described for single conidia. Species
distorted in shape to provide reliable microscopic features for known to mutate readily always should be regenerated from
identification. colonies growing on low-nutrient media such as CLA or WAt
Cultures from Single Conidia- This procedure is used to This procedure also is useful in separating mixed cultures when
obtain pure cultures, separate species in mixed cultures, one species sporulates sparsely in comparison to the other, but
maintain original sporodochial-type cultures, and to allow for grows more quickly on WA.
uniform and consistent production of conidia. Preparation of Culture Mite Control- Exclusion of culture mites is best
cultures by this method will eliminate most of the problems obtained by use of a cigarette-paper barrier, sealed with a
associated with variability and difficulty of identification gelatin glue (Appendix A), across the mouth of test tubes
. because each conidium represents a single genotype. When (Snyder and Hansen, 1946). The quality of cigarette rice paper
several single conidial isolates (6-8) are prepared from each will vary. It is important to select high quality paper (tightly
sporodochial-type culture, mutants can readily be recogniz.ed woven) since mites, dust, and other contaminants may enter
and discarded. Thus, the original sporodochial-type culture can through porous paper, and some brands bum cleaner than
be maintained indefinitely. others. Although Snyder and Hansen (1946) recommend that
Preparation of cultures from singk :orridia was first cigarette paj)<2• c-2 C:ry-hcat sterilized before use, the author has
described by Hansen and Smith (1932), and has been modified had no contamination problems using rice paper directly from
(Nelson et al, 1983). It consists of pouring 3-ml of 2 % WA the package.
into unscratched petri dishes; if more WA is used, dishes Incubation Conditions- The production of macroconidia
should be dried for several days (Burgess et al, 1988). A in sporodochia and pigmentation are favored by light that
conidial suspension (usually macroconidia from sporodochia) is includes ultraviolet wave lengths and by fluctuating
prepared in a 10 ml sterile water blank so that it contains 1-10 temperatures (Snyder and Hansen, 194la, 1947; Zachariah et
conidia per low power (XlO) microscope field when a drop al, 1956). An alternating 25 C day/20 C night, with a 12-hr
from a 3-mm-diam loop is examined on a slide. With photoperiod is optimal, but Fusarium species also grow well at
experience, the appropriate concentration of conidia can be constant temperatures of20-21 C; Microd£Jchium nivale (Fries)l
estimated by the degree of turbidity of the suspension in the comb. nov. (=F. nivale [Fr.] Ces.) grows best at fluctuating
water blank. The conidial suspension is poured onto the WA temperatures of 12-18 C (Nelson et al, 1983).
and the excess is drained off. The culture is incubated on a Light is essential for production of macroconidia in
slight incline at room temperature for 16 to 24 hr, in light or sporodochia. Nelson et al (1983) recommend F4055/SX
dark. Dishes then are opened, shaken to remove accumulated fluorescent tubes (Consumer Lighting Products, P.O. Box
moisture, and the surface of the agar is scanned under a 5760, Baltimore, MD 21208) as excellent substitutes for natural
dissecting microscope for isolated, germinated conidia (macro- light. Other brands of cool white fluorescent tubes also are
or microconidia). A dissecting needle having a flattened tip is effective (Booth, 1971; Windels et al, 1988b). Two tubes in
used to cut small squares of agar containing single germinated an ordinary 40-watt fluorescent fixture are suspended 40-45 cm
conidia, and the transferred conidium is placed near a leaf above the bench. Poorly sporulating cultures are placed under
piece on CLA or in the center of a dish or slant of PDA. a fixture containing one 40-watt black light tube (Philips® TL
To eliminate bacterial contamination in the original culture, 40 W/80 RS F40 BLB) and one 40-watt fluorescent tube to
a drop of 25 % lactic acid may be added to the 10 ml sterile stimulate sporulation. Burgess and Liddell (1983) have
water blank (Nelson et al, 1983). Allow the acidified conidial developed a two-tiered mobile light bank, with a combination
suspension to stand for 10 min before pouring onto the dish of fluorescent and black lights for growing cultures. This
containing WA. Note that germination of Fusariwn conidia combination of lights also enhances fonnation of the
may be delayed for 24 hr or more with this technique. The teleomorph in some species.
WA also may be amended with antibiotics (Burgess et al, Diffuse daylight from a north window also stimulates
1988), e.g., 0.050 g streptom_;.:in sulfate per liter of WA. sporulation. Care should be taken that cultures are not exposed
118
to direct sunlight because high temperatures and moisture 4. Macroconidia form on monophialides in sporodochia
condensation occur within the dish or tube. (on leaf pieces) and in aerial mycelium. If present,
CWamydospore Induction- For species that produce sporodochia will provide the most reliable and uniform
•l,<>m, chlamydospores generally appear within 2-4 wk on macroconidia. Sponxlochia occur in many, but not all specie.s.
nutrient-poor media such as WA or CLA. More rapid They may be distinct or confluent; pigmentation fre.quently is
production can be attained in other ways. When a small block orange although for some species or isolates, sporodochia may
of a PDA culture is placed in sterile distilled water, be crearn, tan, red-brown, blue, or blue-green in color.
chlamydospores may form in about 7-10 days for some species. Examine the slide mount under X40 magnification. Note the
Alexander et al (1966) used sterile soil extracts; 1 kg of sandy shape of the macroconidia and ignore the few rnacroconidia
soil was mixed with 1 L of water, filtered through glass wool, that are different from the predominant type. Your first
and filter-steriliz.ed through a 0.22-µm Millipore filter. Other impression of general shape is important, especially for species
procedures involve placing the fungus in a cellophane or nylon in the sections Arthrosporiella, Discolor, Gibbosum, and
envelope in or on preparations of soil extracts or soil in dishes. Roseum. Macroconidia produced in aerial mycelium are more
Conidia also can be added directly to soils and incubated, after diverse but they also should be examined, especially since some
which soil smears are prepared and stained with acid fuchsin species or isolates may not produce sporodochia.
(Nash et al, 1961). 5. Microconidia tend to form in aerial mycelium some
Klotz et al (1988) developed a soil agar (SA) medium distance away from the leaf pieces (never in sporodochia).
(Appendix A) for inducing chlamydospores to form. Cultures Cultures on CLA should be scanned directly under the XlO
on SA are initiated by a "mass transfer" (1x1 cm2) ofa 7-10 objective. Look for microconidia and note how they are
day-old culture. Chlamydospores usually form within 7-17 formed (false heads and/or chains - both features can occur in
days on the original piece of inoculum following incubation in a single culture) and whether polyphialides are present. Dishes
the dark at 25 C. This method works well for several species, should be handled gently to retain integrity of conidial chains.
~ially F. nygamai Burgess & Trimboli, sp. nov., F. Also, scan the aerial hyphae and agar surface for a preliminary
9"1ini Marasus, Nelson & Toussoun, sp. nov., and F. indication of chlamydospores. Microconidia form more
acuminatum Ell. & Ev., which usually are slow in producing abundantly on PDA than on CLA for some isolates of species
chlamydospores. in the Section Sporotrichiella.
Perithecium Production- It can be extremely difficult to 6. If microconidia are present, prepare a slide that
induce perithecia in many Fusarium species. Most species do includes hyphae and conidiogenous cells from the area where
not produce perithecia in culture, and others are heterothallic microconidia are observed. Microconidia vary considerably in
and re.quire compatible mating types. For details on techniques shape, but most are 0-1 septate. Note shape of microconidia
to induce teleomorpli formation for various species, see Booth, and nature of conidiogenous cell. A true polyphialide is a
1971; El-Gholl et al, 1978; Francis and Burgess, 1977; Tio et single conidiogenous cell with more than one pore; a septum
al, 1977; and Tschanz et al, 1975. between two pores indicates branching but not a polyphialide.
Colony Features- While gross colony features on PDA Cultures that produce polyphialides also will produce
are not recommended for distinguishing species, they can monophialides, although some isolates produce polyphialides
provide useful secondary characteristics that supplement the sparsely. It is best to examine cultures 4-7 days old for
primary criteria. Colony diameters are reported by Burgess et polyphialides because conidia formation in aerial mycelium
al (1988) to be reliable if cultures are incubated under standard declines rapidly in older cultures; moreover, conidiogenous
procedures. Colony diameters are assessed at 25 C and 30 C cells lose their cytoplasm with time and are more difficult to
for cultures grown on PDA in dishes (10-cm diam) in the dark view with the transmitted light microscope. Phialides can still
for 72 hr. Cultures are initiated from germinated single conidia be clearly seen under phase contrast. Polyphialides of species
(seeded on WA 18-20 hr before use and germinated at 25 C in in the section Arthrosporiella are best observed when cultures
the dark). Macroconidia from CLA are normally used, but are 10-14 days old. For F. nygamai, polyphialides tend to
a.ults do not differ significantly if microconidia are used. form most abundantly at the periphery of the dish.
Wwever, growth rates will change if cultures mutate. 7. Chlamydospore formation is a valuable taxonomic
Colony pigmentation is uniform in some species and criterion but should be weighed with caution. True
extremely variable in others. Descriptions of colony chlamydospores have a thick, double wall. The contents are
morphology in the illustrated manual by Nelson et al (1983) are granular and highly refringent and rarely are vacuolate. They
based on growing cultures on PDA slants for 10-14 days under occur in both rnacroconidia and hyphae singly, in pairs,
the standard conditions described previously. bunches, or in chains of various lengths. Distortions and
Guidelines for Identification- Among the features used to swellings in hyphae (intercalary or terminal) are occasionally
separate Fusarium species, there are practical points that will confused with chlamydospores, but these structures lack the
make the job easier and enable the novice to avoid pitfalls. thick, double wall of a true chlamydospore. Formation of
1. Grow all cultures on CLA and PDA from single chlamydospores may vary between isolates of a single species
germinated conidia or hyphal tips under the standard light and and even between successive cultures of one isolate. Thus,
temperature conditions. while their presence is a useful criterion, their absence-is not.
2. Use water as a mounting medium (stains fre.quently 8. Examine colony morphology and pigmentation of
distort conidia). Expect to make more than one microscope cultures grown on PDA slants for 10-14 days under the
mount when examining a culture for morphological structures. standard conditions previously described. Colony morphology
3. Examine macroconidia in cultures that are 10-14 diiys and pigmentation is uniform in some species and extremely
old. It may be necessary to check for chlamydospores in variable in others.
cultures 3-4 wk old. Microconidial production and 9. Measure diameters of colonies grown on PDA from
conidiogenous cells are best viewed in cultures 4-7 days old. germinated conidia in the dark at 25 and 30 C for 72 hr.
119
10. Use keys for identification. Collect all relevant (Burgess et al, 1988).
information before you begin. While illustrated keys are Choice of isolation procedure depends upon the nature of
helpful, they do not show the full rnnge of variation of the plant sample, number of samples, the Fusarium species
macroconidia (size, septation) that can occur within a species, involved, and whether isolation of other genera is desired
but the overall shape should be constant. (Burgess et al, 1988). Successful isolation of pathogenic
Fusarium species from diseased plant tissue is dependent upon
TAXONOMIC REFERENCES- All current systems of several factors. These include: judicious selection of tissue,
Fusarium taxonomy are based on the book by Wollenweber effective surface disinfestation, preparation of tissue, selection
and Reinking (1935) that marked the culmination of 40 years of medium, and suitable incubation conditions (Burgess et al,
of research on the genus. Several illustrated manuals and 1988). Tissue selected for isolation should be typical of the
taxonomic keys are available (Booth, 1971, 1977; Burgess et diseased material. Ideally, freshly infected tissue or tissue at
al, 1988; Gerlach, 1981; Gerlach and Nirenberg, 1982; the advancing edge of a necrotic area should be selected.
Gordon, 1952, 1960; Joffe, 1974; Matuo, 1972; Messiaen and The concentration and duration of exposure to surface
Cassini, 1968, 1981; Nelson et al, 1983; Nirenberg, 1976). disinfestants largely depends upon the nature of the tissue.
To simplify identification, all cultures must be carefully grown Often, a 1-5% NaOCI solution is used; NaOCl also may be
and studied under the conditions specified by the monographer! prepared in 10% ethanol, where the latter acts as a wetting
See Booth (1975), Toussoun and Nelson (1975), and Nelson et agent. Tissues treated with alcohol (but not with aqueous
al ( 1983) for detailed discussions regarding the historical NaOCI) should subsequently be rinsed in sterile water. Some
aspects of variation and speciation. Several new Fusarium spp. tissues are porous and readily absorb the disinfectant, thus
have been named since these manuals were published (Burgess eliminating the pathogen as well as the surface contaminants.
and Trimboli, 1986; Marasas et al, 1985, 1986, 1987b; and Burgess et al (1988) found that swabbing 95% ethanol on
Nelson et al, 1987). Authorities for Fusarium species older, porous tissue of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L]
presented in this chapter follow the taxonomic system of Moench) stalks improved recovery of F. monilifonne Sheldon.4
Nelson et al (1983). This procedure also is recommended for surface-treating
Members of the Arachnites section (F. nivale) have been diseased woody plant parts. Plant tissue that is surface-treated
transferred to the anamorph genus Microdochium as M. nivale with disinfectant should be damp-dried on absorbent paper
(Samuels and Hallett, 1983). The teloomorph genus is towels and air-dried before being placed on culture media.
Monographella as M. nivalis (Schaffnit) Muller (Booth, 1981). This procedure will reduce the chance of bacterial
Species in the section Arachnites also have isoelectric focusing contamination.
esternse patterns which are completely different from other Other tissues, such as fine feeder roots are too delicate to
fusaria (Sz.OCsi and Homok, 1986). be surface-treated. They should be washed vigorously in
repeated changes of sterile water or subjected to a fine spray of
filtered tap water for 30-120 min, followed by rinsing in sterile
HOST RANGE AND DISfRIBUTION water. A 'Waterfog' nozzle (Fogg-It Nozz.el Co., P.O. Box
16053, San Francisco, CA 94116) has been useful in spray
Fusarium species are economically important as pathogens chambers for washing roots, soil debris, and other plant tissues
on most agricultural, horticultural, and silvicultural crops (Burgess et al, 1988).
grown in the world. Many are common soil saprophytes. Cutting tissues into small pieces (1-2 x 1-2 mm) limits the
Some are mycotoxigenic (Marasas et al, 1984) or cause number of fungi growing from each piece (Burgess et al,
opportunistic infections of humans and other animals (Rebell, 1988). This practice makes it easier to subculture fungi and
1981). Some species are more localized to tropical or also increases the odds of isolating slow-growing pathogens.
subtropical, temperate, or cool climates, whereas others are If a pathogen is known to have infected a specific tissue (e.g.,
cosmopolitan. For a detailed treatise of host range and cortex or vascular tissue) samples can be prepared to favor
distribution for a Fusarium species, see Booth (1971), Burgess isolation. For instance, if recovery is poor or if the suspected~
et al (1988), Gerlach and Nirenberg (1982), Gordon (1952, pathogen is deep within the tissue, removal of the outermost
1960), and Marasas et al (1987a). portion of the sample may increase probability of isolation.
Removal of cortex will facilitate isolation of F. oxysporum
from vascular tissue.
ISOLATION Slow-growing pathogenic species, such as F. avenacewn
(Fr.) Sacc., are readily overgrown by saprophytes. However,
FROM HOST TISSUE- Fusarium species are easily these slow-growing species can be successfully isolated by a
isolated from plant tissue, debris, and soil. These fungi are combination baiting/plating technique. Burgess et al (1973)
primary or secondary invaders of aerial or subterranean plant washed necrotic tissue of subterranean clover (Trifolium
parts and often are mistakenly assumed to be pathogens because subterraneum L), which was cut into small pieces and mixed
of their frequent isolation from necrotic tissues, Some species with a pasteurized potting mix to approximately 5 % by volume.
are saprophytic, whereas others contain both pathogenic and Seed of a susceptible cultivar was planted and replicate pots
saprophytic isolates. A number of pathogenic species are very were placed at IO, 15, 20, and 25 C. Two pots were removed
slow growing and difficult to isolate and often are obscured in from each temperature when 50% of the seedlings had
culture by faster-growing, saprophytic isolates or other species emerged, 50 % of the seedlings had the first unfolded trifoliate
of Fusarium. Thus, when diagnosing a plant disease, one leaf, and at IO days after the second sampling. Root segments
should make pathogenicity tests to distinguish between were thoroughly washed, and then cultured on suitable media.
pathogenic and saprophytic isolates. Many of the isolation More direct isolation procedures are possible if the fungus
techniques presented in th; section have been summarized produces sporodochia or perithecia at or near the soil surface
120
or on aboveground tissues (Burgess et al, 1988; Nelson et al, Thus, the mode of persistence of a particular species in soil
1983). A suspension of conidia can be made from a will dictate the isolation procedure selected. For instance, F.
sporodochium in sterile water, and pure cultures obtained by equiseti (Corda) Sacc., F. oxy~porum, and F. sola11i (Mart.)
using the single-conidium method (see Growing Cultures for Appel & Wollenw. emend. Snyd. & Hans. fonn
Identification). If fertile perithecia are present on infected chlamydospores in abundance and are readily isolated from
tissue, a small fragment of the tissue can be removed, washed, soil. Conversely, F. avenaceum, which does not form
blotted dry, and placed on the inner side of an inverted petri chlamydospores and persists primarily as hyphae in plant
dish containing WA or CLA. Petroleum jelly helps to hold the residues in soil, is more likely to be isolated from debris pieces
tissue in place. The inverted dish is incubated at 25 C in a than directly from soil. McMullen and Stack (1983) found that
plastic bag to maintain high relative humidity. After 24-48 hr, recovery of Fusarium species from native grasslands was more
ascospores are released onto the agar surface below. affected by the isolation technique (soil, plant roots, and debris)
Germinated ascospores or hyphal tips then can be transferred than by the medium employed. These results demonstrate that
to other media. determining the presence and abundance of a species is
The standard incubation conditions previously described for dependent upon the appropriate isolation procedure(s).
preparing cultures for identification also are suitable when Culture Media- Use of general growth media or selective
isolating Fusarium species from soil or from plant tissue. media depends upon whether the investigator is isolating
Appropriate temperatures may be selected to favor growth of Fusarium species from diseased plants, soil, or debris pieces in
a given species. soil; preparing cultures for identification; or increasing
inoculum for pathogenicity tests. Media mentioned in this
FROM SOIL- Usually Fusarium is isolated directly from chapter are described in Appendix A.
soil or associated debris in soil (Burgess et al, 1988; McMullen (i) General growth media- Low nutrient media such as
and Stack, 1983; Tio et al, 1977). The fungus also can be WA, CLA, or half-strength PDA are useful in initial isolations
i5*.d indirectly from soil by root-baiting techniques or by from plant tissues and debris. Natural media (such as straw
s t - baits such as pieces of cereal straw. The species isolated from barley [Hordeum vulgare L.], wheat, or peas [Pisum
and their frequency of occurrence are influenced by the s<Uivum L.]) in WA also are recommended (Hansen and
sampling procedure, transit and storage conditions, isolation Snyder, 1947; Snyder and Hansen, 1947). Antibiotics, e.g.,
technique, and modes of persistence of the fungus. streptomycin sulfate, can be added if bacteria interfere in
Both pathogenic and saprophytic Fusarium species are isolations. Single-conidium cultures can be prepared when
isolated often from dead plant tissue. Paper bags are best for Fusarium sporulates on carnation leaf pieces. WA can be
transporting samplies. Plastic bags prevent drying and substituted for CLA when isolating fungi from plant tissues, but
encourage bacterial and fungal growth (Nash and Snyder, subculturing often is necessary to identify isolates. Both CLA
1962). Soil samples should be air-dried and the culture and WA are preferable to PDA or other media rich in
medium allowed to 'dry' for 5 days before plating to avoid carbohydrates for isolations, because the latter favor mutations
bacterial growth. If samples cannot be processed immediate! y, and growth of nontarget organisms. Two exceptions are the
storing of air-dried soil at 2-5 C is advised. isolation of F. lateritiwn and F. decemcellulare from woody
The soil dilution method is a popular isolation technique, tissues (Burgess et al, 1988). Both species are more readily
md is described in the Introduction. Selective media are isolated on PDA than on nutrient-poor media because they
recommended for direct isolations from soil (see Culture grow slowly on the nutrient-poor medium. CLA is used in
nedia, below, and Appendix A). Windels and Kommedahl combination with PDA for identifyin_g Fusarium species. PDA
)974) used an air sampler designed by Andersen (1958) and also is favorable for microconidial production of species in the
.nodified by Harrison and Livingston ( 1966) for general section Sporotrichiella.
solation of Fusarium species from soil. Soil samples are Culture media also are helpful in distinguishing between
,JUlveriz.ed in a micromill for 30 sec, passed through a 250-µm species. Addition of 4-8 g/L of KC! to WA or CLA enhances
><:A, and then 10 mg of soil are deposited unifonnly in a the number and length of microconidial chains of F.
xM'dish containing peptone PCNB agar (Appendix A). mo11ilifom1e and F. proliferatum (Matsushima) Nirenberg in the
Isolation from small debris pieces in soil is routinely used section Liseola (Fisher et al, 1983). Brayford and Bridge
JY Burgess et al (1988). A soil sample is suspended in water (1989) differentiated F. oxysporum from F. solani by
md poured through a nest of three sieves, in order, 4.0-mm, pigmentation on ammonium salts agar containing either
l.0-mm, and 0.5-mm mesh. Identifiable plant remains are mannitol, sorbitol, or xylitol as a sole source of carbon.
;ollected on the first sieve, such as roots and crowns, which (ii) Selective media- These media are used for isolation of
:an be surface-treated and cultured on media (see Fusarium species from plant tissue and soil. They also are
ISOLATION - FROM HOST TISSUE). Debris pieces on helpful in suppressing contaminants in Fusarium cultures
he two smaller screens are too porous to surface-treat, so the (transfers can be made from the edge of the colony to WA or
;ieves are placed under a fine spray of filtered tap water for 2 CLA) so that cultures can be purified. Peptone PCNB agar
rr or until soil adhering to the debris is removed. Debris is (Nash and Snyder, 1962) and several modifications (Nelson et
lried on absorbent toweling, and then dried over silica gel for al, 1983; Tsao, 1970) are excellent for general isolation of
~4-48 hr before the fragments are placed on media. Both Fusarium species from soil (Appendix A). The medium is
;elective and semi-selective media are used to isolate Fusarium inhibitory to most other fungi and bacteria. Fusarium colonies
;pecies from debris (see Culture media, below, and Appendix develop after 5-7 days and most are restricted in size ( < 5-10
!\.). mm diameter) and with little or no pigmentation. Direct
Fusarium species occur in soil as discrete propagules identification of colonies on this medium is not recommended
'. chlamydospores, conidia, modified conidia, hyphal fragments), because of poor sporulation; conidial morphology is abnormal;
md in host debris coloniz.ed parasitically or saprophytically. and many different Fusarium species produce similar colonies.
121
Thus, all colonies must be sul:x:ultured for identification. placed on top of the partially stoppered vials. A VirTis drying
Fusarium species should not be maintained on this medium for chamber (Model 10-MR-SA, the VirTis Co., Gardiner, NY
more than 20-30 clays because of accumulations of toxic 12525) on a refrigerated freeze-drier is used for lyophilii:ation.
ammonia (Nelson et al, 1983). The tray is placed on a precooled (-35 C) shelf in the drying
Komacla's medium (Komada, 1975) (Appendix A) is chamber. After IO min, the chamber is evacuated (10 µm Hg
selective for isolation of F. oxysporum from plant tissue and on a McLeod gauge), and 15 min later shelf refrigeration is
soil. This medium is not recommended for isolation of other turned off. The shelf heat is then turned to 15 C for 16-20 hr
Fusarium species because the medium suppresses some species. to allow the leaf pieces to dry gradually. After drying is
Colonies of F. oxysporum are pigmented on this medium. completed, the vials are vacuum-sealed by inflation of a rubber
Selective Fusarium agar (SFA) (Appendix A) is a modified diaphragm in the chamber above the tray, which presses down
Czapek-Dox medium that is suitable for isolation from plants on the Lucite plate, thus sealing the vials with rubber stoppers.
and soil debris but not from soil (fio et al, 1977). It provides Cultures are stored at -30 C. The carnation leaf tissue and
more pigmentation in developing colonies, but does not skim milk protect the fungus (mycelium and conidia) during the
suppress contaminants as well as peptone PCNB agar. lyophilization process and during storage.
Selective media also can be useful for isolation of Since 1978, the Fusarium Research Center, Pennsylvania
Fusarium from food products. For instance, a dichloran State University, has lyophilized about 16,000 cultures and
chloramphenicol peptone agar (DCPA) was developed by nearly 100% are viable (Burgess et al, 1988). A modified
Andrews and Pitt (1986) for selective isolation of Fusarium lyophilization method used at the University of Sydney since
species and dematiaceous hyphomycetes from cereal grains 1971 has successfully preserved nearly 8,000 isolates (Burgess
(Appendix A). Fusarium conidia formed on DCPA are et al, 1988).
uniform and similar to those formed on CLA. However, In situations where equipment is limited, cultures can be
microconidia are less abundant, and some species that normally preserved on silica gel (Windels et al, 1988a). Cultures are
form microconidia fail to do so on DCP A compared to CLA. gro~ as. for lyophilization. Sili.ca gel (nonindicating, no dye4
Further details on the growth of Fusarium species on DCP A spec1ficat10n Mil-D-3716 or Davison Chem. Corp., commercial
are reported by Hocking and Andrews (1987). The medium grade H and 05, mesh 6-16, Code 05-08-08-237) is dry-heat
suppresses species of Aspergillus, Penicillium and mucoraceous sterilized at 180 C for 1.5 hr in screw cap culture tubes, and
fungi. Jeffries et al (1984) report a selective medium that placed in ice water before use. A heavy conidial suspension is
facilitates isolation of F. solani (Mart.) Sacc. var. coeruleum prepared by adding several colonized leaves to tubes containing
(Sacc.) Booth and F. sulphureum Schlecht. from soil and potato sterile Difeo skim milk. The tube is held horizontally to
(Solanum tuberosum L.) tubers (PAB, Appendix A). distribute silica gel along the side of the tube and a conidial
Some media are selective beyond the species level. A suspension is distributed over the crystals to moisten (silica gel
modified potato dextrose agar (MPDA) is used for isolation of fuses if too much moisture is added). The culture tube is
F. graminearum Schwabe group 1 from diseased crowns of placed on a vortex mixer to redistribute conidia on the silica
wheat (Burgess et al, 1988) (Appendix A). Colonies are gel, and then placed in an ice bath until the tube cools (some
distinctive and growth of mucoraceous fungi and Trichodenna heat is released when moisture contacts silica gel). After 5 yr,
species are suppressed. Sun et al (1978) modified Komada's survival was >90-100% for F. acuminatum, F. culnwrum
medium to identify race 4 of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense (W.G. Smith) Sacc., F. equiseti, F. merismoides Corda, F.
(E.F. Smith) Snyd. & Hans. A modified defined basal monilifonne, F. oxysporum, F. poae (Peck) Wollenw., F.
medium (DBM, Appendix A) differentiates between races 1 proliferatum, F. solani,_ F. sporotrichioides Sherb., and F.
and 4 of F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense by producing distinctive subglutinans (Wollenw. & Reinking) Nelson, Toussoun &
colony types (Wong, 1988). Races 1, 2, 4, and 5 of F. Marasas comb. nov. and < 90 % for F. avenaceum, F.
oxysporum f. sp. pisi (van Hall) Snyd. & Hans. can be dimerum Penzig, F. graminearum, F. lateritium, F.
distinguished by colony morphology on modified azide-rose 1:·
sambucinum Fuckel~ ~d se"!i~ectum Berk. & Rav. A dense~
bengal agar, modified PDA, and peptone PCNB agar, provided suspension of corud1a 1s cnhcal to ensuring that some,
the researcher is familiar with cultural characteristics of the propagules survive. Fusarium cultures stored on silica gel do
fungus on these media (Roberts and Kraft, 1973). not colonize the substrate (which limits the chance of mutation)
and repeated isolations can be made from a single tube.
Cultures can be preserved temporarily by placing colonized
ISOLATE MAINTENANCE AND STORAGE leaf pieces from 2-wk-old cultures into small, sterilized
envelopes. Envelopes are left partially open while the leaf
L yophilization is the best method for long-term pieces dehydrate over silica gel for 48 hr. The technique has
preservation of Fusarium species (Fisher et al, 1982). Cultures been successful in storing most species for at least 6-12 mo
are grown from single conidia on CLA for 7-10 clays; older over silica gel at 5- IO C (Burgess et al, 1988).
cultures may contain mutant conidia (Burgess et al, 1988). Preservation by liquid nitrogen also is simple and effective.
Bacterial contamination is checked by growing the fungus in Cultures do not need to be sporulating (Booth, 1971).
tryptic soy broth or by microscopically examining a slide It is not recommended that Fusarium species be stored in
mount. Several colonized carnation leaf pieces are transferred sterile soil or on PDA. When cultures are stored in soil,
to a sterile vial and a 0.5-ml aliquct of sterile skim milk (Difeo mutations may occur while the fungus grows vegetatively
Laboratories, Detroit, MI 48201) is added (skim milk (foussoun and Nelson, 1976); nor do all species remain viable
purchased from grocery stores is not suitable). Vials are in soil storage. Storage on a nutrient-rich medium such as
loosely closed with split rubher stoppers (to allow for PDA requires frequent transferring of cultures, which enhances
evacuation of air), placed in .... ray, and quick-frozen with and perpetuates mutations and degenerate cultural variants.
liquid nitrogen. A Lucite platt.. .>t.ghtly larger than the tray, is
122
INOCULUM PRODUCTION AND PATHOGENICITY group 1, F. monilifonne, andF. culmorum), suitable inoculum
DETERMINATIONS can be grown on Chaff-Grain Medium or Ground Cornstalk:
Medium (Appendix A) (Nelson et al, 1986). Tnoculum can be
Saprophytes cannot be distinguished from pathogens based mixed evenly through the soil (1-2%, v/v) or added as a fine
on cultural or morphological characteristics for any of the horizontal layer of inoculum within the soil profile. Grass-
fusaria. Since Fusarium species commonly invade necrotic clipping medium (Appendix A) has been used to infest sod for
tissues in soil, isolation from diseased tissue is no guarantee studies of Fusarium blight on turfgrasses (16g of infested
that a pathogen has been isolated. Thus, pathogenicity tests are clippings per 30 x 40-cm section of sod) (Fulton et al, 1974).
essential. For Fusarium species that produce them, cWamydospores
There are several general guidelines that are useful in should normally be used as inoculum {Burgess et al, 1988).
designing meaningful pathogenicity tests. These include Diseases caused by F. oxysporum and F. solani can be
selection of cultures; production, type, and concentration of reproduced at relatively low populations (40-100 propagules/g
inoculum; inoculation technique; plant age and cultivar soil) if isolates are virulent (Burgess et al, 1988; Elmer and
selection; soil preparation; and environmental conditions to Lacy, 1987). Locke and Colhoun (1974) prepared inoculum of
favor disease development. The methods used in pathogenicity F. oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis Toovey consisting almost entirely
tests are important when comparing results of various workers. of cWamydospores by preparing a dried paste of the fungus and
Lack of agreement often is aggravated by a diversity of the malt extract agar medium on which it had grown (Appendix
approaches used by researchers. For determining the formae A). After 40 days, most of the macroconidia converted to
speciales and races of wilt fusaria, uniform testing is essential. cWamydospores and microconidia were dead. CWamydospores
also formed abundantly in a culture of F. oxysporum growing
INOCULUM PRODUCTION- Selection Of Cultures- in a two-salt solution, but only after it was amended with
Cultures used for increase of inoculum should be virulent and glucose or magnesium carbonate (Appendix A).
tYHiiil of sporodochial-type isolates. Ideally, they should be CWamydospore production increased proportionately with
·e.<9y isolated from diseased tissue, prepared from single increasing concentrations of glucose or magnesium carbonate
:onidia, and maintained by lyophilization. Cultures that have from 0.125 to 2.0 mg per liter, but was repressed when levels
:ieen subcultured on rich media or that have mutated may be exceeded 2.0 mg per liter of solution (Qureshi and Page,
tvirulent (Nelson et al, 1986) and should be avoided. 1970).
Armstrong and Armstrong (1975) note that it is difficult to Conidial inoculum is effective for identifying formae
esolve problems regarding variations in virulence of F. speciales and races (usually of F. oxysporum and occasionally
1.xysporum. Some wltures of F. oxysporum may lose virulence of F. solam) {Armstrong and Armstrong, 1975). Concentration
•n one host but not on another. Or, isolates of differing of inoculum can affect the severity of diseases caused by
·irulence may not be evident when testing pathogenicity on Fusariwn. When identifying formae speciales and races, or
ery susceptible cultivars, but are revealed when tested on crop when evaluating plant germplasm for disease resistance,
ultivars with higher levels of resistance. concentration of inoculum becomes a critical factor. If
Induction, Type, And Concentration Of lnoculurn- inadequate amounts of inoculum are used, susceptible
1any techniques have been reported for mass production of germplasm may be retained whereas if excessive amounts of
U.sarium inoculum: liquid culture, solid media, natural inoculum are used, valuable germplasm may be discarded.
1bstrates, and cornmeal-sand. Examples of liquid media are Martyn and McLaughlin (1983) determined that wilt resistance
'arboxymethylcellulose Medium for conidium production of F. ranking ofwatennelon (Citrullus lanaJus [Thunb.] Matsum. &
raminearum (Cappellini and Peterson, 1965); Armstrong Nakai) cultivars usually dropped one level (such as from highly
usarium Medium for increasing inoculum of F. oxysporwn resistant to moderately resistant) as conidial inoculum
\rmstrong and Armstrong, 1948); and Cerelose Ammonium concentration of F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum (E.F. Smith)
itrate Medium for increasing inoculum of F. oxysporum f. sp. Snyd. & Hans. increased logarithmically.
·c<aici (Sacc.) Snyd. & Hans. (Scheffer and Walker,
JSJI!' lnoculum of Fusarium species has been increased on PATHOGENICITY DETERMINATIONS- Inoculation
ilid media such as PDA and on Cornmeal-Sand Medium Technique- A complete review of all the techniques used to
'uite, 1969), which then is diluted with soil. Among natural determine pathogenicity of Fusarium species on all hosts is
tbstrates, a Chaff-Grain Medium consisting of barley, wheat, beyond the scope of this chapter. However, selected examples
ll (Avena saliva L.), or com was used to grow F. are provided as guidelines.
-aminearum for 4 wk (Liddell et al, 1986) and F. monilifonne Inoculum should be placed at the natural infection court,
r 3 wk (frimboli and Burgess, 1983). See Appendix A for with or without wounding. This has been done by placing
tails on preparation of these media. inoculum directly into crowns, basal stems and onto roots. For
Selection of the appropriate medium on which to increase example, Turner and Van Alfen (1983) inoculated 3-4-mo--old
:x:ulum should be determined by the type and amount of crowns of alfalfa in the field with conidia of F. solani, F.
:x:ulum that causes disease under normal conditions. Some rosewn 'Acuminatum', and F. tricinctum (Cda.) emend. Snyd.
thogenic species of Fusarium persist in soil mainly as hyphae & Hans. by injection of 1 cm' of conidia using a
host residues, whereas other species survive primarily as tuberculin-type syringe fitted with a 0.45-mm-diam needle.
lamydospores. Consequently, structures produced in culture Planting of seeds, cuttings, or transplants into soil uniformly
tt have the potential to act as soilbome inoculum may or may infested or layered with pathogen inoculum also has been used
t persist when used to infest soil. For instance, conidia of F. successfully. Trimboli and Burgess (1983) grew inocnlum of
etuiceum lyse rapidly in natural soil at high temperatures F. monilifonne on a CGM (Appendix A). Then dry, coloniz.ed
urgess et al, 1988). For this species and others that persist CGM was thoroughly mixed with dry soil (a medium-heavy
soil as hyphae in host residues (such as F. graminearwn clay soil that had been steam-pasteuriz.ed) in the proportion
123
1: 100 v/v (inoculum:soil). A 15-cm layer of infested soil was are stressed by inadequate soil moisture or by extreme
added to containers already containing uninfested soil to a depth temperatures. The technique selected for the pathogenicity test
of 32 cm and then sorghum seeds were planted. Another must enable application of the stress factor if it is a key factor
approach is to dip roots or cuttings into inoculum and then predisposing the plant to disease (Liddell et al, 1986; Trimboli
plant them into a growing medium. Rowe (1980) did this by and Burgess, 1983). In the field, several cultural,
removing seedlings of 15-20-day-old tomato (Lycopersicon environmental, or biological stresses acting alone or in
esculentwn Mill.) from steam-disinfested soil. Roots were combination have been shown to predispose asparagus
gently washed in water to remove soil, dipped into conidial (Asparagus officinalis L.) to infections by F. oxysponnn f. sp.
suspensions of F. oxysponnn f. sp. lycopersici, and replanted. a.sparagi Cohen and F. monilifonne, including herbicide
Four tomato lines with differential resistance to two races were application (Lacy, 1979); insect feeding (Damicone et al,
tested. Sometimes inoculum is added directly to soil. For 1987); allelopathic compounds; defoliation caused by rust,
instance, 16 cultivars of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemwn tillage, overharvesting of spears; and virus infections (Evans
morifoliwn [Ramat.] Hems!.) were tested for susceptibility of and Stephens, 1989).
F. oxysporum f. sp. chrysamhemi Litt., Armstr. & Annstr. by Fusarium wilt usually is favored by temperatures
planting rooted cuttings in soil for 2 wk, wounding roots by approaching 28 C. For some wilts such as cabbage yellows
passing a metal spatula through the soil around each plant, and and pea wilt, identification of resistant and susceptible reactions
then pouring water containing conidia of the pathogen onto the is best done at temperatures of 22-24 C (Walker, 1965).
soil (Fisher and Toussoun, 1983). Lower night time temperatures can inhibit expression of
Different inoculation procedures will assist one in symptoms on some cultivars of chrysanthemum (Gardiner et al,
determining the most effective method(s) for duplicating 1989).
symptoms observed in the field or greenhouse (Chase and Disease Evaluations- Root diseases can be measured by
El-Gholl, 1982; Fisher and Toussoun, 1983; Toop, 1963). effects on plant weight and growth, plant survival, yield, and
Testing of several inoculation techniques is helpful when quality of product. Frequently, root-rot indexes are used. t
developing a reliable procedure for consistent and uniform Cereal plants were evaluated for root and crown rot on a 1-5
disease development; when attempting to reproduce symptoms scale based on the progressive development of symptoms on
of a disease being reported for the first time; and for studying scutellar nodes, seminal roots, subcrown internodes, and
pathogens that cause a range of symptoms on different tissues crowns (Kane et al, 1987). A 0-5 disease index of alfalfa
of the host plant. crowns was based on percentage of crown necrosis (Turner and
Plant Age and Cultivar Selection- Plant age at time of Van Alfen, 1983). Disease severity on cotyledons, hypocotyls,
inoculation _can affect dise.ase severity determinations. and roots of soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) was determined
Armstrong and Armstrong (1975) found that inoculation of separately using the same 0-5 index for each plant part (Farias
plants with wilt fusaria in the early seedling stage may result in and Griffin, 1989).
damping-off and an inaccurate evaluation of mature plant Symptoms used to evaluate wilt fusaria are diverse and
reaction. sometimes controversial. Armstrong and Armstrong (1975)
Pathogenicity tests should be made on the same cultivar(s) state that external symptoms of wilt are the best criteria for
on which the disease was observed. Furthermore, the cultivars determining races. But Swanson and Van Gundy (1985)
should be grown under conditions similar to those prevailing in concluded that it was difficult to classify races from the
the environment when the disease occurred. incidence of external symptoms. They found that the extent of
The number of races of a wilt Fusarium is dependent_ upon vascular discoloration in cross sections through the primary
the collection of virulent cultures, availability of differential node of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) was more
hosts, criteria for separating races, and the diligence of the reliable than foliar symptoms as a measure of plant reaction.
investigator (Armstrong and Armstrong, 1975). Ideally, the Plant death differentiated all three races of F. oxysporum f. sp.
cultivars used to distinguish races should be genetically pure tracheiphilwn (E.F. Smith) Snyd. & Hans. when cowpeas were
differential hosts (isolines or near-isolines). Where knowledge grown at 27 C, but vascular discoloration was a more reliable ·
of host genotypes is unavailable, the selection of different types indicator at lower temperatures.
will assist in identifying a large number of races of the fungus. Others have found other indicators that successfully
Preparation of Soil- Use of sterilized, pasteurized, or measure pathogen virulence or severity of disease. A new race
untreated soil influences the severity of disease caused by of F. oxysponnn f. sp. co11glutitUI11S (Wr.) Snyd. & Hans. was
Fusariwn species (Burgess et al, 1988). Soils selected for determined by rating a series of differential hosts for severity
pathogenicity tests should have physical and chemical properties of disease on roots and plant tops on a 0-9 scale and then
similar to those where the disease occurred. If a disease occurs calculating a disease index (Ramirez-Villupadua et al, 1985).
in sterile or fumigated soil, pathogenicity tests should be done Chrysanthemum wilt was rated on a 0-5 scale based on
under those conditions. Untreated soil should be used when aboveground wilt symptoms (Gardiner et al, 1989).
evaluating pathogenicity of field crop diseases. Steriliz.ation of Differential lines of tomato were evaluated for crown and root
field soils allows the pathogen to proliferate and results in rot on a 0-3 scale based on internal browning of the tap root
greater disease than would occu; in untreated soil. In addition, and lower stem oflongitudinally sectioned plants (Rowe, 1980).
soils sometimes are toxic after steriliz.ation (Armstrong and Martyn (1987) characterized a race of F. oxysporwn f. sp.
Armstrong, 1975). nivewn by evaluating differential hosts for percent wilt.
Environmental Condition-: - :'lants should be grown under Banana (Musa spp.) plantlets derived from meristem culture
environmental conditions similar ~J those during the cropping have been used by Sun and Su (1984) to determine differential
season where the disease occurs. Plants should grow in pathogenicity of F. o.xysporwn f. sp. cube11Se. Stephens and
containers that allow relati"~'y normal growth and Elmer (1988) inoculated asparagus seedlings growing
development. Some pathogens 01.;y cause disease when plants aseptically in test tubes with pathogenic isolates of F.
124
oxysporum f. sp. asparagi and used a scale based on percent of 1988; Ploetz and Correll, 1988; Puhalla, 1985), pectic enzyme
root tissue covered by lesions. zymograms (Szecsi, 1990), ribosomal proteins (Partridge et al,
Special Considerations for the Wilt Fusaria- When the 1984), serologv (Iannelli et al, 1982), competitive ELISA
Elegans section was revised by Snyder and Hansen, the concept assays (Kitagawa et al, 1989), isozyme polymorphisms
of formae speciales was applied to recognize physiologic strains (Bosland and Williams, I 987), restriction fragment-length
that were indistinguishable from saprophytic strains of the same polymorphisms (Kistler et al, 1987; Manicom et al, 1987,
species, but that differed in their ability to parasitize specific 1990), and DNA homology (Kuninaga, 1988; Szecsi and
hosts. Initially, it was believed that formae speciale.'> were Dobrovolszy, 1985) are powerful lcx)(s in detem1ining what the
specific to one host and thus, were named according to the eye cannot see - genetic relatedne."s and phylogeny within and
Latin name of the host crop. Consequently, the form that between strnins of F. OJ..}1spor11111 and other species of
attacked peas was designated as F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi, the Fusari 11111.
form that attacked bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) as f. sp.
phaseoli Kendr. & Sn yd., etc. In reality, host specificity ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
occurs for some formae ~-peciales and not for others The helpful reviews of this chapter by Thor Kommedahl,
(Armstrong and Armstrong, 1975). Some formae speciales Craig M. Liddell, and Paul E. Nelson are gratefully
have host specificity and cause wilt in only a single host based acknowledged.
on external symptoms, e.g., cyclaminis Gerlach, Jragariae
Winks & Williams, glycines Arms!. & Armst., medicaginis
(Weimer) Snyd. & Hans., passiflorae Gordon apud Purss, LITERATURE CITED
pemiciosum (Hept.) Toole, rici11i (Wr.) Gordon, sesmni
(Zaprom.) Castellani, and vanillae (Tucker) Gordon Alexander, J.V., Bourret, J.A., Gold, A.H, and Snyder, \V.C.
(Armstrong and Armstrong, 1975, 1981). 1966. Induction of chlamydospore fonnation by F1Lwri11111 sola111
The early concept of host specificity led to establishment in sterile soil extracts. Phytopathology 56:353-354.
bf several formae speciales which later were found to be races Andersen, A.A. 1958. New sampler for the collection, sizing, and
enumeration of viable airborne particles. J. Bacteriol.
of formae speciales in other hosts. For instance, Armstrong
76:471-484.
and Armstrong (1952) renamed F. oxysporum f. sp. rapha11i Andrews, S., and Pitt, J .I. 1986. Selective medium for isolation of
Kend. & Snyd. and f. sp. maJhioli Baker from radish Fusarium species and dcmatiaceous hyphomycetes from cereals.
(Raphanus saJivus L) and stocks (MaJthiola i11ca11a [LJ R. Appl. Environ. Microbial. 51:1235-1238.
Br.), as races 2 and 3, respectively, of F. oxysporum f. sp. Armstrong, G.M .. and Armstrong, J.K. 1948. Nonsusceptible hosts
conglutill{lns, which attacks cabbage. However, Bosland and as carriers of wilt fusaria. Phytopathology 38:808-826.
Williams (1987) found that these three populations can be Armstrong, G.M., and Armstrong, J.K. 1952. Physiologic races of
separated based on pathotype, electrophoretic type, and Fusaria causing wilts of the Cruciferae. Phytopathology
vegetative compatibility. For some formae speciales, the host 42:255-257.
Armstrong, G.M., and Armstrong, J.K. 1975. Reflections on the
range is exceedingly broad. F. oxysporum f. sp. vasilifectwn
wilt fusaria. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 13:95-103.
(Atk.) Sn yd. & Hans., the cause of cotton ( Gossypium hirswum Armstrong, G.M., and Armstrong, J.K. 1981. Formae spcciales and
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the Armstrong's and others reveals a diverse pattern of genes Nelson, T.A. Toussoun, and R.J. Cook, eds. Pennsylvania State
for pathogenicity or of host resistance in F. oxysporum (Booth, University Press, University Park.
1971 ). Forrnae special es also have been proposed for F. sola11i Booth, C. 1971. The Genus Fusariwn. Commonwealth Mycological
and F. lateritium (Booth, 1971). Institute, Kew, Surrey, England. 237 pp.
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governed by the provisions of the International Code of
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~988). This situation means that no Latin diagnosis or author Kew, Surrey, England. 58 pp.
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accepting physiological strains within the Code. To avoid P.E. Nelson, T.A. Toussoun, and R.J. Cook, eds. Pennsylvania
confusion about the origin, Booth ( 1971) suggests that the name State University Press, University Park.
of the formae specialis be followed by the author citation. Booth, C. !984. The Fusariwn problem: Historical, economic and
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names of cvs of the differential hosts, and the symptomology Fusariwn oxysporwn from crucifers based on pathogenicity,
of the disease should be required to establish a new one." isozyme polymorphism, vegetative compatibility, and geographic
Booth (1975) suggests that depositing lyophilized cultures of all ongm. Can. J. Bot. 65:2067-2073.
new formae speciales and races in a national collection would Brayford, D., and Bridge, P.O. 1989. Differentiation of Fusariwn
provide a useful starting point for the name. mysporum from Fusarium so/ani by growth and pigmentation on
Recently, several new analytical techniques have been media c-0nt.aining sugar alcohols. LcUcrs Appl. Microbiol.
applied to differentiate Fusarium species and formae speciales 9:9-12.
and races of F. oxysporum, and are discusse<l in the Chapter by Burgess, L.W., and Liddell, C.M. 1983. Laboratory Manual for
J.C. Correll. Use of vegetative compatibility groups (Correll Fusarium Research. Dept. Plant Pathol. and Agric. Entomol.
Univ.crsity of Sydney, Australia.
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125
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Laboratory Manual for Fu.sariwn Research. 2nd ed. Univ. Land-Forstwirtsch. Berlin-Dahlem.
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1985. Fu.sariwn scirpi: Emended description and notes on Can. J. Bot. 30:209-251.
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P.E. 1973. The biology of fungi associated with root rot of Greuter, W., ed. 1988. International Code of Botanical
subterranean clover in Victoria. Proc. Royal Soc. Victoria Nomenclature adopted by the Fourteenth International Botanical
86:19-28. Congress, Berlin, July-August 1987. Regum Vegetabile 118:5.
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distribution of Fu.sariwn nygamai, sp. nov. Mycologia in imperfect fungi: Botrytis cinerea. Phytopathology 22:953-964.
78:223-229. Hansen, H.N., and Snyder, W.C. 1947. Gaseous sterilization of
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Chase, A.R., and El-Gholl, N.E. 1982. Stem rot, cuUing rot, and Verticilliwn from field soil. Plant Dis. Rep. 50:897-899.
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Fu.sarium so/ani. Plant Dis. 66:595-598. peptone agar as an identification medium for Fu.sariwn species
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Damicone, J.P., Manning, W.J., and Ferro, D.N. 1987. Influence and Noviello, C. 1982. Serological differentiation among
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1978. The identification, induction of perithecia, and coerule1un and Fu.sariwn sulphurewn from soil and potato tuber
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Farias, G.M., and Griffm, G.J. 1989. Roles of Fu.sariwn o>..ysporwn crucifers measured by examination of mitochondrial and
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73:38-42. Kitagawa, T., Sakamoto, Y., Furumi, K., and Ogura, H. 1989.
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1982. Carnation leaves as a substrate and for ;•reserving cultures oxysporwn f. sp. cucwnerimun and for general detection of
of Fu.sariwn species. Phytopathology 72:151-153. various Fu.sariwn species. Phytopathology 79:162-165.
Fisher, N.L., Marasas, W.F.O., and Toussoun, T.A. 1983. Klotz, L.V., Nelson, P.E., and Toussoun, T.A. 1988. A medium
Taxonomic importance of microconidial chains in Fu.sarium for enhancement of chlamydospore formation in Fu.sariwn
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126
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R.Y. 1987a. Bibliography of F11sariwn (Fungi: Hyphomycetcs) Dis. 69:612-613.
in South Africa, 1945-1985. Bothalia 17:97-104. Rebell, G. 1981. Fusari1on infections in human and veterinary
Marasas, W.F.0., Nelson, P.E., and Toussoun, T.A. 1984. medicine. Pages 210-220 in: Fusarium Diseases, Biology, and
Toxigenic Fusarium species. Pennsylvania State University Taxonomy. P.E. Nelson, T.A. Toussoun, and R.J. Cook. eds.
Press, University Park. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park.
Marasas, W.F.O., Nelson, P.E., and Toussoun, T.A. 1985. Roberts, D.D., and Kraft, J.M. 1973. Enumeration of F11sariwn
Fusari1on dlamini, a new species from southern Africa. oxysporum f. pisi race 5 propagules from soil. Phytopathology
Mycologia 77:971-975. 63:765-768.
Marasas, W.F.O., Nelson, P.E., Toussoun, T.A., and Van Wyk, Rowe, R.C. 1980. Comparative pathogenicity and host ranges of
P.S. 1986. F1LSari1on polyphialidic1on, a new species from Fusariwn oxysporwn isolates causing crown and root rot of
South Africa. Mycologia 78:678-682. greenhouse and field-grown tomatoes in North America and
Marasas, W.F.O., Rabie, C.J., Lubben, A., Nelson, P.E., Toussoun, Japan. Phytopathology 70:1143-1148.
T.A., and Van Wyk, P.S. 1987b. Fusariwn !1£1{Ji[onne, a new Samuels, G.J., and Hallett, l.C. 1983. Microdochiwn stoveri and
species from millet and sorghum in southern Africa. Mycologia Monographella sloveri, new combinations for Fusariwn sloveri
79:910-914. and Microneclriella stoveri. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 81 :473-483.
Martyn, R.D. 1987. Fusariwn mysporum f. sp. nivewn race 2: A Scheffer, R.P., and Walker, J.C. 1953. The physiology ofFusarium
highly aggressive race new to the United States. Plant Dis. wilt of tomato. Phytopathology 43:116-125.
71:233-236. Snyder, W.C., and Hansen, H.N. 1940. The species concept of
Martyn, R.D., and McLaughlin, RJ. 1983. Effects of inoculum F1LSariwn. Am. J. Bot. 27:64-67.
concentration on the apparent resistance of watermelons to Snyder, W.C., and Hansen, H.N. 194la. The effect of light on
Fusariwn oxysponon f. sp. nivewn. Plant Dis. 67:493-495. taxonomic characters in Fusarium. Mycologia 33:580-591.
Aatuo, T. 1972. Taxonomic studies of phytopathogcnic fusaria in Snyder, W.C., and Hansen, H.N. 194lb. The species concept in
. , Japan. Rev. Plant Protec. Res. 5:34-45. F11.sari1on with reference to section Martiella. Am. J. Bot.
McMullen, M.P., and Stack, R.W. 1983. Effects of isolation 28:738-742.
techniques and media on the differential isolation of F11sari1on Snyder, W.C., and Hansen, H.N. 1945. The species concept in
species. Phytopathology 73:458-462. FllSariwn with reference to Discolor and other sections. Am. J
Messiaen, C.-M., and Cassini, R. 1968. Recherches sur les Bot. 32:657-666.
fusarioses IV. - La systematique des Fusari1on. Ann. Epiphyties Snyder, W.C., and Hansen, H.N. 1946. Control of culture mites by
19:387-454. cigarette paper barriers. Mycologia 38:455-462.
Messiaen, C.M., and Cassini, R. 1981. Taxonomy of Fusariwn. Snyder, W.C., and Hansen, H.N. 1947. Advantages of natural
Pages 427-445 in: Fusarium Diseases, Biology, and Taxonomy. media and environments in the culture of fungi. Phytopathology
P.E. Nelson, T.A. Toussoun, and R.J. Cook, eds. Pennsylvania 37:420-421.
State University Press, University Park. Snyder, W.C., and Hansen, H.N. 1954. Variation and speciation in
Nash, S.M., Christou, T., and Snyder, W.C. 1961. Existence of the genus Fusariwn. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 60:16-23.
Fusariwn solani f. phaseoli as chlamydospores in soil. Snyder, W.C., Hansen, H.N, and Oswald, J.W. 1957. Cultivars of
Phytopathology 51:308-312. the fungus, Fusariwn. 1. Madras Univ. B, 27:185-192.
Nash, S.M., and Snyder, W.C. 1962. Quantitative estimations by Snyder, W.C., and Toussoun, T.A. 1965. Current status of
plate counts of propagules of the bean root rot Fusariwn in field taxonomy in Fusarium species and their perfect stages.
soils. Phytopathology 52:567-572. Phytopathology 55:833-837.
Nelson, P.E., Toussoun, T.A., and Burgess, L.W. .1987. Stephens, C.T., and Elmer, W.H. 1988. An in vitro assay to
Charactcriz.ation of Fusariwn beomifonne sp. nov. Mycologia evaluate sources of resistance in Asparag11s spp. to Fusarium
79:884-889. crown and root rot. Plant Dis. 72:334-337.
Nelson, P.E., Toussoun, T.A., Burgess, L.W., Marasas, W.F.O., Sun, E.J., and Su, H.J. 1984. Rapid method for determining
and Liddell, C.M. 1986. Isolating, identifying, and producing differential pathogenicity of Fu.sariwn mysponun f.sp. cubense
A inoculum of pathogenic species of Fusariwn. Pages 54-59 in: using banana plantlcts. Trap. Agric. (Trinidad) 61 :7-8.
• Methods for Evaluating Pesticides for Control of Plant Pathogens. Sun, E.J., Su, H.J., and Ko, W.H. 1978. Identification of Fusariwn
K.D. Hickey, ed. American Phytopathological Society Press, St. mysporwn f.sp. rnben.se race 4 from soil or host tissue by
Paul. cultural characters. PhytopaU1ology 68:1672-1673.
Nelson, P.E., Toussoun, T.A., and Marasas, W.F.O. 1983. Swanson, T.A., and Van Gundy, S.D. 1985. Influences of
Fusariwn Species: An Illustrated Manual for Identification. temperature and plant age on differentiation of races of Fusariwn
Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park. m.ysporwn f. sp. lracheiphilwn on cowpca. Plant Dis.
Nirenberg, H. 1976. Untersuchungen iiber die morphologische und 69:779-781.
biologische Differenzierung in der Fusari1on-Sektion Liscola. Szecsi, A. 1990. Analysis of pectic enzyme zymograms of Fusariwn
Heft 169. Mitt. Biol. Bundesanst. Land-Forstwirtsch. species I. Fusariwn laieritiwn and related species. J. Phytopathol.
Berlin-Dahlem 169: 1-117. 128:75-83.
Partridge, J.E., Nelson, P.E., and Toussoun, T.A. 1984. Ribosomal Szecsi, A., and Dobrovolszky, A. 1985. Phylogenic relationships
proteins of the genus Fusariwn. Mycologia 76:533-544. among Fusari1on species measured by DNA reassociation.
Ploetz, R.C., and Correll, J.C. 1988. Vegetative compatibility Mycopathologia 89:89-94.
among races of Fusariwn oxysporum f. sp. cubense. Plant Dis. Szecsi, A., and Hornak, L. 1986. Genetic distance in fungus genus
72:325-328. Fusariwn measured by comparative computer analysis of
Puhalla, J.E. 1985. Classification of strains of Fusariwn mysponon isoelectrofocusing esterase profiles. Acta Phytopathol. Entomol.
on the basis of vegetative rnmpatibility. Can. J. Bot. Hungarica 21:215-230.
63:179-183. Tio, M., Burgess, L.W., Nelson, P.E., and Toussoun, T.A. 1977.
Qureshi, A.A., and Page, O.T. 1970. Observations on Techniques for the isolation, culture and preservation of U1c
chlamydospore production by F11sariwn in a two-salt solution. fusaria. Austral. Plant Pathol. Soc. Newsletter 6:11-13.
Can. J. Microbial. 16:29-32. Toop, E.W. 1963. The effect of pre-inoculation treatment of rooted
127
chrysanthemum cuttings on subsequent vascular wilt Walker, J.C. 1965. Use of environmental factors in screening for
development. Plant Dis. Rep. 47:284-287. disease resistance. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 3:197-208.
Toussoun, T.A., and Nelson, P.E. 1975. Variation and speciation in Wmdels, C.E., and Kommedahl, T. 1974. Population differences in
the fusaria. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 13:71-82. indigenous F1Lmriwn species by com culture of prairie soil. Am.
Toussoun, T.A., and Nelson, P.E. 1976. A Pictorial Guide lo the 1. Bot. 61:141-145.
Identification of Fusariwn species. 2nd ed. Pennsylvania Stale Windels, C.E., Burnes, P.M., and Kommcdahl, T. 1988a. Five-year
University Press, University Park. 43 p. preservation of Fusarium species on silica gel and soil.
Trimboli, D.S., and Burgess, LW. 1983. Reproduction of Fusariwn Phytopathology 78:107-109.
monilifonne basal stalk rot and root rot of grain sorghum in the Wmdels, C.E., Kommcdahl, T., Sticnstra, W.C., and Burnes, P.M.
greenhouse. Plant Dis. 67:891-894. 1988b. Occurrence of Fusariwn species in symptom-free and
Tsao, P.H. 1970. Selective media for isolation of pathogenic fungi. overwintered com stalks in northwestern Minnesota. Plant Dis.
Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 8:157-186. 72 :990--993.
Tschanz, A.T., Horst, R.K., and Nelson, P.E. 1975. A substrate for Wollenwcber, H.W., and Reinking, 0.A. 1935. Die Fusaricn, ihrc
uniform production of perithecia in Gibberella zeae. Mycologia Beschreibung, Schadwirkung und Bekiimpfung. Paul Parey,
67:1101-1108. Berlin.
Tuite, J. 1969. Plant Pathological Methods. Burgess Publishing Co., Wong, W.C. 1988. A differential medium for the identification of
Mpls. races 1 and 4 of Fusarium o>..ysporu.m f.sp cubense. LeUers
Turner, V., and Van A!fen, N.K. 1983. Crown rot of alfalfa in Appl. Microbial. 6:51-54.
Utah. Phytopathology 73: 1333-1337. Zachariah, A.T., Hansen, H.N., and Snyder, W.C. 1956. The
influence of environmental factors on cultural characters of
Fusarium species. Mycologia 48:459-467.
128
.
/uSC17tc{ ?q-ir{J SI '
Dr. JULIE M. NICOL
c/o CIMMYT, Int.
Lisboa 27, Apdo Postal 6-641
Col. Juarez
06600 Mexico, D.F.
Soilborne
Phytopathogenic
Fungi
Edited by
Larry L. Singleton
Stillwater
Jeanne D. Mihail
Columbia
Charles M. Rush
Bushland
APS PRESS
St. Paul, Minnesota


©1992 by The American Phytopathological Society



official duties.

Bipolaris
Robert W. Stack
North Dakota State University

Fargo, North Dakota 58105
IDENfIFICA TION maintain stock cultures.

Pseudothecia of C. sarivus can be produced by pamng
NOMENCLATURE AND SYNONYMY- The fungi now selected isolates. The fungus is heterothallic, so compatible
included in the genus Bipolaris were originally described as mating types are required (Shoemaker, 1955; Tinline and
Helminthosporium (Sivanesan, 1987). They are mostly foliar Dickson, 1958). Some wild-type isolates do not mate.
parasites of grasses (Ellis, 1971; Sprague, 1950); the type of Pseudothecia are produced on barley kernels placed on mineral
the genus is B. maydis (Nisik. & Miyake) Shoem., cause of salts agar as described by Tinline and Dickson (1958): barley
Southern com leaf blight in the USA (Shoemaker, 1959). A (Hordeum vulgare L.) kernels are disinfested by soaking 1 - 4
few species of Bipolaris are soilbome, the principal one being hr in either 0.5 % NaOCl or 0.1 % mercuric chloride. Kernels
B. sorokinia11a (Sacc.) Shoem., on which this section will are then placed in boiling water for 1-2 min to kill the embryo.
concentrate. Other Bipolaris species found in soils are B. Aqueous sw;pensions of conidia of the two isolates to be
vicroriae (Meehan & Murphy) Shoem., B. spicifera (Bain) crossed are prepared and mixed together, then the kernels are
Subram., and B. setariae (Saw.) Shoem. Sometimes confused dipped into the mixed suspension and placed on Sach's agar
with Bipolaris are the closely related soilhome species of (Appendix A). Plates are incubated for 7 days at 24 C,
Curvularia: C. geniculata (Tracy & Earle) Boedijn and C. followed by 14 days at 20 C. Perithecia are more abundant if
lunata (Wakker) Boedijn (D~nnsch et al, 1980; Ellis, 1971). cultures are incubated in the dark. Several other researchers
Bipolaris sorokiniana was first described from Russia in have been successful with this method (Hosford et al, 1975;
1890 as Helminthosporium sorokiniana Sacc. The fungus Jones, 1971; Kline and Nelson, 1971; Sivanesan, 1987).
subsequently was found in North America and named H.
sarivum P. K. & B., a taxon known widely in the TAXONOMIC REFERENCES- Ellis (1971) provides a
phytopathological literature. Between 1930 and the 1970's, it workable key to genera of dematiaceous ( = dark spored) fungi.
was also called Drechslera sorokiniana (Sacc.) Ito (Ellis, In that book, Bipolaris is listed under Drechslera and a key to
1971; Shoemaker, 1959). species is provided (p405-406). Illustrated descriptions for each
The teleomorph of B. sorokiniana is Cochliobolus sativus species also are given. Two other excellent keys to species of
(Ito & Kurib.) Drechs. ex Dastur. Cochliobolus is a genus of Helminthosporium-1ike fungi on grasses are those by Luttrell
Ascomycotina in the order Pleosporales. As presently (1951) and Sivanesan (1987). A key to species of Bipolaris
conceived, species of Bipolaris have teleomorphs in occurring on seeds is given by Chidambaram et al (1973).
Cochliobolus, whereas species of Drechslera have teleomorphs Domsch et al (1980) list four species of Cochliobolus a~
in Pyrenophora (Alcorn, 1983a,b; Ellis, 1971; Sivanesan, common in soils and provide a key and descriptions. Very
1987). Pseudothecia of C. sativus have not been observed in detailed and well-illustrated descriptions of B. soroki11ia11a
nature, although Jones (1971) indicates that compatible mating conidia and conidiogenesis are given by Luttrell (1963), by
types often occur within the same field. Ellis (1971), and by Chidambaram et al (1973). A complete
description of Cochliobolus sativus is given by Shoemaker
SPORULATION- Cochliobolus sativus grows readily in (1955) and by Sivanesan (1987).
culture and produces conidia abundantly on a wide range of
substrates, including both natural products and chemically
defined media, simple and complex carbon sources and HOST RANGE AND DISTRIBUTION
inorganic as well as organic nitrogen (Clark, 1971, 1972;
Harding, 1975a,b). Conidial size and septation are influenced Farr et al (1989) indicate 45 genera of grasses attacked by
by substrate (Harding, 1975a,b). Cultures grow at 20-25 C in C. sativus, whereas Sprague (1950) lists 79 genera of Poaceae
dark or light on V-8 juice agar (Alcorn 1983b; Luttrell, 1963), as hosts. C. sativus has been isolated occasionally from a wide
oatmeal agar (Domsch et al, 1980) or defined media (Harding, range of other plants including economic species in Asteraceae,
1975a,b; Tinline et al, 1960). Clark (1972) found most Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Linaceae, and Solanaceae (Harding,
abundant sporulation using starch as the carbon source. Rich 1979). Whether endemic or introduced, it is well established
media tend to increase the frequency of colony sectors in all major cereal growing regions of the world. Harding
(Christensen and Davies, 1937) as does UV light (Tinline et al, ( 1979) lists 54 countries on all 7 continents where diseases
1960). C. sarivus cultures vary widely in rate of growth, caused by C. sarivus occur.
sporulation, pigmentation, and colony morphology (Christensen
and Davies, 1937; Harding, 1975 a,b; Tinline and Dickson,
1958). Clark (1971) recommends single sporing conidia to
94
ISOLATION lots of this material apparently vary in activity. If the medium
does not restrict colony size or if no growth occurs, one should
FROM HOST TISSUE- Cochliobolus smivus is readily adjust the Rose Bengal concentration (finline et al, 1988)_
recovered from host tissue. It also can be induced to sporulate More recently, a medium combining aspects of these two
by incubating the plant part in a moist chamber for a few days. media has been published {Specht and Rush, 1988). These
This relative ease of recovery and recognition has resulted in selective media are used to make soil dilution plates, using
a variety of methods each suited to the particular needs of the Warcup's standard method [See Introduction]. In an effort to
experimenter or the system being studied rather than being facilitate rapid processing of large numbers of samples, Salas
determined by the needs of the fungus itself. and Stack {unpublished) adapted the sifting method of
For direct isolation, host tissue is washed under running McMullen and Stack (1983) to include the application 0.1 gram
water for varying periods - from 20 to 30 min (Piening and of ground dry soil to the surface of D-R medium in petri
Orr, 1988; Specht and Rush, 1988) or 1-2 hr (Harding, 1972) dishes. Colony counts were comparable to the standard dilution
to several hours (Sturz and Bernier, 1987). Washed tissue is plate method and preparation time per dish was substantially
placed directly onto agar media (Piening and Orr, 1988; Specht reduced.
and Rush, 1988; Wildermuth and McNamara, 1987) or
surface-disinfested, using 0.5% NaOCl for 3-5 min. The
latter is rinsed in sterile water before placing it on agar medium ISOLA TE MAINfENANCE AND SfORAGE
(El-Nashaar and Stack, 1989; Harding, 1972; Kidambi et al,
1985; Sturz and Bernier, 1987; Tinline, 1977; Whittle, 1977). Cochliobolus smivus is readily maintained in culture on PDA
Variations of treatment include washing in 50% ethanol for slants at temperatures of 5-24 C, transferring at intervals of
10-15 sec prior to 5.25% NaOCl (Pua et al, 1985) and 3-12 mo (Clark, 1971; El-Nashaar and Stack, 1989; Fradkin
treatment with 0.1 % mercuric chloride solution followed by a and Patrick, 1985a; Hosford et al, 1975; Kline and Nelson,
sodium sulfide rinse (finline, 1977). 1971; Tinline and Dickson, 1958; Yadav, 1981). Other media
Isolation media include water agar (Specht and Rush, used for culture storage include minimal medium (Harding,
1988), PDA (Kidambi et al, 1985; Piening and Orr, 1988; 1975a,b; Tinline, 1977; Tinline et al, 1960), Emerson's YpSs
Pua et al, 1985; Whittle, 1977), half-strength PDA (Sturz and (Davis et al, 1982; Lee et al, 1988), V-8 agar (Hodges,
Bernier, 1987), V-8 agar (Hodges, 1972), Czapek-Dox Agar 1972), and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) leaf agar (Nutter et al,
(El-Nashaar and Stack, 1989), or glucose-mineral salts agar 1985). Cultures are purified by single sporing or hyphal tip
(Harding, 1972; Tinline, 1977). Isolation of C. smivus from culture and successive transfers are made using conidia (Clark,
mixed infections or badly rotted tissue is enhanced by adding 1971). Conidia on infested straw can be stored dry (10% RH)
2-10 mg of benomyl per liter to standard media (Stack, 1977; at 15 C for more than 4 yr with little loss of viability
Umechuruba and Singleton, 1986; Wildermuth and McNamara, (Ledingham, 1970).
l 987!. Bacteria are limited by antibiotics ; ' ".J- 300 mg/L,
and Rhizopus controlled by 3 mg of dichlornn fA.:r liter (Specht
and Rush, 1988; Wildermuth and McNamara, 1987). Specht INOCULUM PRODUCTION AND PATHOGENICITY
and Rush (1988) suggest using their selective medium for DETERMINATIONS
isolation from host tissue. Salas and Stack (unpublished) used
D-R selective medium (Appendix A) for isolation from wheat INOCULUM PRODUCTION- Since C. sativus grows
(Triticum aestivum L.) roots. well on many substrates, a variety of culture media have been
used to produce conidia for inoculation. Media are: V-8 agar
FROM SOIL- Unlike many other root-rot fungi, C. salivus (Hodges, 1972; Hodges and Watschke, 1975), Czapek-Dox
persists in soil mainly as conidia (Boosalis, 1960; Simmonds, agar (Dodman and Reinke, 1982; Stack, 1977), glucose-mineral
1939; Sallans, 1965). These spores are often present in salts medium (Duczek et al, 1985; Huang and Tinline, 1976;
cropped soils at levels of 50-200 per gram although lower and Tinline et al, 1960), PDA (Boosalis, 1960; El-Nashaar and
higher levels are common (Chinn et al, 1960; Kidambi et al, Stack, 1989; Huguelet and Kiesling, 1973; Morton, 1962;
1985; Piening and Orr, 1988; Specht and Rush, 1988; Sturz Yadav, 1981) or agar incorporating natural products such as
and Bernier, 1987; Tinline et al, 1988; Wildermuth, 1986; chopped barley leaves (Nutter et al, 1985), carrots (Daucus
Wildermuth and McNamara, 1987). This range is very low carrota L.) (Arora et al, 1985) or bean pods (Andersen, 1952).
compared to the overall soil fungal population which is C. slllivus sporulates abundantly on natural substrates. Sterile
generally about Hfi cfu/g. A low propagule population, straw (Clark, 1979) and wheat seeds (Umechuruba and
coupled with poor competitive ability, makes C. slllivus difficult Singleton, 1986) have been used to produce conidia.
to recover directly from soil without some special procedures. Temperatures of 21-25 C are the most often used for
Chinn et al developed an oil flotation method to recover producing C. slllivus conidia, regardless of substrate. Hodges
conidia quantitatively from soil as described for several studies (1972) found that conidia from cultures 40- or 60-days old
(Chinn et al, 1960, 1962; Chinn, 1965). It has been used by germinated more rapidly than those from younger (20 days)
other workers (Kidambi et al, 1985; Piening and Orr, 1988), cultures, but that the younger ones were more pathogenic.
but some have found it too laborious {Dodman and Reinke, Harvest times of 10 - 30 days have been used by many
1982) or unworkable (Reis, 1983; Stack, unpublished). workers.
Two selective media designed to facilitate isolation of C A variety of lighting has been used in growing C. salivus
sativus directly from soil were developed concurrently in the conidia: dark (Clark, 1971; Kline and Nelson, 1971),
early 1980's. These media of Dodman and Reinke [D-R] alternating light - dark (Davis et al, 1982; El-Nashaar and
(1982) and Reis (1983) are given in Appendix A. One Stack, 1989; Stack, 1977), or continuous illumination (Arora
ingredient in D-R medium is Rose Bengal. Different chemical et al, 1985; Hodges, 1972; Hodges and Watschke, 1975).
95
Light sources, where specified, are usually fluorescent tubes. soil, sand or other growing medium. Inoculum density used
Many authors do not specify a light regime, but the conunonly has varied. Ducz.ek et al (1985), in a detailed study of the
used phrase "room temperature" may imply room lighting as effect of inoculum density on root rot, found that 8-10 conidia
well. Conner and Atkinson (1989) used continuous near-UV per cm 3 of soil were needed for a significant response. Also,
illumination, but Leach (1962) found that C. sarivus sporulated I 20 or 250 conidia per cnl3 gave maximum incidence of
equally well with or without near-UV illumination. Tinline et infection in wheat or barley, respectively. Umechuruba and
al (1960) used far-UV (275 nm) to induce mutations in C. Singleton (1986) found infection even at l conidium per gram
sativus. of planting medium, but concluded that 250 per gram would
From cultures grown under these conditions, conidia are give maximum infection in wheat. As mentioned earlier, these
either scraped or washed from the substrate surface using levels are comparable to levels in field soil where disease has
sterile water, dilute salt solutions (Arora et al, 1985; Dodman been observed. In other studies, El-Nashaar and Stack (1989)
and Reinke, 1982) or buffers (Yadav, 1981). C. sativus used 400 conidia per gram, and Huang and Tinline (1976) used
conidial suspensions are readily concentrated by low speed 1300 per gram. Inoculum produced on solid substrates is
centrifugation (1000 rpm for 5 min); indeed, they settle out mixed into greenhouse planting medium at rates varying from
naturally after standing for a short time so suspensions should 0.2 % to 10 % by weight (Clark and Dickson, 1958; Cohen et
be kept stirred when preparing dilutions or counts. Conidia al, 1969; Ledingham, 1970; Whittle, 1977; Wildermuth and
harvested in these ways can be mixed with sand or soil for McNamara, 1987).
root-disease study. For disease tests seed is planted into infested soil or
Another method of producing C. sativus inoculum for growing mix, and plants are grown for 3-6 wk. Clark and
incorporation into soil is to grow it on a solid substrate such as Dickson (1958), Hodges (1972) and Andersen (1952)
moistened grain kernels (Grey and Mathre, 1984; Wildermuth confirmed earlier work (Simmonds, 1939), showing that c.4
and McNamara, 1987), straw (Ledingham, 1970; Tinline, sativus can germinate and infect over a wide range of
1977), straw-vermiculite mixed at 1:2 (v:v) (Conner and temperatures from 8 to 30 C. Most experiments have been
Atkinson, 1989), cornmeal-sand mixed (v:v) at I: 14 (Cohen et done at 20-26 C (Arora et al, 1985; Clark and Wallen, 1969;
al, 1969), 1: 19 (Clark and Dickson, 1958; Hamilton et al, Conner, 1990; Conner and Atkinson, 1989; Ducz.ek et al,
1960) or 1:33 (Weste, 1978) or cornmeal-straw-sand [2:5:18] 1985; El-Nashaar and Stack, 1989; Hamilton et al, 1960;
(Whittle, 1977). The substrates in flasks are moistened with Hodges and Watschke, 1975; Tinline et al, 1960; Umechuruba
mineral salts solution (as for Czapek's) with or without a and Singleton, 1986; Whittle, 1977). Except where it is the
nitrogen source (peptone) prior to autoclaving. Substrate in variable being studied, very precise control of temperature
flasks is inoculated with cultures of c:sativus and grown for probably is unnecessary as long as all treatments are the same.
10-28 days then removed, dried and ground. Infection of below-ground plant parts is an important
aspect of many studies on C. sativus. Some investigators have
PATHOGENICITYDETERMINATIONS-Manyconunon estimated disease severity on washed roots, using a scale of 5
root rot field studies are planted in soils naturally infested with or 6 equal categories (Arora et al, 1985; Cohen et al, 1969;
C. sativus (Bailey et al, 1988; Duczek, 1989; Harding, 1972; Hamilton et al, 1960; Wildermuth and McNamara, 1987).
Sallans and Tinline, 1965, 1968; Stack, 1980, 1986; Tinline This method has also been used for field surveys (Diehl, 1979),
and Ledingham. 1978: Wildermuth, 1974) Jrnr'ilum levels in ht i• i~ ['"r. - ":· 1 :·) labor-intensi-.: [~; ' ;,;;( '..::c:-.: .....~.c .
field soil can be increased by planting susceptible crops (wheat, Tinline et al (1975) describe the procedure which has become
barley) for several years preceding the experiment (Bailey et al, the standard for assessment of below-ground infoction of
1989; Chinn, 1965; Conner and Atkinson, 1989; El-Nashaar cereals by C. sarivus, namely the sub-crown intemode index
and Stack, 1989; Stack, 1987, 1989). Conner (1990) collected (sci-index). The sub-crown intemode is the portion of stem
soil from a field having a high level of root rot and used it in between the seed and the crown; its level of infection can be
greenhouse studies. As mentioned previously, inoculum taken as indicative of that on all below-ground parts of the
densities which produce good infection in field trials are plant. Use of the sci-index facilitates the sampling large
generally in the range of 50-200 viable conidia per gram of numbers of plants needed in field studies.
soil. Using the sci-index, disease can be measured both as
Inoculum can be added in field locations where soil incidence(% of plants infected) and severity (% area covered
populations of C. sativus are low or where a higher than by lesions). The original scale had four classes: "clean",
natural inoculum density is desired. Grey and Mathre (1984) "slight", "moderate", "severe", corresponding to 0, 1-25,
applied infested oat grain (Avena sativa L.) in field plots at ca 26-50, and 51-100 % of tissue covered by lesions, respectively
5 g per meter of row. Tinline et al (1988) applied infested (Tinline et al, 1975). Ledingham et al (1973) published a large
grain (finely ground) in the seed furrow at planting at a rate color illustration of these classes. Workers who use this
equal to 10 % of the weight of the seed. Seed can be infested standard 4-class system differ on how to calculate an average
with conidia prior to planting (Whittle and Richardson, 1978) severity value. Several workers have used a weighted average
or, if available, naturally infected seed can be mixed with clean to convert the classes to a percentage (Grey and Mathre, 1984;
seed to give variable inoculum levels (Clark and Wallen, Harding, 1972; Ledingham et al, 1973; Tinline et al, 1988).
1969). Infected seed can be produced for this purpose Others have used the midpoint percentages of the classes
(Huguelet and Kiesling, 1973). (Kidambi et al, 1985; Stack, 1980; Umechuruba and Singleton,
Since natural field inoculum is primarily free-conidia in the 1986), and still others have scored the classes as 0-3 or 1-4 and
soil, a number of investigators have tried to reproduce this type given the mean (El-Nashaar and Stack, 1989; Stack, 1986,
of soilbome inoculum by infesting their planting medium with 1987, 1989). Using the sci-index, incidence is calculated as the
conidia grown and harvested as described previously. Conidial sum of plants in the slight, moderate and severe categories
concentrations are determined, and suspensions are added to divided by the total number. A simplified version of the index
96
groups the clean and slight classes together and the moderate and Closset, 1978) or tL'iing a C-18 column (Lee et al, 1988).
and severe together (Piening et al, 1976; Piening and Orr, Bioassays include seed germination (Harding, 1971), root
1988; Sallans and Tinline, 1965, 1968). In this case, incidence growth (Chawla and Wenzel, 1987; Davis et al, 1982) and
tX]uals severity and is the proportion of plants scored in the (m gem1ination of spores (Sommereyns <md Closset, J978). Di red
+ s) class. Recent) y, several workers have applied the detection by GC-MS and HPLC lw; also been demonstrated
Horsfall-Barratt scale to rating of sci lesions (Bailey et al, (Lee et al, 1988). Response of tissue cultures (Chawla and
1988, 1989; Duczek, 1989). Severity percentages, based on Wenzel, 1987) and isolated root cap cells (Hawes, 1983;
the Horsfall-Barratt scale, are not directly comparable to those Hawes et al, 1985) to C. satil'US toxins have lxxn studied.
from the 4-class system.
Acknowledgements: The author thanks Peter J.L. Whittle
for critical review of the manuscript.
COMMENTS
FOLIAR INFECTION- Unlike many of the fungi LITERATURE CITED

discussed in this book, C. sativus is an important foliar
pathogen as well as infecting below-ground plant parts. Alcorn, J.L. 1983a. On the genera Cochlioholm and
Although a detailed treatment of foliar aspects is beyond the Psew:lococh!iobo/11s. Mycotaxon 16:353-379.
scope of this chapter, the following references should provide Alcorn, J.L. 1983b. Generic concepts in Drechslera, Bipolaris and
help in this area (Biles and Hill, 1988; Clark, 1979; Clark and Exserohilwn. Mycotaxon 17:1-86.
Dickson, 1958; Dehne and Oerke, 1985a,b; Fokkema et al, Andersen, A.L. 1952. Development of wheat headblight incited by
Hebninllwsporiwn sativwn. Phytopathology 42:453-456.
~9; Hodges, 1972; Hosford et al, 1975; Morton, 1962; Pua
Anderson, T.R., and Patrick, Z.A. 1978. Mycophagous amoeboid
• · 1985; Yadav, 1981). organisms from soil that perforate spores of 171ielai·iopsis
basicola and Cochliobolus sariv11s. Phytopathology 68: 1618-1626.
FUN GISTASIS- In studying longevity of C. sativus Arora, D.K., Filonow, A.B., and Lockwood, J.L. 1985. Decreased
conidia in soil, Boosalis (1960) circumvented the problem of aggressiveness of Bipolaris soroki11iana conidia in response to
recovery of conidia by placing them at a marked depth and nutrient stress. Physiol. Plant Pathol. 26: 135-142.
then making "spore prints" onto agar media when the area of Bailey, K.L., Harding, H., and K.nou, D.R. 1989. Disease
concentration was subsequently exposed. Lockwood and his progression in wheat lines and cultivars differing in levels of
many associates have used C. sativus as one of their model resistance to common root rot. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 11 :273-278.
Bailey, K.L., KnoU, D.R., and Harding, H. 1988. Hcrit.ability and
systems to study fungistasis by placing conidia on membrane
inheritance of resistance to common root rot (CochliobollLI
tilters buried in sand or soil; these can be subsequently saliv11s) in wheat (Triticum aesri1w11). Can. J. Plant Pathol.
recovered and assayed (Arora et al, 1985; Lockwood, 1977). 10:207-214.
Biles, C.L., and Hill, J.P. 1988. Effect of Trichodenna lwr::.ian11n1 on
BIOCONTROL AGENTS- Even before the early sporulation of Cochliobol11s sarivus on excised whCJt seedling
proposals by Greaney and Machacek (1935), investigators leaves. Phytopathology 78:656-659.
probably entertained ideas about microbial interactions affecting Boosalis, M.G. 1960. A soil infestation method for studying spores of
survival and infection by C. sativus (Campbell, 1956; Hebnirulwsporium sari rnm. Ph ytopatholo gy 50: 860-865.
Simmonds, 1939). Effects of antagonistic fungi on C. sativus Campbell, W.P. 1956. The influence of associated microorganisllls on
have been studied (Biles and Hill, 1988; Fokkema et al, 1979). the pathogenicity of Helmimhospori11m salivum. Can. J. Bot.
The interactions of soil bacteria and conidia of C. sativus were 34:865-874.
Chawla, H.S., and Wenzel, G. 1987. In vitro selection of barky and
studied extensively by Fradkin and Patrick (1985a,b) and Zogg wheat for resistance against Hel111i11J/10sporium saliv11m. Thcor.
<A.Amie! (1980). The interaction of mycophagous amoebae Appl. Genet. 74:841-845.
- C. sativus conidia was reported by Anderson and Patrick Chidambaram, P., Mathur, S.B., and Nccrgaard, P. 1973.
(1978). The development of efficient selective media suitable Identification of seed-borne Dreclzslera species. Fricsia
for estimation of populations of C. sativus in soil should IO: 165-207.
facilitate study of biological control in naturallyand artificially Chinn, S.H.F., Ledingham, R.J., and Sallans, B.J. 1960. Population
infested soils. and viability studies of Hebni!l/hosporiwn satinim in field soils.
Can. J. Bot. 38:533-539.
Chinn, S.H.F., Sallans, B.J., and Ledingham, R.J. 1962. Spore
TOXINS- Cochliobolus sativus produces phytotoxic
populations of Hebniruhosporiw11 sarivwn in soils in relation to
metabolites which are capable of causing growth supression
the occurrence of common root rot of wheat. Can. J. Plant Sci.
and/or disease symptoms. To produce toxins, C. sativus is 42:720-727.
grown in liquid culture, either still or shaken, in the dark, 12 Chinn, S.H.F. 1965. Changes in the spore population of Cochliobolus
hr light-dark, or constant light. Media used have included salivus in Saskatchewan wheat fields. Can. J. Plant Sci.
Fries #3 , potato dextrose broth or a chemically defined 45:288-291.
glucose-asparagine medium (Chawla and Wenzel, 1987; Davis Christensen, J.J., and Davies, F.J. 1937. Nature of variation in
et al, 1982; Dutrecq et al, 1978; Harding, 1971; Lee et al, Hebnirulzosporiwn sari~wn. Mycologia 29:85-99.
1988; Pringle, 1977, 1979; Sommereyns and Closset, 1978). Clark, R.V. 1971. Influence of some nitrogen and vitamin sourccs on
Toxic substances from C. sativus cultures have been growth, sporulation and pathogenicity of Cochliobolus sa1i1m.
assayed directly using the culture filtrates (Davis et al, 1982; Can. J. Bot. 49:2175-2186.
Clark, R.V. 1972. Influence of some carbon sources on growth of
Harding, 1971) or concentrated and purified by a variety of
Cochliobolus sativus. Can. J. Bot. 50:683-685.
procedures. Key methods include extraction with methanol Clark, R.V. 1979. Yield losses in barley cultivars caused by spot
(Chawla and Wenzel, 1987; Pringle, 1977, 1979), butanol blotch. Can. 1. Plant Pathol. 1:113-117.
(Yadav and Mandahar, 1981) or diethyl ether (Sornrnereyns Clark, R.V., and Dickson, J.G. 1958. The influence of temperature
97
on disease development in barley incited by Hebninllwsporiwn 15:377-3&$).
sativwn. Phytopathology 48:305-310. Hamilton, D.G., Clark, R.V., Hannah, A.E., and Loiselle, R. 1960.
Clark, R.V., and Wallen, V.R. 1969. Seed infection of barley by Reaction of barley varieties and selections to root rot and seedling
Cochliobolus sativus and its influence on yield. Can. Plant Dis. blight incited by Hebninllwsporiwn sativwn. Can. I. Plant Sci.
Surv. 49:60-64. 40:713-720.
Cohen, E., Helgason, S.B., and McDonald, W.C. 1969. A study of Harding, H. 1971. Effect of Bipolaris sorokiniana on germination and
factors influencing the genetics of reaction of barley to root rot seedling survival of varieties or lines of 14 Triticwn species. Can.
caused by Hebninlhospori1un sativwn. Can. J. Bot. 47:429-443. I. Bot. 49:281-287.
Conner, R.L. 1990. Interrelationship of cultivar reactions to common Harding, H. 1972. Reaction to common root rot of 14 Triticum
root rot, black point and spot blotch in spring wheat. Plant Dis. species and the incidence of Bipol.aris sorokiniana and Fusarium
74:224--227. spp. in subcrown intemode tissue Can. J. Bot. 50:1805-1810.
Conner, R.L., and Atkinson, T.G. 1989. Influenee of continuous Harding, H. 1975a. Effect of D-amino acids on conidium size and
cropping on severity of common root rot in wheat and barley. numbers of pscudosepta per conidium in isolates of Bipol.aris
Can. J. Plant Pathol. 11:127-132. sorokiniana. Can. J. Bot. 53:600-603.
Davis, C.M., Christ, J.E., Pueppke, S.G., and Stack, R.W. 1982. A Harding, H. 1975b. Effect of pH and sucrose concentration on
sensitive bioassay for toxic metabolites of Hebninlhosporiwn conidium size and septation in four Bipo/.aris species. Can. J.
sativwn. Proc. N. D. Acad. Sci. 36:57. Bot. 53: 1457-1464.
Dehne, H.-W., and Oerke, E.-C. 1985a. Investigations on the Harding, H. 1979. Coch/iobolus sativus (Ito & Kurib.) Drechsl. ex
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Influence of pathogen, host plant, and environment on infection Shocm.): A bibliography. Agriculture Canada Research Branch,
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Infection, colonization and damage of stems and leaves. J. Plant Hebninlhosporiwn maydis race T. Phytopathology 73: 1184-1187.
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Diehl, J.A. 1979. Common root rot of wheat in Brazil. Plant Dis. variation in sensitivity of wheat to a toxin produced by
Rep. 63: 1020--1022. Hebninlhosporiwn sativwn. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 75:964.
Dodman, R.L., and Reinke, J.R. 1982. A selective medium for Hodges, C.F. 1972. Influence of culture age and temperature on
determining the population of viable conidia of Cochliobolus germination of Hebninllwsporium soroki11ia11wn conidia and on
sativus in soil. Aust. I. Agric. Res. 33:287-291. pathogenicity to Paa pra1e11Sis. Phytopathology 62:1133-1137.
Domsch, K.H., Garns, W., and Anderson, T.-H. 1980. Compendium Hodges, C.F., and Watschke, G.A. 1975. Pathogenicity of soil-borne
of Soil Fungi. Academic Press, London. 859p. Bipo/.aris sorokiniana on seed and roots of three perennial
Duczek, L.J. 1989. Relationship between common root rot grasses. Phytopathology 65:398-400.
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Duczek, L.J., Verma, P.R., and Spurr, D.T. 1985. Effect of Huang, H.C., and Tinline, R.D. 1976. Histology of Cochliobolus
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Dutrecq, A., Sommereyns, G., and Serna!, J. 1978. Using resistance Huguelet, J.E., and Kiesling, R.L. 1973. Influence of inoculum
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Ellis, M.B. 1971. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Commonwealth Bipol.aris sorokiniana. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 24:51-55.
Mycological Institute, Kew, England. 608 p. Kidambi, R.D., Lutz, A.L., and Van Alfen, N.K. 1985. Disease
El-Nashaar, H.M., and Stack, R.W. 1989. Effect of long-term progress and epidemiology of crown rot of spring barley in Utah.
continuous cropping on aggressiveness of Cochliobolus sativus. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 7:233-237.
Can. J. Plant Sci. 69:395-400. Kline, D.M., and Nelson, R.R. 1971. The inheritance of factors in
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Fungi on Plants and Plant Products in the United States. hosts. Phytopathology 61:1052-1054.
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Fokkema, N.J., Den Houter, J.G., Kosterman, Y.J.C., and Nelis, ultraviolet radiation. Can. J. Bot. 40: 151-161.
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98
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99
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l't'l5':77tt( i?cp:,rf;rJ sY I
Dr. JULIE M. NICOL

clo CIMMYT. Int
Lisboa 2 7, Apdo Postal 6-641
Col. Juarez
06600 Mexico, D F.
Soilborne
Phytopathogenic
Fungi
Edited by
Larry L. Singleton
Stillwater
Jeanne D. Mihail
Columbia
Charles M. Rush
Bushland
APS PRESS
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official duties.

Pythium
Frank N. Martin
Plant Pathology Department

University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida 326 I l
IDENTIFICATION medium; however, due to the limited depth of field for

viewing, the following techniques may provide better culture
NOMENCLATURE AND SYNONYMY- The genus material. Grass Blade Culture- freshly harvested grass blades
Pythium was created by Pringsheim ( 1858) with the description are cut (ca. 1 cm), added to water in a covered beaker and
~of P. n1011ospe1mum Pringsh. as the type species. The genus boiled for IO min. The leaf blades are transfrrred into sterile
•is in the family Pythiaceae, order Perono~-p<>rales, and class deionized water in a petri dish (Van der Plaats-Niterink (1981]
Oomycetes. For a historical overview of the taxonomy, consult recommends equal parts sterile pond water and distilled water).
Middleton ( 1943). The most recent taxonomic description of Cultures are transferred into the dishes and incubated at room
the genus (Van der Plaats-Niterink, 1981) lists 87 recognized temperature under diurnal lighting. At desired time intervals,
species; additional species descriptions subsequently have leaf samples are placed on a slide and examined under a
increased this total to over 120 (Dick, 1990). compound microscope. This procedure is preferred when
Hyphae are hyaline and tend to be 5-7 µm in diameter studying species with filamentous or lobulate sporangia. Oat
(occasionally up to IO µm), and lack septa except when Meal Agar-Water Slant- two to three milliliters of oatmeal·
cultures are old or at points of spore differentiation. agar (Difeo) amended with 5 µg. of the dc..~ired sterol/ml
Delineation of species within the genus is accomplished by medium are poured into one edge of a !0-cm petri dish placed
comparing specific morphological characteristics of asexual and at an angle and allowed to solidify (Hancock, 1977). Once
sexual reproductive structures. Sporangia are asexual spores cool, a culture is transferred onto the medium and the plate is
produced in a variety of shapes (filamentous, inflated partially flooded with sterile, deionized water ( 15 ml). A tier
filamentous, globose, and spherical) and siz.es depending on the incubation for the desired time interval, the water may be
species. These structures may germinate indirectly by the poured off and the cultures examined directly under the
formation of motile zoospores or directly by the formation of compound microscope.
a germ tube. For those ~-pecies which do not produce Cultures should be examined at different time intervals,
zoospores, the asexual structures are often referred to as depending on which reproductive structures are of interest.
conidia or hyphal swellings, while those which do release Generally, sporangia are the first structures produced and are
zoo~-pores are referred to as zoosporangia. Oospores, which the most abundant spores several days atier the initial transfer;
lwre sexual structures, may differ among species in diameter; this is especially true for the filamentous and lobulate fom1s.
~all thickness; plerotic or aplerotic condition (filling the Oogonia begin to form 3-5 days atier transfer and form mature
oogonium); number, origin, and morphology of attachment of oospores after 4-10 days. For some species, delineation of the
antheridia; and smooth or echinate surface of the oogonium. antheridial origin and morphology of attachment may be
In addition, growth response to temperature also may be a difficult in older cultures; therefore, young cultures with
useful taxonomic aid (consult Middleton [1943]). oogonia should be observed. Depending on the species,
alteration of incubation temperatures may stimulate or inhibit
SPORULATION- An exogenous supply of C-17 sterols mycelial growth or sporulation. If bacterial contamination
(cholesterol, stigmasterol, ,B-sitosterol or ergosterol), which occurs, addition of penicillin at 100 µglml to the sterile water
have a 3-,B-hydroxy group, at least one double bond (6.5), and at the time of flooding the cultures should minimize the
an 8-10 carbon side chain are necessary for formation of problem without altering the morphology or growth rate of the
mature oospores when a defined medium is used (Hendrix, cultures. Staining cultures with lacto-phenol cotton blue may
1974). These water insoluble compounds should be dissolved aid in visualizing reproductive structures.
in an organic solvent such as ethanol prior to adding to culture Induction of zoospore dischar!!e- Induction of zoospore
medium. Ko (1986) reported that sexual reproduction also may discharge is most effective with young cultures. Fungal
be induced by certain phospholipids, although Kerwin and materiaLmay be on 1-3-day-old grass blades or oatmeal agar-
Duddles (1989) subsequently demonstrated that this may occur water slant dishes. For some species spore discharge occurs
only in the presence of the appropriate sterol. The presence of without manipulation of cultures. For others, it may be
Ca +i also may be necessary for stimulation of sexual stimulated by replacing the sterile water solution and/or
reproduction and will enhance asexual reproduction (Yang and incubating at 4 C for 20 to 30 min. Zoospore release may
Mitchell, 1965). occur 20-30 min after return to room temperature. Roberson
Reproductive structures may be observed in solid agar and Howard (1987) reported zoospore discharge when grass
39
blade cultures were grown in a 1/4-strength, dilute-salts recently monoclonal antil:xxlies have been used for taxonomic
solution (3 days; Appendix A) and replaced with full-strength purposes, with various species evaluated for their reaction to a
dilute-salts solution. Alternatively, pieces of V-8 juice agar group of monoclonal antil:xxlies and phenetic relationships
cultures may be incubated (24 hr) in 114-strength dilute-salts derived from cluster analysis of the results (S.A. Miller and
solution prior to replacement with full strength, dilute-salts F.P. Peterson, personal commwiication). Serology also has
solution. been used to differentiate species capable of infecting planls
For P. aphanidennarwn (Edson) Fitzp. and P. ostracodes (White, 1976; Fujita and Zenitani, 1977) and between plant and
Drechsler, Mitchell (1978) obtained efficient zoospore mammalian pythiaceous pathogens (Mendoza et al, 1987).
discharge by growing V-8 juice agar transfers (from the edge Cellular proteins: Using starch gel electrophoresis, Clare
of the colony) in V-8 juice broth (24 hr, dark), after which the (1963) observed greater interspecific than intraspecific variation
mycelia were washed three times in sterile, 0.0001 M 2-(N- in comparisons of total protein banding patterns among eight
morpholino)-ethane-sulfonic acid (MES buffer, pH 6.2) and species. Adaskaveg et al (1988) obtained similar results using
incubated under light (4000 Lux, 18-24 hr). Cultures were isoelectric focusing of buffer soluble proteins of six species.
again washed three times with, and incubated in, MES buffer. However, Chen et al (1991) observed that while protein
Depending on the species, zoospore discharge will occur in 2-7 banding patterns and isozyme analysis could differentiate
hours, with the previously outlined procedures. morphologically distinct species, but morphologically similar
Shishk:off (1989) obtained release of zoospores from P. species (P. aphanidemuuum vs. P. deliense and P.
colorarwn Vaartaja by growing isolates for 24 hr in grass blade atThe110manes vs. P. graminicola) were not always
culture with filtered, non-sterile soil extract (1 g soil to 100 ml distinguishable. More extensive isozyme analysis using a
water, filter after 24 hr), followed by replacement with distilled greater number of isolates (210 isolates; 10 species) revealed
water and incubation at 6 C overnight. Zoospores were similar results (Chen, Schneider, and Hoy, personal
released in 10-20 min following return to room temperature. communication). They concluded that there were several
Sexual crosses with heterothallic species- Seven species in limitations with using these techniques for taxonomic purposes.
the genus have been demonstrated to be heterothallic (Van der High levels of intraspecific variation were often observed
Plaats-Niterink, 1981); P. sylvaricwn Campbell & Hendrix, P. among isolates. Also protein-banding patterns of an isolate
heterothallicwn Campbell & Hendrix, P. carenulatwn may change over time when kept in storage, and quantitative
Matthews, P. splendens Braun, P. jlevoense Van der Plaats- comparisons of the protein banding patterns of different isolates
Niterink, P. macrosporum Vaartaja & Van der Plaats-Niterink may be difficult because of the large number of bands and their
, and P. intennediwn deBary. Sexual reproduction usually will variable intensity.
not occur unless isolates of opposite mating types are crossed, Molecular taxonomy: Comparison of mitochondrial DNA
although isolates with varying levels of homothallism may be (mtDNA) and the nuclear encoded genes coding for the
found (P. sylvaticwn; Pratt and Green, 1973). Matings may be production of ribosomal RNA (rDNA) also may be used for
done by pairing isolates on opposite sides of a petri dish taxonomic purposes. The mitochondrial genome for most
containing CMA; while not always necessary, amendment with species is a circular molecule 60 to 73 kb in siz.e containing an
5 µg of the desired sterol per ml medium often enhances inverted repeat representing 71 to 83 % of the genome, which
oospore production. Incubate plates at 20-30 C and look for is separated by a large and small single copy unique region
mature, thick-walled oospores in the region where the cultures (McNabb et al, 1987; McNabb and Klassen, 1988). Linear
come into contact (allow at least 7 days). Depending on the molecules with the terminal ends corresponding in position to
species, as well as which isolates are paired, varying amounts the small unique region are present in some species (Martin,
of aborted oogonia also may be observed. Some field isolates 199la). Restriction endonuclease-digested mtDNA from 29
will not form oospores after pairings among themselves and species showed distinctly different species-specific
with all known heterothallic species. These may be asexual electrophoretic banding patterns (Martin and Kistler, 1990);
isolates (Martin, 1990b) or, as observed by Lifshitz et al similarities of less than 50% (often < 30%) were generally
(1984a) for P. nunn Lifshitz, Stanghellini, & Baker, species observed for interspecific comparisons while intraspecific
with a more demanding criteria for induction of sexual comparisons were generally 80% or greater, with many isolates
reproduction. identical. Although not intended to replace morphological
taxonomy, comparison of mtDNA restriction patterns may be
TAXONOMIC REFERENCES- The following references useful for classification of isolates difficult to identify (Martin,
will provide a historical perspective on taxonomy in the genus 1990b). The conserved nature of restriction patterns may be
(Matthews, 1931; Middleton, 1943; Sideris, 1932; Waterhouse, due to the stabilizing influence of the inverted repeat regions;
1967; Waterhouse, 1968) as well as the more recent treatment intraspecific variation was caused by infrequent mutation
of acceptable species designations (Van der Plaats-Niterink, events, which for P. oligandrum Drechsler, was predominantly
1981; Dick, 1990). Hendrix and Papa (1974) proposed the insertion or deletion events in the small unique region (Martin,
lumping of all species into 15 species complexes, but this 199la). Selection of DNA sequences from these insertional
concept has not been widely accepted. events is useful for the construction of isolate and species
These taxonomic references are based on comparison of specific DNA probes (Martin, l99lb).
morphological features. In addition to these criteria there are Nuclear encoded rDNA contains coding regions as well as
several other features which may be useful in identification of transcribed and non-transcribed spacer sequences. Depending
species and estimation of phylogenetic relationships. on the species, these repeat units range from 10.3 to 15.3 kb
Serology: Krywienczyk and Dorworth (1980) used soluble (Belkhiri and Dick, 1988; Klassen et al, 1987; Martin, l990a),
mycelial proteins as antigens to obtain polyclonal antisera for with differences in siz.e caused by variation in the siz.e of the
evaluation of relationships among nine different species using non-transcribed spacer region. Analysis of the repeat unit from
agarose double diffusion and immunoelectrophoresis. More single oospore isolates also indicate that polymorphisms are
40
present within single oospore isolates for many Pythium spp. ISOLATION
(Martin, l 990a), an unusual occurrence in fungi. lbis
variation is located in the non-transcribed spacer region and is FROM HOST TTSSUE- Surface disinfestation ~tissue
caused by addition or loss of restriction sites as well as (0.5 % NaOCI) for 30 sec followed by a sterile distill<tl water
insertion or deletion events. This variation also has been rinse is commonly used for fungal isolation from plant lissue.
observed for P. ultimum Trow (Buchko and Klassen, 1990; However, many Pythium spp. are sensitive to this treatment
Klassen and Buchko, 1990). Because of this extensive which may result in poor recovery (Stanghellini and Kmnland,
variation in single oospore isolates, use of the non-transcribed 1985a). Optimum isolation may be obtained by removing
spacer regions for taxonomic or phylogenetic comparisons rotted portions of the plant, rinsing the remaining tissue m tap
should be approached with caution. However, there are water followed by a sterile water rinse, blotting the tiS\lille dry
indications that enough variation exists in restriction maps or with sterile paper towels, and plating on the api->priate
sequence analysis of the transcribed regions to make analysis medium. For fast growing species, water agar is adequate.
of rDNA taxonomically useful (F.N. Martin, unpublished). The addition of Tergitol NPX (0.1 %) to the medilllll after
Taxonomic use of rDNA has the added benefit in the genus autoclaving may be desirable in that it restricts the linear
Pythium in that it can be isolated in pure form following growth rate of the fungus. Also depending on the spx:ies,
cesium chloride-bisbenzimide density gradient centrifugation Tergitol NPX allows for isolate identification based on colony
(Klassen et al, 1987), thereby facilitating restriction analysis or morphology (Bottcher and Behr, 1985). If bacte1ial
cloning. contamination is a problem, penicillin (100 µglml) or a•illin
Other molecular characteristics have been used for (250 µglml) and rifampicin (10 µg/ml) may be added prior to
taxonomic purposes in the genus Pythium; Belkhiri and Dick pouring the medium. The isolation of slower growing species,
(1988) compared eight characteristics of fungal DNA by cluster (P. vexa11S deBary), may be difficult if other fast growing, non-
analysis and constructed phenograms of 14 species of Pythium. pytheaceous fungi are present, so the use of a selective or
The characteristics compared were G + C content of differential medium is suggested. Several of the conunonly
chromosomal and mtDNA; banding ratios in cesium chloride- used media follow (formulations are listed in Appendix A):
bisbenzimide density gradients for chromosomal, ribosomal, Gallic Acid Medium (Flowers and Hendrix, 1969), MPVM
and mtDNA; chromosomal DNA yield; hyperchromicity of medium (Mircetich, 1971), P10 VP medium (Tsao and Ckana,
DNA; and size of the rDNA repeat unit. Chen et al (1990) 1969), P5ARP medium (Jeffers and Martin, 1986), EANA
observed polymorphisms in restriction banding patterns of medium (Conway, 1985).
polymerase chain reaction amplified DNA of the internal Many modifications of these media have been tested. Ali-
transcribed spacer region for several Pythium spp. Shtayeh et al (1986) modified MPVM by reducing vancomycin
to 75 µglml, rose bengal to 2.5 µglml and adding penicillin (50
µglml). Kannwischer and Mitchell (1978) modified P10 VP by
HOST RANGE AND DISfRIBUTION replacing vancomycin with ampicillin (250 µglml) and
rifampicin (IO µglml). Jeffers and Martin (1986) further
Species in this genus are not necessarily plant pathogens, modified it by reducing pimaricin from 10 to 5 µgfml; the
some exist strictly as saprophytes, as a parasite on mosquito higher pimaricin concentration may inhibit oospore gennination
larvae (Saunders et al, 1988), and one is a mammalian of some species (this reduction in concentration may not be
pathogen (deCock et al, 1987). However, a number of species necessary when isolating from tissue). Lumsden et al (1976)
are facultative saprophytes as well as pathogenic on plants, reported poor results for the isolation of P. myriotylwn
causing significant losses of economic crops on a worldwide Drechsler and P. apha11idennarum from soil on gallic acid
basis. Some species, such as P. ultimum, have a broad host medium, but good results for isolation of P. ultimum. The
range and world wide distribution. Others, such as P. most commonly used medium for isolations is P5ARP. Media
spinosum Sawada, are weakly pathogenic on only a few plants. facilitating the isolaltion and identification of specific species
Pre- and post-emergence damping-off are common also have been developed for P. aphanidemuuum (Burr and
manifestations of disease. Mature plants also may be attacked, Stanghellini, 1973) and P. oligandrum (Martin and Hancock,
with infection of tap roots, root tips and fee.der roots limiting 1986) (See Appendix A).
plant vigor and yield. For an excellent overview of the genus A variety of antibiotics have been used to control bacterial
consult Hendrix and Campbell (1973, 1983) and the contamination. Due to the expense of vancomycin and
Symposium on the genus Pythium (1974). For information on inconsistencies in bacterial control, the use of ampicillin
species distribution consult Van der Plaats-Niterink (1981) or (sodium salt) and rifampicin may be desirable. Rifampicin
Dick and Ali-Shtayeh (1986). Additional information on stock solutions should be made by dissolving the antibiotic in
techniques for working with the genus may be found in 95 % EtOH first and then bring to volume with water to give
Schmitthenner (1973) or Mitchell and Rayside (1986). a final concentration of 50% EtOH. Streptomycin sulfate,
Four species, P. acanthicum Drechsler, P.,periplocum kanamycin, or tetracycline should be used with caution as some
Drechsler, P. oligandrum, and P. nunn, have been species are sensitive to these compounds. When using media
demonstrated to be mycoparasitic in vitro on other fungal containing rose bengal or pimaricin, store in the dark as the
genera (Drechsler, 1943; Lifshitz et al, 1984a). The latter two compounds will become more fungitoxic or loose their activity,
species have been the most intensively investigated with respect respectively, when exposed to light.
to fungal host range and potential as biological control agents
(Lifshitz et al, 1984b; Martin and Hancock, 1987; Martin and FROM SOIL- Baiting Techniques- Prior to the
Semer, 1991; Paulitz and Baker, 1987a,b; Vesely, 1978, development of selective media, Pythium spp. were
1979). The involvement of mycoparasitism in disease control preferentially isolated by baiting with organic substrates.
has yet to be conclusively deOK>nstated. Infected plant tissue was rinsed and floated in sterile distilled
41
water containing boiled hemp seeds split in half or pieces of ISOLATE l'vlAINTENANCE AND STORAGE
carrot (Daucus carota L.); after several days Pyrhiwn spp.
would colonize the substrate, which would then be transferred MAINTENANCE- Working Cultures- Cultures free of
to agar for culturing (Matthews, 1931). Soil was assayed in a bacterial contamination may be kept on water agar, V-8 juice
similar fashion. Other baits also have been used (Barton, agar, PDA, or CMA for several weeks in petn dish culture
1960; Van der Plaats-Niterink, 1981). Baiting techniques may with the dish edges sealed with parafilm. Isolates abo may be
be used in conjunction with selective media to reduce the kept on PDA slants in culture tubes for approximately 4 wk
amount of medium needed for quantitative field surveys with between transfers. If cultures exhibit oppressed growth or
concomitant identification of pathogenic isolates. Stanghellini appear to have lysed, transfer to water agar amended with
and Kronland (I 9 85b) preferentially isolated P. penicillin (100 µglml) or ampicillin (250 µg/ml) and rifampicin
aphanidermmum by placing fresh potato slices (Soumwn (10 µglml).
ruberosum L.) with water agar blocks on their top surfaces onto
moistened soil, incubating for 2 days (27 C) and transferring STORAGE- PDA-Mineral Oil Slants- Transfer cultures
the water agar block to a selective medium. into PDA slanl~ sealed with cotton or foam plugs, allow to
Soil Dilution Plating- Isolation as well as quantification of grow 3-5 days at room temperature and add sterile mineral oil
a variety of species may be accomplished by dilution plating of to cover; store tubes between 15 and 23 C in the dark. To
soil suspensions on selective or differential media. Weighed recover isolates, retrieve a small piece of agar with the
samples of air dried soil ( < 4g) are added to l 0-rnl sterile mycelium and blot off the mineral oil on a sterile paper towel
water blanks (0.1 % to 0.3 % water agar also may be used) and prior to plating on water agar. Incubate at a temperature which
mixed on a vortex mixer. Immediately following mixing, is optimum for fungal growth; it may take several days for the
remove a small volume ( < than 0.2 cm3 ) and place on a 3- culture to grow out. Although most species appear to be stable
day-old dish of the desired medium; spread over the surface when stored by this technique, isolates of P. myriotylum and P.
with a bent glass rod. Incubate plates inverted (25 C in the graminicola Subramanian retrieved from storage after 14 yr
dark); higher or lower temperatures may be used depending on have lost their ability to sporulate (F.N. Martin, unpublished).
the temperature optimum of the species under investigation. Water Storage- Autoclave a rubber lined screw cap glass
Plates may be read after 24 hr for fast growing species such as vial containing deionized water and several hemp seeds (Raabe
P. ultimum or P. aphanidemuuum, or as late as 72 hr for et al, 1973). After cooling, add a culture and loosely cap.
slower growing species such as P. oligandrum. It may be Incubate at room temperature for 7 days and then tightly close
necessary to rinse the surface of the plates under a gentle the cap; store beween 15 and 25 C in the dark. To retrieve
stream of tap water prior to observing the colonies if a large · isolates, remove a piece of the mycelium with a sterile transfer
amount of soil was added to the surface of the medium. needle and transfer onto water agar. The vials may be resealed
De Vay et al (1982) reported greater isolations of Pythium spp. and placed back mto storage; cultures have been stored this
when soil samples were assayed dry compared to soil-dilution way in excess of 5 yr. This method has been modified by
plating. The use of Tergitol NPX or concentrations of Singleton (1986) using wheat leaf segments (Triticum aestivum
pimaricin greater than 10 µglml in the medium should be L.) instead of hemp seeds; others also have had success using
approached with caution as they will inhibit oospore agar blocks alone.
germination of some species. Alteration of incubation Cryostorage- A variety of techniques have been reported
temperature and medium pH may influence recovery from the for storage of Pythium spp. in liquid nitrogen including; agar
soil (Lumsden et al, 1975). culture without cryoprotectants (Wellman and Waldon, 1964),
With the soil-dilution plating technique, five plates per soil spore suspensions in 8.5% skim milk and 10% glycerol
suspension with three replicates for each collection site should (Dahman et al, 1983), and mycelial and spore suspensions in
be run (total of 15 dishes). The inoculum density is expressed 10% glycerol (Smith, 1982) or 8% glucose and 10% DMSO
as germinable propagules per gram soil and calculated by using (Smith, 1983). For the most extensive list of species evaluated,
the average number of colonies and the amount of soil added consult Smith (1983). With all techniques, slow freezing (1
per dish. Some species may have a similar growth C/min) to -40 C prior to submersion in liquid N; and a rapid
morphology on selective media, therefore it may be advisable thaw of the cryovial by placing in a water bath at 37 C
to hyphal tip representative colonies and confirm their provided the best recovery. For some species, the survival rate
identification to ensure that the appropriate species are counted. was increased by growing cultures at 4 to 7 C prior to transfer
Quantification of P. ultimum may be accomplished with into the cryovials (Smith, 1982).
the use of the soil-drop technique (Stanghellini and Hancock, Lyophili:ration- Place autoclaved moist oat straw (Avena
1970). Soil samples (generally < 6 g) are suspended in 100 ml sativa L.) on the surface of a 2-day-old agar culture, incubate
tap water and mixed in a blender for at least 30 sec; after until profuse oogonia are formed. Transfer the oat straw to a
which 1 ml is removed and spotted on four water agar plates fresh plate and incubate until oogonia are formed at the edge
(9-12 drops per plate in a circular pattern). Incubate overnight of the agar. Remove the straw and cut into 1-cm pieces, place
(21 to 26 C) and observe under a stereo microscope; colonies the segments in a sterile ampule. Plug the ampule with cotton
which consist of single hyphae with rapid growth rates and and seal following 3 hr evacuation under vacuum; prior
short side branches are P. ultimum. When assaying soils with freezing of cultures is not needed. Recover cultures by
low inoculum densities, this technique may be modified by_ rehydrating the straw in a moist chamber for 12-60 hr prior to
removing plugs of agar from the plates and filling with a transfer to appropriate agar medium. Only oospore producing
greater volume of soil suspension than used in the soil drop species may be stored this way (Staffeldt and Sharp, 1954);
method (Chun and Lockwood, 1985). A soil-baiting technique survival of 5-7 yr has been reported (Staffeldt, 1961).
also may be used to obtain a quantitative bioassay (incubate at
21 C; Stanghellini and .Kronland, 1985b).
42
INOCULUM PRODUCTION AND PATHOGENICITY and Hancock (1984) obtained oospore suspensions of P.
DETERMINATION ultimwn by incubating homogenized 21-day-dd V-8 juice broth
cultures in 10% potato dextrose broth (filter through two layers
INOCULUM PRODUCTION- Liquid culture- A variety of sterile cheese cloth after homogenization to remove mycelial
of liquid media may be used for inoculum production (see debris) for 2 days. This treatment allowed the sponmgia, but
Appendix A), selection of which will depend on the species and not the constitutively dormant oospores to germinate. Oospores
the fungal structures sought. In general, use of a medium high were collected by filtering the culture through stenle cheese
in nutrients (low C!N ratio) will stimulate mycelial formation cloth and concentrated by centrifugation of the filtrate (4,340
and inhibit sporulation. It may be necessary to rinse off such G for 30 min). Production of oospores from heterothallic
media and incubate culture mats in sterile deionized water or species can be achieved by growing opposite mating types
0.001 M CaC1 2 (Yang and Mitchell, 1965) to stimulate separately in several petri plates, homogenize cultures, and mix
sporulation. To produce a large amount of inoculum, grow together prior to addition to fresh media.
cultures in several petri dishes for 3-5 days, homogenize mats Solid substrate- Production of inoculum on solid
in a sterile blender and aseptically add to fresh medium, which substrates has been accomplished using seeds of a variety of
can then be poured into fresh dishes. For most species, still plants (sugarbeet [Beta vulgaris L. ], radish [Raphanus saJivus
culture is more effective than shake culture for growth and L. ], or millet). Mix seeds and water ( 1: 1, v Iv) in a wide
sporulation. For tank fermentation, isolates may be grown in mouth flask plugged with cotton and autoclave a total of two
autoclavable plastic carboys in a buffered, non-clarified V-8 times on successive days. After cooling, add a culture of the
juice broth (Appendix A). Aerate by passing air through a desired isolate and incubate at a temperature optimum for
sterile filter and into the carboy via a stopcock located in the growth and sporulation. The inoculum may be used 7-10 days
bottom. Depending on the species and culture volume, after the substrate has been completely colonized. It may be
inoculum may be ready in 10 to 15 days. It should be noted
1
added to soil as infested seeds (break apart seeds prior to
that the optimum temperature for growth may not necessarily mixing with soil) or following drying and grinding in a Wiley
be the optimum for sporulation. mill. Inoculum also may be produced in 3 % cornmeal-sand
Sporangiwn production- Since mature oospores will not (w/w, add 20% water) or venniculite (a fine horticultural
form in the absence of the appropriate sterol, the use of a grade) amended with finely powdered cornmeal (lg/4g
defined medium lacking this compound (Martin and Kistler, venniculite) and water (4 ml/g) or clarified 112 strength V-8
1990; Schmitthenner, 1972; Yang and Mitchell, 1965) will juice broth (4 ml/g). Depending on the species, this material
allow for production of the asexual reproductive structures may be used fresh or air dried, the latter which may be stored
only. Transfer the culture into a petri dish containing the for several months at 15 C.
medium and allow to grow at an optimum temperature until the Many plant pathogenic species of this genus are facultative
plate is covered. Aseptically remove the medium and rinse the saprophytes on fresh organic substrates, a feature of their life
mycelial mat three times with sterile deionized water prior to cycle which may be useful for production of inoculum similar
the addition of sterile 0.001 M Caq (Yang and Mitchell, to that which is found in nature. Place approximately 500 g of
1965). After incubation an additional 5-7 days, oogonia will soil in a small autoclave bag and sterilize by autoclaving. Add
form but will not mature into thick walled structures. If 5 g of dried, crushed, green leaf tissue (use easily decomposed
bacterial contamination is a problem, penicillin at 100 µg/rnl tissue such as barley [Hordeum vulgare L.], lettuce [Lactuca
may be added. For synchronous formation of sporangia of P. saliva L.], or bean [Phaseolus vulgaris L.]), thoroughly mix
ultimum, consult Nelson and Craft (1989). Although and bring to -1.0 kPa matric potential with sterile water. Add
spherical sporangia may withstand desiccation when added to culture, seal the bag and incubate at a temperature optimum for
soil, other morphological forms may not. sporulation with mixing every 24 hr. Allow the mixture to air
Oospore production- The previously listed defined media dry after 7 days of incubation, mix, determine propagule
amended with the desired sterol or a medium based on natural density by dilution plating on selective medium and store at 15
substrates, such as l /2 strength V-8 juice broth, may be used C until used. If field soil is available which has only the
for production of oospore inoculum. Depending on the species desired species present without other phytopathogenic Pythium
and medium used, rinsing of the mycelial mats with sterile spp. (collected from depths below 30 cm), autoclave treatment
water and incubation in 0.001 M CaCJi may enhance of soils and addition of the fungal culture may be omitted
sporulation. To eliminate mycelium and sporangia, cultures (Hancock, 1981). Successive plantings of susceptible crops
may be treated in one of several ways. Sauve and Mitchell also may be used to increase pathogen inoculum (Mitchell and
(1977) observed that sonification (160 to 320 watts; 20 sec) Rayside, 1986). Inoculum which is produced by these methods
eliminated mycelium and sporangia of P. myriotylum and P. may be preferred for ecological studies in that propagules will
aphanidemuuum without reducing oospore viability. However, more closely resemble the physiological and nutritional status
sonification is not effective for species with spherical sporangia as propagules formed under natural conditions in the field.
(P. ultimum or P. sylvaticum). For P. sylvaticum, a This response may be important because there is some
modification of the procedure of Ruben et al (1980) was indication that culture produced inoculum may have a
effective; treatment with 0.2 % KMn04 (20 min) followed by differential germination response to exogenous nutrients (Nelson
three rinses with sterile deionized water completely eliminated and Craft, 1989). Also, variation in virulence of agar
mycelia and sporangia without decreasing oospore viability. inoculum may occur depending on the culture medium on
(F.N. Martin, unpublished). Treatment with variou5 which inoculum was produced (Johnson et al, 1981).
concentrations of Driselase, a crude enzyme preparation
containing laminarinase, xylanase, and cellulase (Sigma PATHOGENICITY DETERMINATIONS- A variety of
Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) or freezing cultures at -20 C for techniques may be used to determine the pathogenicity of a
24 to 48 hr did not eliminate sporangia. Alternatively, Lifshitz specific isolate, the selection of which depends on the
43
information needed. To determine if an isolate is capable of may be favored above 30 C and those caused by P. ulrimum at
infecting a particular plant, addition of an agar culture or 21 C. The optimum tempernture for radial growth may not
mycelium from liquid culture to soil into which the plant is to necessarily correspond to the optimum for disease; tempernture
be seeded or has already germinated and emerged may be may influence other soil microbes (Lifshitz and Hancock, 1983)
adequate. However, if information on isolate virulence or or the susceptibility of the host and thereby influence disease
disease epidemiology is desired, a more detailed experimental expresswn.
approach is needed. Although it is best to use natural field soil
in these trials, it is difficult to obtain soils free of other
pathogens. If this is the case, soil may be pasteurized by an COMMENTS
air-steam mixture (60 C; 30 min) or adjusted to approximately
-1.0 kPa matric potential and subjected to microwave METHODS FOR INVESTIGATING SOIL ECOLOGY-
irradiation (Ferris, 1984); exposure times may vary with soil The ability to function as a saprophyte and colonize fresh
types. Soils also may be autoclaved or fumigated with methyl organic substrates may have important implications for the
bromide or metam sodium. For fumigation with metam capability of long terrn survival of many phytopathogenic
sodium, add 12 ml Vapam (33% a.i.)/ 1 water/15 kg soil, Pythiwn spp; for some, this may be the predominant
incubate 5 days in sealed plastic bag and allow to aerate 2 wk me.chanism by which the pathogen may increase inoculum
prior to use. Inoculum may be produced in liquid culture or (Lumsden et al, 1976; Hancock, 1977). Therefore,
solid substrate as outlined above and added to the soil after investigations pertaining to this phase of the life cycle may
testing to ensure that residual fumigant is not present. provide useful information on the influence of other microflora
When quantified inoculum levels and/or inoculum free of and environmental conditions on pathogen survival and
growth medium or metabolic by-products is desired, soil may behavior in the soil. A variety of techniques have been used
be amended with cultures grown in liquid media following to investigate the soil ecology of Pythium spp., some of which
homogeniz.ation and a thorough rinsing to remove culture may provide a better elucidation of pathogen ecology under
media. Adjust the liquid volume such that the soil is not natural conditions than others.
flooded after amendment. Allow the soil to air dry over Barton (1960, 1961) investigated the ecology of P.
several days to kill mycelial fragments; grind, mix well and mamill.a1um Meurs by baiting soils with pieces of turnip
determine inoculum densities by soil dilution plating. (Brassica rapa L.) root or leaves and oak tree twigs (Quercus
Depending on the species, inoculum may remain viable at 15 sp.). This technique has been modified to study the ecological
C for at least several months. This infested soil is then added interactions between P. oligandrum and P. ulrimum (Martin and
to test soils to give estimated propagule densities; quantify soil Hancock, 1986). Soil is passed through a 1-mm sieve and
populations prior to use. Alternatively, inoculum densities may amended with air dried crushed cotton (Gossypium hirsurwn L.)
be adjusted by the addition of quantified spore suspensions to leaves (fragment size of ca. 1 mm; 0.08 g/ 25 g soil). After
the soil {Mitchell, 1975). mixing, the soil placed in retaining rings on a ceramic tension
Motile zoospores can be used as inoculum, but care should plate, and the matric potential adjusted with a pressure plate
be used in handling them to prevent encystment (Mitchell and extractor. Following equilibration, the samples are placed in
Rayside, 1986). Inoculum is quantified by counting the one half of a 60-mm plastic petri dish, covered with
number of zoospores present in microdrops (20 µI) and diluting polyethylene plastic held in place with a small ruhh._,r hi!ld. and
the suspension to provide the desired densities. Zoospore incubated in a moist chamber (loosely closed pla~tic bag
viability may be determined by plating suspensions on medium containing moist paper towels) at the desired temperature
and counting colonies after 24 hr. Although zoospore inoculum (matric potential will remain constant for approximately 8-10
may be added directly to the soil surface, a more realistic days). At the appropriate time intervals, triplicate samples are
assessment of pathogen behavior may be obtained by adding retrieved and the leaf fragments recovered by wet sieving with
zoospores to flooded soil followed by drainage several hrs later a 0.5-mm sieve. Resuspend fragments in water and collect
(Mitchell and Rayside, 1986). them on filter paper in a buchner funnel under vacuum;
The susceptibility of specific plants may be evaluated by transfer to water agar amended with 0.1 % Tergitol NPX by
planting seeds in infested soil and quantifying emergence and gently appressing the filter paper on the surface of the agar.
survival. Alternatively, seedlings may be transplanted into Incubate at a temperature optimum for growth of the species
infested soil and the ability to infect roots and cause post- under investigation and observe after 24 hr. Depending on the
emergence damping-off determined. Sublethal effects on the species present, the use of water agar amended with Tergitol
host caused by pathogen infection may be evaluated by NPX may allow colony identification based on morphological
comparison of root densities (Newman, 1966) of infected and characteristics. Count the number of colonized fragments and
healthy plants. Roots also may be transferred to water agar the total number of leaf fragments per plate; express as percent
amended with Tergitol NPX and the length of root coloniz.ation of total fragments colonized.
by the pathogen determined; results may be expressed as For investigations requiring long term incubation times,
percent of total root length coloniz.ed. Reductions in growth or soil samples may be incubated in small clay pots placed in
yield also may be observed for infected plants. For all trials, covered capillary columns containing sand:verrniculite (1: I);
be sure to complete Koch's postulates. matric potentials were held constant at -0. 7 kPa when pots
Although diseases caused by members of this genus are • were 34 cm above the water reservoir in a column of 39 cm
frequently associated with conditions favorable to periodic i.d. (Hancock, 1981). A number of organic substrates other
excessive soil moisture, too much soil water on a continuous than cotton leaves may be used; selection of those that retain
basis may suppress disease development. Temperature also has their integrity after incubation in the soil is advisable. Crop
a profound effect on disease development. For example, seeds also may be used (Stanghellini and Burr, 1973b). The
depending on the host, diseases caused by P. aphanidermaJum propagule density of the species under investigation will
44
influence the amolUlt of substrate colonization and should be survival. The use of 0.65 M MgS04 allowed good formation
adjusted to give between ca. 30-60% colonization. Lower or of protoplasts, but poor survival after 4 hr incubation; yield and
higher propa1,,'11le densities increases the sample sizes needed for survival were poor with 0.4 M NaCl or KCI. All osmotic
statistical validity or may allow for erroneous conclusions about stabilizers tested were made in 0.001 M MES buffer adjuskd
the relationship between inoculum density and saprophytic to pH 6.2, without this buffering p<X)r yield and survival wen:
activity due to colonization of fragments by multiple fungal observed. For some isolates, the use of CaCI~ was avoided
propa1,,'1lles, respectively. This procedure has been useful in because protoplasts would clump together. Protoplasts may be
detennining the effects of soil moisture, temperature, pH, separated from mycelial debris by passing the suspension
chemical composition and presence of other microbial through fine nylon mesh and concentrated by centrifugation
competitors on the ecology of a number of different Pythium (3000 _g for 10 min).
spp. (Lifshitz and Hancock, 1983; Martin and Hancock, 1986;
Paulitz and Baker, 1988; F.N. Martin, lUlpublished; Martin and PROTOPLAST REGENERATION- Protoplasts may be
Semer, lUlpublished). regenerated on a medium (I% glucose, 0.1 % asparagine, 0.1 %
Direct observation of propagules in the soil may be yeast extract, 1.5 % agar, and 100 µglml of penicillin)
accomplished by several methods. Lumsden (1980) embedded containing osmotica. The most effective osmotic stabilizers to
culture grown oospores of P. aphanidermatum in nylon fabric make the protoplasts, as well as for regeneration, were sucrose
(25-µm mesh) by vacuum filtration. The effects of exogenous or mannitol (both at 0.69 M) or CaC~ (0.25 M) if the medium
nutrients on oospore germination are evaluated by smearing soil was buffered at pH 6.2 with 0.01 M MES (without buffering
samples which had been amended with nutrients on a the agar will not solidify). Regeneration was poor with
microscope slide, staining with acid fuchsin and observing MgS04 , NaCl, and KC!. This 1s in general agreement with the
under the microscope (Stanghellini and Burr, 1973a). results of Sietsma and de Boor (1973) for P. acamhicurn.
I Propagule densities should be approximately 3000/g soil or
greater for this to be effective. Johnson and Arroyo (1983) SELECTION OF MUTANTS- Selection of marked
investigated the effect of cotton roots on oospore germination isolates by sublethal enrichment or treatment with broad
of P. ultimum by coating glass slides with oospore suspensions spectrum mutagens may facilitate investigations on the ecology
in 2.5 % water agar and placing in the soil such that the roots and genetics of the genus. Mutants of Pythium or
would come into contact with the slides. Staining of cultures Phytophthora have been selected for tolerance to metalaxyl and
with fluorescent brighteners (calcolfluor) prior to amendment other acylalanine fungicides, fluorophenylalanine,
into the soil (fsao, 1970) or with fluorescent antibodies cycloheximide, chloramphenicol, actidione, tetracycline,
(MacDonald and Duniway, 1979) have been used- with kanamycin, streptomycin, phosphorous acid, and hymexazol.
Phytophthora spp. and should prove useful with Pythium spp. Auxotrophic mutants of Phytophrhora also have been selected
as well. (Long and Keen, 1977). Mutant stability may be evaluated by
transferring isolates to nonamended medium for several days
PROTOPLAST FORMATION- Formation of protoplasts and re-evaluating tolerance when transferred back onto
for a Pythium species was first described by Sietsma et al amended medium. Progeny also should be evaluated for
(1967) with P. acanthicum using enzymes obtained from a tolerance. When using isolates tolerant to different compolUlds,
species of Streptomyces and 0. 8 M MgS04 as an osmotic check for cross tolerance. If the marked isolates are to be used
stabilizer. Subsequent investigations with P. acanthicum in ecological studies, check to ensure they are true to wild type
evaluated a number of different enzymes for protoplast for cultural characteristics (temperature growth response,
fomiation (Eveleigh et al, 1968) and osmotic stabilizers for morphology, and sporulation) and soil ecology (survival,
fom1ation and regeneration (Sietsma and DeBoer, 1973). saprophytic activity, and virulence).
Seitsma and DeBoer (1973) concluded that a combination of Sublethal Enrichment- Depending on the species, isolates
helicase and cellulase was the most effective in inducing may spontaneously mutate to give stable, tolerant mutants when
protoplasts using mycelium pretreated with 10 mM Triton X- grown on medium amended with non-lethal amoWlts of the
100 and 0.4 M NaCl as the osmotic stabilizer. desired toxic compoWld. Grow isolates on CMA or V-8 juice
An effective technique for formation and regeneration of agar amended with increasing concentrations of the toxic
protoplasts of P. oliga!ldrum and P. sylvaticum is as follows compolUld to determine the concentration at which
(F.N. Martin, lUlpublished): grow cultures in liquid media approximately 90% of the growth is inhibited. Transfer
(Martin and Kistler, 1990) for 2 days, homogenize mats in a isolates to the edge of petri dishes amended with this
sterile blender and add to fresh medium. Allow cultures to concentration, seal the dishes with parafilm and incubate at a
grow no more than an additional 24-36 hr prior to collection of temperature which is optimum for growth. Check every 2-3
mycelium by centrifugation (3000 x _g, 10 min). Resuspend days for fast growing sectors of mycelium, which should be
cultures in osmotica and re-pellet. Resuspend cultures in transferred to fresh dishes amended with a higher concentration
osmotica amended with 100 µg penicillin/ml and a final of the toxic compolUld. The rate at which the concentration
concentration of 0.25 % Driselase (add Driselase to a small may be increased will depend on the toxic compound; for
volume of osmotic stabilizer, centrifuge to pellet insoluble example, chlortetracycline worked best with increases of 2-5
material and use the supernatant). Incubate cultures at room µglml and kanamycin as high as 10 µglml. After several
temperature (21 to 23 C) on a rotary shaker at 45 rpm;· transfers to increasing concentrations, transfer to a non-
protoplasts will form after approximately 1-3 hr. The most amended medium for 5 days and transfer back to the amended
effective osmotic stabilizer was 0.25 M CaCl2 , with which medium to determine the stability of the mutation. Excellent
protoplasts remained viable and capable of regeneration even results have been obtained with kanamycin, streptomycin,
after 24 hr incubation. Mannitol and sucrose at 0.69 M had chloramphenicol, and phosphorous acid, and, to a lesser
approximately 50% of the yield as CaCli, but similar levels of degree, chlortetracycline and hymexaz.ol (F.N. Martin,
45
unpublished). Bruin and Edgington (1981) obtained isolates of occurred in the inverted repeat region of the genome (Martin,
several species tolerant to metalaxyl and other acylalanine 199lb). Some isolates of Pythium spp. contain circular
fungicides following 12 transfers on amended medium; mitochondrial plasmids (Martin, 199 lc); because of their lack
however, most of this tolerance was lost following subculturing of sequence similarity with the fungal genome, the plasmicfa are
on unamended medium. Shaw and Elliott (1968) obtained useful for the construction of isolate specific probes.
isolates of Phytophthora cactorwn tolerant to streptomycin by An alternative approach for the selection of species specific
incubating zoospores in liquid medium amended with inhibitory probes relies on interspecific sequence variation present in the
concentrations and retrieving viable colonies. nuclear encoded genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Lee and
Mutagenizing Treatments- The use of broad spectrum Taylor (personal communication) observed that sequence
mutagens should be approached with caution as the mutations analysis of the transcribed spacer region between the coding
they cause are nonspecific; in addition to tolerance, other regions for the 17S and 5.8S rRNA revealed regions that were
difficult to identify mutations which may influence the ecology variable among Phytophlhora spp., but conserved among
of the isolate may occur. Bruin and Edgington (1982) obtained isolates of the same species; 20 base pair oligonucleotide
mutants of P. ultimwn tolerant to metalaxyl following UV probes constructed from this region were species specific for
irradiation (254 nm) of 2-day old cultures on V-8 juice agar at Ph. megakarya, Ph. palmivora, Ph. cimuunomi, Ph. capsici,
a distance of 20 cm for 35 min. Cultures were subsequently or Ph. cilrophthora. Although untested, a similar approach
transferred to agar amended with lethal concentrations of the also may be effective with Pyrhium spp.
fungicide; mutant colonies were identified by their growth into
the medium. Mutants also may be selected by UV irradiation Florida Agriculture Experiment Station Journal Series Number
of sporangia or oospore suspensions prior to transfer to R-00991.
amended medium (Martin and Hancock, 1985). Pour
suspensions into a petri dish to give a shallow layer and add a
sterile metal paper clip; place on a magnetic stirrer set on a LITERATURE CITED
slow speed. Place in the dark and expose to UV light for a
time interval sufficient to give approximately 90-95 % death of Adaskaveg. J.E, Stanghellini, M.E., Gilbertson, R.L., and Egcn,
the propagules (determined by preliminary tests); plate on N.B. 1988. Comparative protein studies of several Py1hium
medium amended with lethal concentrations of the desired spp. by isocleclric focusing. Mycologia 80:665-672.
fungicide. Although stable mutants tolerant of several Ali-Shtayeh, M.S, Len, L.-H. C .. and Dick, M. W. 1986. An
fungicides have been obtained with this procedure, often improved method and medium for quantitative estimates of
populations of Py1hiwn species from soil. Trans. Br. Mycol.
isolates or their progeny demonstrate variations in their cultural
Soc. 86:39-47.
characteristics. For homothallic species, this variation may be Ayers, W.A., and Lumsden, R.D. 1975. Factors affecting
reduced by selfing tolerant isolates which demonstrate wild type production and germination of oospores of three Py1hiwn spp.
characteristics. Oospores may be isolated and germinated by Phytopathology 65:1094-1100.
the method of Ruben et al (1980). This selfing and selection Barton, R. l 960. Saprophytic activity of Py1Jziwn mmni/Jatum in soils
is repeated until all progeny have the wild type features; this I. Influence of substrate composition and soil environment.
has typically been observed within five selections (F.N. Martin, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 43:529-540.
unpublished). In addition to UV light, chemical mutagens such Barton, R. 1961. Saprophytic activity of Py1hium mamillarwn in soils
as N-methyl-N. nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (30 µglml) or II. factors restricting P. mamillatum to pioneer colonization of
ethylmethane sulphonate also have been used for induction of substrates. Trans. Br. Myc-01. Soc. 44:105-118.
Bclkhiri, A., and Dick, M.W. 1988. Comparative studies on the
mutants. In addition to oospores and sporangia, zoospores
DNA of Py1hiwn species and some possibly related taxa. J. Gen.
also may be used for mutagenesis treatment. For additional
Microbial. 134:'.'.673-'.'.683.
information on mutagenesis treatment in the Pythiaceae, consult Bowers, L.A., and Coffey, M.D. 1985. Development of laboratory
the work done with Phytophthora spp. (Bowers and Coffey, tolerance to phosphorous acid, fosetyl-Al, and metalaxyl in
1985; Castro et al, 1971; Davidse, 1981; Khaki and Shaw, Phytophthora capsici. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 7: 1-6.
1974; Layton and Kuhn, 1988; Long and Keen, 1977). Boucher. I., and Behr, L. 1985. Investigations on the occurrence of
Py1hium spp. in soil. I. The isolation of Pythitun spp., their
ISOLATE AND SPECIES SPECIFIC DNA PROBES- distinction to macroscopic characteristics and their determination.
Recovery of DNA probes for the identification of a particular Phytopath. Z. ll'.'.:333-343.
species may be facilitated by selection of sequences from a Burr, T.J., and Stanghcllini, M.E. 1973. Propagule nature and
region of the mitochondrial genome which is conserved within density of Pythiwn aphani.dennarwn in field soil. Phytopathology
63: 1499-150 l.
the species, but variable among different species. For P.
Bruin, G.C.A., and Edgingt~n. L.V. 1981. Adaptive resistance in
oliga11drum, selection of DNA sequences from the inverted Peronosporales to metalaxyl. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 3:201-206.
repeat region adjacent to the small unique region is effective for Bruin, G.C.A., and Edgington, L.V. 1982. Induction of fungal
construction of probes specific primarily for this species resistance to metalaxyl by ultraviolet irradiation. Phytopathology
(Martin, 199lb). The predominant mechanism by which 72:476-480.
mitochondrial DNA variation occurs in this species is insertion Buchko, J, and Klassen, G.R. 1990. Detection of length
or deletion events in the small unique region (Martin, 199la); heterogeneity in the ribosomal DNA of Pythiwn ultimwn by
DNA fragments containing these insertions are useful for PCR amplification of the intergenic region. Curr. Genet. 18:203-
205. ·,
construction of probes specific for particular isolates in the
species sharing the same mitochondrial DNA restriction map Castro, J.F., Zentmeyer, G.A., and Belser, W.L. 1971. Induction
of auxotrophic mutants in Phytophthara by ultraviolet light.
(Martin, 199lb). The use of insertion events for construction
Phytopathology 61:283-289.
of isolate specific probes also has been effective with P. Chen, W., Hoy, J.W., and Schneider, R.W. 1991. Comparison of
sylvaticum, although for this species the insertion-deletion event soluble protein electrophoresis and isozyme analysis and their
46
potential application to Pythium systematics. Mycol. Res. 95: Pythiwn ultimwn in the cotton rhizospherc. Phytopathology
548-555. 73:1620-1624.
Chen, W., Hoy, J.W., and Schneider, R.W. 1990. Variation Kannwischer, M.E., and Mitchell, D.J. 1978. The influence of a
observed in ribosomal DNA of Pythiwn spp. agrees with isozymc fungicide on the epidemiology of black shank of tobacco.
analysis results. Phytopathology 80:964 Phytopathology 68:1760-1765.
Chun, D., and Lockwood, J.L. 1985. Improvements in assays for Kerwin, J.L., and Duddles, N.D. 1989. Reassessment of the role of
soil populations of Pythium u/Jimum and Macrophomina phospholipids in sexual reproduction by sterol auxotrophic fungi.
phaseo/ina. Phytopath. Z. 114:289-294. J. of Bacteriol. 171:3831-3839.
Clare, B.G. 1963. Starch gel electrophoresis of protein as an aid in Khaki, LA., and Shaw, D.S. 1974. The inheritance of drug
identifying fungi. Nature (London) 200:803-804. resistance and compatibility type in Phy1oph1hora drechsleri.
deCock, A.W.A.M., Mendoza, L., Padhye, A.A., Ajello, L., and Genet. Res., Camb. 23:75-86.
Kaufman, L. 1987. Pythiwn insidiosum sp. nov., the etiologic Klassen, G.R., and Buchko, J. 1990. Subrepeat structure of the
agent of pylhiosis. J. Clin. Micro. 25:344-349. intergenic region in the ribosomal DNA of the oomycetous
Conway, K.E. 1985. Selective medium for isolation of Py1hium spp. fungus Pythium ultimum. Curr. Genet. 17:125-127.
from soil. Plant Dis. 69:393-395. Klassen, G.R., McNabb, S.A., and Dick, M.W. 1987. Comparison
Dahmen, H., Staub, Th., and Schwinn, F. J. 1983. Technique for of physical maps of ribosomal DNA repeating units in Py1hiwn,
long-term preservation of phytopathogenic fungi in liquid Phy1oph1hora, and Apodachya. J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:2953-
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Davidse, L.C. 1981. Resistance to acylalanine fungicides in Ko, W.H. 1986. Sexual reproduction of Pyil1iwn aphanidennatum:
Phytophthora megaspenna f.sp. medicaginis. Neth. J. Pl. stimulation by phospholipids. Phytopathology 76:1159-1160.
Pathol. 87: 11-24. Krywienczyk, J., and Dorworth, C. E. 1980. Serological
DeVay, J.E., Garber, R.H., and Matherson, P. 1982. Role of relationships of some fungi of the genus Pythium. Can. J. Bot.
Pythium spp. in the seedling disease complex of cotton in 58: 1412-1417.
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Dick, M.W. 1990. Key to Pythium. University of Reading Press, protoplast fusion of drug-resistant mutants in Phytophthora
Reading, U .K. 64pp. megaspenna f.sp. glycinea. Exp. Mycol. 12:180-194.
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frequency of Pythium species in Parkland and farmland soil. Pythiwn ultimwn in soil as a function of water matric potential
Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 86:49-62. and temperature. Phytopathology 73:257-261.
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states. Phytopathology 33:285-299. the passive survival of Pythiwn ultimum in soil. Phytopathology
Eveleigh, D.E., Sietsma, J.H., and. Haskins, R.H. 1968. The 74: 128-132.
involvement of cellulase and laminaranase in the formation of Lifshitz, R., Stanghellini, M.E., and Baker, R. 1984a. A new
Pythium protoplasts. J. Gen. Micro. 52:89-97. species of Pythium isolated from soil in Colorado. Mycotaxon
Ferris, R.S. 1984. Effects of microwave oven treatment on 20:373-379.
microorganisms in soil. Phytopathology 74:121-126. Lifshitz, R., Sneh, B., and Baker, R. 1984b. Soil suppressiveness to
Flowers, R.A., and Hendrix, J.W. 1969. Gallic acid in a procedure Pythium ultimum induced by antagonistic Pythiwn spp.
for isolation of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae and Phytopathology 74:1054-1061.
Pythium spp. from soil. Phytopathology 59:725-731. Long, M., and Keen, N.T. 1977. Evidence for hetcrokaryosis in
Fujita, Y., and Zenitani, B. 1977. Studies of pathogenic Pythiwn of Phytophtlwra megaspenna var sojae. Phytopathology 67:670-
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of pathogenic Pythium strains. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. Lumsden, R.D. 1980. A nylon fabric technique for studying the
43:1313-1318. ecology of Pythiwn aphanidennatwn and other fungi in the soil.
Hancock, J .G. 1977. Factors affecting soil populations of Pylhium Phytopathology 71:282-285.
ultimum in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Hilgardia Lumsden, R.D., Ayers, W.A., and Dow, R.L. 1975. Differential
45:107-122. isolation of Pythiwn spp. by means of selective media,
I Hancock, J.B. 1981. Longevity of Pythiwn ultimwn in moist soil. temperature, and pH. Can. J. Microbiol. 21:606-612.
Phytopathology 71:1033-1037. Lumsden, R.D., Ayers, W.A., Adams, P.B., Dow, R.L., Lewis,
Hendrix, J.W. 1974. Physiology and biochemistry of growth and J.A., Papavizas, G.C., and Kautz.es, J.G. 1976. Ecology and
reproduction in Pythium. Pages 207-210. in: Proc. Am. epidemiology of Pythiwn species in field soil. Phytopathology
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Hendrix, F.F., and Campbell, W.A. 1973. Pylhiums as plant MacDonald, J.D., and Duniway, J.M. 1979. The use of fluorescent
pathogens. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 11:77-98. antibodies to study the survival of Phylophtlwra megaspenna and
Hendrix, F.F., and Campbell, W.D. 1983. Some Pylhiaceous fungi- P. cinnamomi zoospores in soil. Phytopathology 69:436-441.
new roles for old organisms. Pages 123-160 in: Zoosporic Plant Martin, F.N. 1990a. Variation in the ribosomal DNA repeat unit
Pathogens, a Modem Perspective. S.T. Buczacki, ed. Academic within single oospore isolates of the genus Pythiwn. Genome
Press, New York. 33:585-591.
Hendrix, F.F., and Papa, K.E. 1974. Taxonomy and genetics of Martin, F.N. 1990b. Taxonomic classification of asexual isolates of
Pyrhium. Pages 200-207, in: Proceedings of the American Pythium ultimwn based on cultural characteristics and
Phytopathological Society, Vol. l, American Phytopathological mitochondrial DNA restriction patterns. Exp. Mycol. 14: 47-56.
Society, St. Paul, MN. Martin, F.N. 199la. Linear mitochondrial molecules and
Jeffers, S.N., and Martin, S.B. 1986. Comparison of two media int.raspecific mitochondrial genome stability in a species of
selective for Phytophthora and Pythiwn spp. Plant Dis. Pythiwn. Genome: 34:156-162.
70:1038-1043 Martin, F.N. 1991b. Selection of DNA probes specific for isolates
Johnson, L.F., Hsieh, C.-C., and Southerland, E.D. 1981. Effects or species in the genus Pythium. Phytopathology 81 :742-746.
of exogenous nutrients and inoculum quantity on the virulence of Martin, F.N. 199lc. Characterization of circular mitochondrial
Pythium u/Jimum to cotton hypocotyls. Phytopathology 71:629- plasmids in three Pythiwn spp. Curr. Genet. 20:91-97.
632. Martin, F. N., and Hancock, J.G. 1985. Selection of fungicide
Johnson, L.F., and Arroyo, T. 1983. Germination of oospores of tolerant mutants of Pythi1un oligandrwn. Phytopathology
47
75:1327. Ruben, D.M., Frank, Z.R., and Chet. I 1980. Factors affecting
Martin, F.N., and Hancock, 1.G. 1986. Association of chemical and behavior and developmental synchrony of germinating oospores
biological factors in soils suppressive to Pythium u//imiun. of Pythium aphanidennaJwr1. Phytopathology 70:54-59.
Phytopathology 76:1221-1231. Saunders, G.A., Washburn, 1.0., Egerter, D.E., and Andcrson, J.A.
Martin, F.N., and Hancock, 1.G. 1987. The use of Pythiwn 1988. Pathogenicity of fungi isolated from field-collected larvae
olgiandrum for biological control of pre-emergence damping--0ff of the western treehole mosquito, Aedes sierrem·is (Diptera:
caused by P. u/Jimum. Phytopathology 77:1013-1020. Culicidae). J. Invert. Path. 52:360-63.
Martin, F.N., and Kistler, H.C. 1990. Species specific banding Sauve, R.J., and Mitchell, D .J. 1977. An evaluation of methods for
patterns of restriction endonuclease digested mitochondrial DNA obtaining mycelium-frce oospores of Pythium aphanidennalw11
from the genus Pythium. Exp. Mycol. 14: 32-46. and P. myriotylwn. Can. 1. Micro. 23:643-648.
Martin, F.N., and Semer, C.R. 1991. Biological control of dampling- Schmitthenner, A.F. 1972. Effect of light and calcium on
off of tomato transplants using the non-plant pathogen Pythiwn germination of oosporcs of Pylhiwn aplumidennatwn.
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Matthews, V.D. 1931. Studies on the genus Py1hiwn. University of Schmitthenner, A.F. 1973. Isolation and identification methods for
North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC 134 pp. Phytophlhora and Pylhium. Proc. Woody Ornamental Dis.
McNabb, S.A., Boyd, P.A., Belkhiri, A., Dick, M.W., and Klassen, Workshop, 1st, 24-25 January 1973. University of Missouri,
G.R. 1987. An inverted repeal comprises more than three-- Columbia. 128 pp.
quarters of the mitochondrial genome in two species of Pythiwn. Shaw, D.S., and Elliott, C.G. 1968. Streptomycin resistance and
Curr. Genet. 12:205-208. morphological variation in Plrytophthora cac1orum. 1. Gen.
McNabb, S.A., and Klassen, G.R. 1988. Uniformity of Microbiol. 51:75-84.
mitochondrial DNA complexity in Oomycetes and the evolution Shishkoff, N. 1989. Zoospore encystment pattern and germination
of the inverted repeat. Exp. Mycol. 12:233-242. on onion roots, and the colonization of hypodcrmal cells by
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damping-off of cucumbers with Pythium nunn: Population Pythium aphanidennaJwn. Phytopathology 63:1496-1498.
dynamics and disease suppression. Phytopathology 77:335-340. Stanghellini, M.E., and Kronland, W.C. 1985a. Detrimental effect
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environment and organic amendments. Phytopathology 77:341- Stanghellini, M.E., and Kronland, W.C. 1985b. Bioassay for
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nunn and Pythi1un ullimum on bean leaves. Can. 1. Microbiol. Symposium on the Genus Pythium. 1974. Proceedings of the
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0
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48
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Surrey, England. 1-71pp.
49
/·(15e11ttl ?tcp;rf3 ~/ '
Dr. JULIE M. NICOL
c!o CIMMYT, Int.
Col. Juarez
06600 Mexico, OF.
Soilborne
Phytopathogenic
Fungi
Edited by
Larry L. Singleton
Stillwater
Jeanne D. Mihail
Columbia
Charles M. Rush
Bushland
APS PRESS
St. Paul. Minnesota





official duties.
Printed in the United States of America on acid-tree paper

Rhizoctonia
D.E. Carling and D.R. Swnner
University of Alaska Fairbanks, Palmer, Alaska 99645 and

University of Georgia, Tifton, Georgia 31793;
respectively
IDENTIFICATION Thanatephorus cucumeris f. sp. sasakii, and T. praticola.

The size and diversity of Rhizoctonia focuses attention on
NOMENCLATURE AND SYNONYMY- The genus the need for subdividing it into smaller more homogeneous and
Rhizacronia (deCandolle, 1815) is a large, diverse and complex therefore more understandable groups. Many methods have
group of fungi. Teleomorphs of isolates of Rhizocronia fall been used, but grouping by hyphal anastomosis has proven to
into one of three genera of the Basidiomycotina: be most useful (Matsumoto et al, 1932; Parmeter et al, 1969;
.Tha11a1ephorus (anamorph = R. solani Killin), Ceratobasidium Richter and Schneider, 1953; Schultz, 1936). However, the
(anamorph = binucleate Rhiwctonia) and Waitea (anamorph = formal taxonomic significance of the anastomosis group (AG)
R. zeae Voorhees, R. oryzae Ryker and Gooch and perhaps is debatable (Parmeter and Whitney, 1970). In spite of these
others). Since erection of the genus Rhiwctonia, approximately debates, we believe subdividing Rhizoctonia by AG is useful,
100 species have been reported. Unfortunately, many of these and therefore it is important to identify the AG affinity of each
species fit neither into Rhiwctonia as it was originally Rhizoctonia isolate under study. At best, terms such as
described, nor into the group as it is defined by current criteria. Rhizoctonia sp. and rhizoctonia-like are of limited descriptive
Ogoshi (1987) indicates approximately half of the 100-pllL'> value. The descriptive value of terms such as R. solani and
species are Rhizoctonia. Parmeter and Whitney (1970), binucleate Rhizocto11ia are increased when they are
Gunnell (1986) and Sneh, Burpee, and Ogoshi (1991) have accompanied by an AG designation.
enumernted some of the species that rightfully belong in other Anamorph. According to the original description of the
tax a. group, fungi were required to: I) produce sclerotia of unifom1
Many researchers, including Parmeter and Whitney texture and 2) be associated with the roots of living plants in
(1970), Talbot (1970) and Sneh, Burpee, and Ogoshi (1991) order to be classified as Rhizoctonia. The list of criteria has
have listed synonyms for Rhizoctonia solani: R. alba, R. been modified and lengthened, so today, the genus Rhizoctonia
alderholdii, R. allii, R. a1wmola, R. betae, R. brassicarum, R. possesses reasonably well defined limits. Though not
ca1prae, R. dauci, R. dichotoma, R. dimmpha, R. fusca, R. universally accepted, and though certain exceptions may exist,
gossypii, R. gossypii var. aegyptica, R. gossypii var. anmolica, isolates of Rhizoctonia, whether multinucleate or binucleate,
R. lupini, R. macrosclerotia, R. melongena, R. microsclerotia, now must conform to key criteria (Ogoshi, 1987; Parmeter et
R. napae, R. 1wpaeae, R. napi, R. potomace11Sis, R. praticola, al, 1969; Parmeter and Whitney, 1970). Their characteristics
R. rapae, R. solani var. ambigua, R. solani var. brassicae, R. are: 1) branching near the distal septum of cells in young
~·olani var. cedri-deodarae, R. solani var. cichorii-endiviae, R. vegetative hyphae; 2) formation of a septum in the branch near
solani var. honensis, R. solani var. lycopersicae, R. solani var. the point of origin; 3) constriction of branch hyphae at the
rypica, Sclerotium irregulare, and S. myzicola; binucleate point of origin; 4) presence of the dolipore septa! apparatus;
Rhizoctonia: R. alpina, R. callae, R. ca1ulida, R. cerealis, R. 5) absence of clamp connections; 6) absence of conidia
endophytica var. endophytica, R. floccosa, R. fragaria, R. (monilioid cells are not considered conidia); 7) sclerotial tissue
fraxi11i, R. fuccosa, R. fumigata, R. goodyerae-repentis, R. not differentiated into rind and medulla (sclerotia need not be
111u11eratii, R. oryzae-sativae, R. pi11i-i11Signis, R. quercus, R. produced, but if present, sclerotial tissue must not be
ramicola, Sclerotium deciduum, S. fumigatum, and S. oryzae- differentiated); and 8) absence of rhiwmorphs. One additional
sativa; CeratobasU/ium: Corticium, Hypochnus, and characteristic that all subgroups of Rhizoctonia must possess is
Tulasnella; Thanatephorus: Botryobasidium, Ceratobasidium, a basidiomycetous perfect state. Additional criteria have been
Conicium, Hypochnus, and Pe/lieu/aria; and Thanatephorus used, and some of these (nuclear number, color, hyphal
cucumeris: Botryobasidium solani, Ceratobasidium diameter, colonial morphology, pathogenicity) continue to be of
filmnentosum, C. solani, Corticium areolatum, C. some value when subdividing Rhizoctonia.
microsclerotia, C. praticola, C. sasakii, C. solani, C. vagum, Teleomorph. Most Rhizoctonia are associated with one
C. vagum subsp. solani, C. vagum var. solani, Hypochnus of three of the Basidiomycotina: Thatuztephorus Donk,
cucumeris, H. filame111osus, H. sasakii, H. solani, H. solani Cerotobasidium Rogers, or Waitea Warcup and Talbot.
var. brassicae, H. solani var. la.ctucae, H. solani var. typica, Thanatephorus: TluuUllephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk is the
Pellicularia filamentosa, P. fila.melllosa f. sp. betae, P. teleomorphic state of the multinucleate anamorph R. solani.
filamentosa f. sp. compacta, P. fila.mentosa f. sp. For a fungus legitimately to be called R. solani it must possess
microsclerotia, P. filamentosa f. sp. sasakii, P. filamentosa f. a T. cucumeris perfect state. Talbot (1970), aware of the
sp. solani, P. filamentosa f. sp. timsii, P. sasakii, diversity and complexity of R. solani, realized T. cucumeris, "a
157
collective species .... (with) no fundamental systematic coverslip and examined microscopically (400x) for hyphal
importance", would not remain stable. Talbot (1970) believed anastomosis.
that R. sola11i would remain in the genus 1haruuephorus, but A second method (Panuneter et al, I 969; Rovira et al,
undoubtedly presumed that additional species within 1986) differs in that mycclial disks of te.<>ter and unknown
TJwnatephorus would be described in time. However, T. isolates are placed 3 cm apart directly onto 2 % water agar in
cucumeris has persisted for nearly 20 yr, and possibly will petri dishes. Anastomosis pairings are incubated at 20 C or
persist in its present form for some time to come. room temperature until hyphae overlap and then examined at
Ceratobasidiwn: The teleommphic genus of the binucleate lOOx, without staining, on the agar in the petri dish. A third
Rhizactonia is Cerarobasidium. There have been many species method (Kronland and Stanghellini, 1988) requires placement
of binucleate Rhizoctonia described (Burpee et al, l 980a; of tester and unknown isolates directly onto glass slides for
Ogoshi et al, 1983), but since they share the same teleomorphic incubation, staining and reading.
genus, we treat them as a single though heterogeneous group. Regardless of the technique used, interpretation of the
Also, many species of Ceratobasidium have been described in anastomosis reaction is nece,.'5ar)'. This determination can be
association with isolates of binucleate Rhizocto11ia, including C. done based on the cytology of individual anastomosis points or
comigerum (Burpee et al, 1980a), C. setariae and C. on percent fusion frequency. The cytology of individual
grami11ium (Oniki et al, 1986b), and C. oryzae-sativae anastomosis reactions has been described with various
(Gunnell, 1986). Often the perfect state is described only as terminologies including contact, imperfect and perfect
Ceratobasidium sp. (Ogoshi et al, 1983). The situation with (Matsumoto et al, 1932; Parmeter et al, 1969; Yokoyama and
speciation in Cerarobasidium, as the genus relates to the Ogoshi, 1986; Yokoyama et al, 1983, 1985); reactions S, K,
binucleate Rhizactonia, may parallel the T. cucumeris-R. sola11i WF and NR (Flentje and Stretton, 1964) and Categories 0, 1,
relationship. Perhaps, designation of a collective species of 2 and 3 (Carling et al, 1988). In the latter scheme, cytologirnl
Cerarobasidiwn is an appropriate interim approach. Waitea: features of categories range from no reaction (Category 0), to
The teleomorphs of R. zeae and R. oryzae conform to Waitea intermediate levels of connection between walls and membranes
circi11ara Warcup and Talbot. The W circill{lfa isolates of anastomosing hyphae (Categories I and 2), to fusion of
collected by Warcup and Talbot (1962) possess the vegetative walls and membranes of anastomosing hyphae (Category 3).
characteristics of Rhizoctonia, differ from R. oryzae and R. Percent fusion frequency (Ogoshi, 1975) is calculated with
zeae (Gunnell, 1986) but have not been assigned an anamorphic the following formula:
name. These three types [R. zeae, R. oryzae and the type
isolated by Warcup and Talbot (1962)] comprise the third % fusion = total fusion (connection) points x 100
group of Rhizoctonia characterized by multinucleate. cells and frequency total contact points
teleomorphs in the genus Waitea. Minor variations exist
among the teleomorphs of these three types, and differences in Fifteen lOOx microscopic fields (five fields from each of three
cultural morphology and pathogenicity exist among the three separate anastomosis reactions) are lL.'>ed to calculate to the
anamorphs. Although a single teleomorphic species is all that totals above. Fusion (connection) points are those where
presently exists, it has been proposed (Gunnell, 1986) that three hyphae have come in contact and have connected. Contact
varieties of W. circinata be designated (var. circi1Ul!a, var. points include fusion (connection) points plus all other points in
myzae, and var. zeae) based upon anamorphic differences. In the field where hyphae contact one another by abutting,
its present form, W. circitUl!a may be another example of a crossing or parallelling, but do not connect.
collective species. Nuclear number can be determined at the same time
Hyphal anastomosis. Within each of the three groups of anastomosis group affinity is being determined. Kronland and
Rhizacto11ia delineated by a teleomorph, further subdivision can Stanghellini (1988) utilized safranin-0 in 3 % KOH (Bandoni,
be made based upon hyphal anastomosis. Hyphal anastomosis 1979) with good results. Other staining procedures for routine
is a manifestation of somatic or vegetative incompatibility observation of nuclei include 1 % aniline blue in 50% glycerine
(Anderson, 1982) between isolates. The anastomosis reaction (Tu and Kimbrough, 1973), and 0.5% aniline blue (Burpee et
may range from fusion of the walls and membranes of al, 1978) or 0.05% trypan blue in lactophenol (Herr, 1979).
confronted isolates (typical in self-anastomosis reactions) to no When using these procedures the addition of a wetting agent
reaction at all. Intermediate reactions where walls (and perhaps prior to applying the stain solution may limit problems with air
membranes) connect but do not fuse, followed by death of bubbles and may improve the quality of the stained material.
connecting and adjacent cells, typically occur between members Also, placement of staining solution to one side of the study
of the same anastomosis group. area before positioning the cover slip will create a stain
Determination of anastomosis group affinity may be made gradient across the slide that will increase the probability of
by placing mycelial disks of a tester isolate and an unknown successfully staining nuclei. For more detailed study of nuclei,
isolate on opposite ends of a 3-x 1.5-cm rectangle of cellophane the HCI-Giemsa stain (Sakser:a, 1961), the orcein stain (Tu et
that lies on 1.5 % water agar in a petri dish (Carling et al, al, 1969), or the fluorescence procedure using Hoechst dye
1987; Castro, 1982; Castro et al, 1988; Parmeter et al, 1969). #33258 (Kangatharalingam and Ferguson, 1984) may be used.
Pieces of dialysis tubing may be used as a substitute for
cellophane. Cellophane rectangles are dipped in soft PDA SPORULATION- Teleomorphs of Rhizoctonia
(13g/L) prior to placement on water agar. Mycelial disks are (1hanarephorus, Ceratobasidium, Waitea) occur naturally in the
obtained from cultures growing on PDA. Anastomosis pairings field on host plant and/or soil surfaces. Teleomorphs of some
are incubated at room temperature in room light until hyphae Rhizoctonia appear to sporulate on the surfaces of host and
overlap (usually 48-72 hr). The area of cellophane where non-host plants alike. Teleomorphs frequently can be induced
hyphae overlap is removed from the petri dish, placed on a to form on plant, soil, or agar surfaces in the greenhouse or
glass slide, stained with 0.05% trypan blue, covered with a laboratory. Gunnell (1986) described a method of producing
158
W. c1rcmaJa on rice (Oryza saliva L.) plants growing in HOSf RANGE AND DISTRIBUTION
flooded pots in a greenhouse. Plants in the mid to late tillering
stage were inoculated by sprinkling inoculum on the surface of R. solani (T. cucumeris): Eleven anastomosis groups of
the water in pots. Sporulation was favored by misting every R. solani have been described. Host range and distribution are
2 hr and by maintaining temperatures between 24-35 C. presented for each anastomosis group.
Teleomorphs of other isolates often can be induced to sporulate AG-1 - This group is of worldwide distribution and is
on their respe.ctive hosts by creating environmental conditions subdivided, based on colony morphology and pathogenicity,
comparable to those observed when sporulation occurs in into three subgroups: AG-1-IA (also called type 2 or the
nature. sasakii type), AG-1-IB (also called type I or the microsclerotial
Many investigators (Flentje, 1956; Ogoshi, 1975; Ogoshi, type) and AG-I-IC (Ogoshi, 1987). Clear distinction between
1976; Ogoshi et al, 1983; Oniki et al, 1985) have induced the three subgroups cannot be made with anastomosis
hymenia of Thanateplwrus, Ceratobasidium, or Waitea to form technique. AG- I-IA is an aerial pathogen causing sheath blight
on clumps of soil placed over a layer of agar. Isolates of of rice, leaf blight of many hosts and brown patch of turfgrass.
Rhizoctonia are first established in dishes containing a potato AG-1-IB also is an aerial pathogen, calL~ing web blight and leaf
yeast extract agar (PYDA) (Appendix A). Cultures are blight of many hosts. AG- I-IC is soilborne and caw;es
incubated at 27 C until hyphae reach the edge of the dish, then damping off in many hosts.
the colony is coven;d with a layer of sterile soil clwnps. The AG-2 - This group also is subdivided, based on
cultures are kept moist by adding distilled water when needed pathogenicity and nutritional requirements, into three
and are incubated at room temperature under room light. The subgroups: AG-2-1 (also called winter crops type), AG-2-2
lids of the dishes are left off to ensure good aeration. Hymenia IDB (also called rush type), and AG-2-2 IV (often called root-
will form in several days to 3 wk. Although this method has rot type). Perhaps the most definitive method of separating
been used successfully for many years, it does not work for AG-2-1 from AG-2-2 (IIIB and IV) is thiamine requirement
everyone. It may be that particular soil characteristics are (Ogoshi, 1987; Rovira et al, 1986) as AG-2-2 requires thiamine
necessary for sporulation to occur (Ogoshi, 1976). and AG-2-1 does not. As with AG-1, differentiation among
Other agar media, with or without a soil overlay, have the three subgroups of AG-2 based on anastomosis reaction is
been used to induce hymenial formation; including potato not always possible. AG-2-1 is a soilborne pathogen causing
marmite agar (PMA) (Flentje, 1956; Whitney and Parmeter, damping off and root rot in many hosts and wire stem in
1963), V-8 juice agar (Carling et al, 1987) and water agar crucifers. AG-2-2 IIIB is a soilborne and aerial pathogen
(Windham, 1985) (Appendix A). Petri dishes containing 30 to inducing damping off in many hosts, brown patch m turf, and
40 ml of 2.0% water agar or 1.8% agar amended with 2.0% sheath blight of mat rush. AG-2-2 IV is a soilborne and aerial
V-8 juice are seeded with a mycelial plug obtained from an pathogen causing blight and root rot of sugar beet (Bera
actively growing culture and incubated under conditions of vulgaris L.), root rot in many other crops and large patch in
room temperature and light. Sporulation can occur in 15 to 30 turf. AG-2 is of worldwide distribution.
days and appears to be associated, among other factors, with AG-3 - AG-3 is a homogeneous group with no known
the change in environment caused by dehydration of the agar. subgroups. Isolates of AG-3 grow more slowly and generally
A greater volume of medium is used in these dishes to prolong are more tolerant to cool temperatures than isolates of other
the dehydration process, thereby increasing the chance of AGs of R. solani. It is a soilborne pathogen, causing root and
hymenium formation. Dehydration of the medium appears to stem rot in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). AG-3 is found
create an increasing stress on the fungus and may induce wherever potatoes are grown.
physiological changes resulting in hymenium formation. In a AG-4 - Also called the praticola type, AG-4 can be
similar way, fungicides such as mancozeb may effect changes subdivided into two groups, HG-I and HG-II, based on
that result in hymenium formation (Kangatharalingam and differences in DNA homology (Kuninaga and Yokosawa,
Carson, 1988). 1984a; Vilgalys, 1988) but not on anastomosis reactions. AG-4
Adams and Butler (1983a,b) studied the effects of is soilborne and incites damping off and root rot over a wide
nutritional and environmental factors on isolates of Rhizoctonia host range. It occurs worldwide.
known to sporulate in vitro. Concentrations of nitrogen and AG-5 - A homogeneous group of soilborne pathogens,
glucose, ventilation, relative humidity, and substrate drying AG-5 (Ogoshi, 1976) can induce root and stem rot of potato
affected sporulation. Variation of these parameters as well as but is generally far less virulent than AG-3. Isolates of AG-5
others may be helpful if isolates that will not sporulate are are thiamine auxotrophic. AG-5 occurs m Europe. Asia and
encountered. However, not all isolates can be induced to North America.
sporulate in vitro with methods currently available. Success AG-6 - No pathogenic isolates of AG-6 (Kuninaga et al,
rates range from more than 80 % of isolates in a group or 1979) are known to exist, and to date this group is known to
collection to less than 10 % . Some types will not sporulate at occur only in Japan. There are two subgroups of AG-6, HG-I
all in vitro. The practical approach to inducing sporulation and GV. They can be distinguished from one another based on
appears to be working with many isolates and as many methods differences in DNA homology (Kuninaga and Yokosawa,
as is necessary. 1984b), but not easily with anastomosis technique.
AG-BI - This group is called the "bridging isolate" group
TAXONOMIC REFERENCES - Useful taxonomic (Kuninaga et al, 1979) and is found in Japan. Its isolates are
presentations include those of Gunnell (1986), Ogoshi et al- capable of anastomosing to some degree with isolates of AG-2,
(1983), Oniki et al (1985), Parmeter and Whitney (1970), Sneh AG-3 AG-6 and AG-8. AG-BI is a soilborne thiamine
et al, (1991), and Talbot (1970). auxot;ophic g~oup whose pathogenicity is not well documented.
AG-7 - Another group not yet known to occur outside of
Japan, AG-7 (Homma et al, 1983) is a soilborne group that can
159
cause minor damage to some vegetable crops. The usual methods of surface-disinfestation with 70 % ethanol
AG-8 - AG-8 is a soilbome pathogen that induces bare for 30 sec-2 min, 0.5 % NaOCl for 1-2 min, or washing small
patch in cereals (Neate and Warcup, 1985). Growth-chamber seedlings or pieces of tissue in cool (10-20 C) running tap
studies indicate it can cause root rot in potatoes (Carling and water will suffice. Tissues are blotted dry on sterile filter
Leiner, 1990). It is known to occur in Australia, the Pacific paper or paper towels, incubated on water agar, and hyphal tips
Northwestern United States (Ogoshi et al, 1990), and the U.K. transferred to PDA or other media. If host tissue is badly
(Burton et al, 1988). deteriorated, tissues can be incubated on selective media to
AG-9 - AG-9 is found in Alaska and Oregon (Carling et eliminate overgrowth by other fungi. Selective media are
al, 1987). It is a weak soilbome pathogen that can attack described under isolation from soil. Teleomorphs of
potatoes and vegetables. Rhizoctonia (1hmuuephorus, Ceratobasidium, Waitea) can be
AG-10 - AG-10 (Ogoshi et al, 1990) is known to occur in collected from the field when and where they naturally occur
the Pacific Northwest in association with small grain crops. It on host plant and/or soil surfaces. Hymenia can be separated
is soilbome and, although thought to be principally saprophytic, from these surfaces or collected on thin layers of supporting
its pathogenicity is not well documented. soil or plant tissue. When working with teleomorphs in nature
Binucleate Rhizoctonia (Cerotobasidium sp.): Some 19 however, one must be cautious about presuming pathogenicity.
anastomosis groups of binucleate Rhizoctonia have been
reported by various Japanese authors (Ogoshi et al, 1979; FROM SOIL- The earliest methods developed to isolate
Ogoshi et al, 1983; Oniki et al, 1986a,b; Watanabe and and estimate inoculum density of R. solani in soil include the
Matsuda, 1966), including AG-A, -B, -Ba, -Bb, -C, -D, -E, - use of plant material as bail~ for saprophytic coloniz.ation
F, -G, -H, -I, -J, -K, -L, -M, -N, -0, -P, and -Q. Burpee et (Papaviz.as and Davey, 1959), direct microscopic detection on
al (1980a,b) described seven groups: CAG-1 ( = AG-D), particles of debris separated by wet-sieving (Boosalis and
CAG-2 ( = AG-A), CAG-3 ( = AG-E), CAG-4 ( = AG-F), Scharen, 1959), incubating plastic immersion tubes in soil
CAG-5, CAG-{i (= AG-E) and CAG-7. Although binucleate (Martinson, 1963; Mueller and Durrell, 1957), the plate profile
Rhizoctonia occur worldwide, distribution of the various groups method (Anderson and Huber, 1965), and isolation directly
is poorly documented. Many groups appear to be saprophytic from infected host tissue grown from surface-disinfested seeds
including -C, -H, -K, -L, -N and -0. Diseases caused by (Flentje and Saksena, 1957). Recently, a disk-plate method
pathogenic isolates include sharp eye spot of cereals, yellow (Herr, 1973) was developed using paper disks treated with
patch of turf as well as damping off and root rot in strawberry selective inhibitors. The disks were taped over holes in
(Fragaria x a11a11assa Duchesne), sugar beet, vegetables, and aluminum plates, and the dishes were inserted vertically into
many other hosts. soil.
Rhiwctonia orywe, R. zeae and other anamorphs of W. Plant materials that have been used as baits include
circinata: Oniki et al (1985) described two anastomosis groups buckwh~t (Fagopyrum esculcmum Moench) intemodal stem
of W. circinata, W AG-0 and W AG-Z, that correspond to the sections (Papaviz.as and Davey, 1959), lima bean (Phaseolus
anamorphs of R. oryzae and R. zeae respectively. Although lime11Sis Macf), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), lupine
isolates of R. oryzae tended not to anastomose with isolates of (lupinus sp.) stems (Papaviz.as and Davey, 1962), autoclaved
R. zeae and vice-versa, isolates of W. circinata (the type beet (Bera vulgaris L.) seeds (Papavizas et al, 1975), bean
originally collected by Warcup and Talbot, 1962) would (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), cotton, buckwheat, wheat (Triricum
anastomose with both, though with a lower fusion frequency. aestivum L), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oat (Avena sativa
Carling and Leiner (unpublished) have had limited success L), carrot (Daucus carora L.), and potato tissues (Sneh et al,
grouping isolates of W. circifuua with anastomosis techniques. 1966) for R. solani, and cotton segments soaked in benomyl
Rhizoctonia zeae causes ear rot of com (Zea mays L.) and metalaxyl for R. zeae (Windham and Lucas, 1987). Baits
(Voorhees, 1934) and root rot of com (Sumner and Bell, used for R. solani are incubated for 2-4 days at 24-28 C in soil
1982), as well as foliar diseases of cereals and brown patch in watered to 50 % of its moisture holding capacity, removed from
turfgrass (Martin and Lucas, 1983). R. oryzae is the cause of soil, washed by wet sieving in running tap water, dried on
bordered sheath blight of rice (Gunnell, 1986), but has been sterile paper towels, and incubated on water agar containing 5
isolated from and may cause disease in many other crops, mg/L of ~ch: streptomycin sulfate, aureomycin hydrochloride,
especially grasses (Inagaki and Makino, 1974). It is associated and neomycin sulfate. Hyphal tips of Rhizoctonia are
with bare patch disease of cereals in the Pacific Northwest transferred to PDA and identified (Papavizas and Davey,
(Ogoshi et al, 1990). W. circiruua has been associated with 1959).
root rotting in various crops (Warcup and Talbot, 1962). Particles of plant debris can be removed from soil by wet-
Waitea spp. appear to be of worldwide distribution and screening on 60-mesh sieves (0.25-mm openings), and gently
generally is associated with warm weather crops and conditions rubbing the particles with the bulb of a rubber dropper under
(Gunnell, 1986). However, they are also isolated frequently flowing tap water. Particles are suspended in tap water,
from soil in Southcentral Alaska (Carling and Leiner, transferred to water agar, and sclerotia and hyphae are
unpublished) indicating that there are types adaptable to cool identified directly with a microscope (45x) (Boosalis and
soils. Ogoshi et al (1990) describe isolates of R. oryzae from Scharen, 1959). Rhizoctonia spp. can be isolated and identified
the Pacific Northwest that have a lower optimum temperature by drying debris particles on filter paper, and placing them on
than most other reported isolates of R. oryzae. water agar upon the surface of which four drops of
streptomycin sulfate (20 µg/ml) had been placed, then
ISOLATION transferring hyphal tips to PDA. Populations of R. solani in
"Dil can be determined by wet-screening a known weight of soil
FROM HOST TISSUE- No special techniques are through a 0.35-mm mesh sieve, removing organic particles and
required to isolate species of Rhizoctonia from host tissues. incubating on 1 % water agar, and transferring hyphal tips to
160
PDA for identification (Weinhold, 1977). cabinets at room temperatures for 12-18 mo.
A sieving and flotation tochnique with 2 % aqueous A serious problem in maintaining cultures of R. solani that
solution of hydrogen peroxide has been used to isolate sclerotia most pathologists encounter is mites. Mites are attracted to
and plant debris particles from soil (Ui et al, 1976), and few Rhizoctonia and reproduce very rapidly on cultures. They can
cultures of Rhizactonia remained in sieved and sedimented soil. be brought into the laboratory on plants or in soil samples high
Debris can rapidly be separated from soils with semiautomatic in organic matter collocted under host plants during the
elutriators simultaneously with certain nematode assays in growing season. Contaminated cultures should be removed
laboratories that have the equipment available. Results are from the laboratory and autoclaved as soon as they are
similar to wet-sieving by hand (Clark et al, 1978). More discovered. Test tubes can be sealed with vaseline and
Rhizactonia is found in sand and organic matter that remains on cigarette paper or parafilm to prevent mite entry, or sterile
sieves than in silts and clays that pass through sieves mineral oil can be poured over the cultures to kill mites and the
(Papavi:ras, 1968). Thus, it is of primary importance to cultures transferred after a few wk (Buell and Weston, 1947).
concentrate on the organic fraction in soil when attempting to
isolate spocies of Rhizoctonia. The soil-debris-isolation method ISOLATE STORAGE- Long-term storage of cultures
was superior to the beet seed coloniz.ation method in soils with without loss of viability is frequently difficult, but several
high inoculum densities of R. solani (Roberts and Herr, 1979). methods are available. Cultures of R. solani can be stored in
The debris-particle method, immersion-tube method, test tubes under sterile mineral oil up to 5 yr (Schneider, 1957,
saprophytic-bait--coloniz.ation method and infocted host methods Sinclair, 1970), but not for 7 yr, and mites will not survive
each have their advantages and disadvantages. The infocted under oil. Another method of long-term storage was developed
host method is best for determining the presence of isolates that rocently by Butler (1980). He found that cultures on PDA
are pathogenic to the host being studied (Davey and Papavi:ras, could not be stored frozen at -20 C and maintain viability after
1962). 16 mo. However, when cultures were grown on 4% wheat
Populations of Rhizactonia can be isolated and quantified bran-soil (w/w) in test tubes, cultures survived dry for 2 yr at
diroctly from soil pellets with single or multiple-pellet soil 23-27 C. If cultures were grown approximately 1 mo at 23-27
samplers (Henis et al, 1978), an amalgam pistol (van Bruggen C until dry, and then stored at -25 C, most cultures survived
and Arneson, 1986), cork borers (Gangopadhyay and Grover, 55 mo. Cultures maintained virulence, morphology, and
1985) or from clumps of soil transferred with a spatula (Ko cultural characteristics after being removed from the freezer.
and Hora, 1971) by using media seloctive for Rhizactonia. Contaminated cultures will not survive freezing, and mites
Quantification diroctly from soil is thought by some to more (perhaps in the egg stage) will survive more than 2 yr at -25 C
accurately refloct actual populations, as the influence of baits or if cultures become infested before being placed in the freezer
sieving processes are not involved. Concentrated dilutions of (Sumner, unpublished).
soil in 0.25 % water agar can be placed in wells in dishes of Many isolates can be kept 10 or more yr on grain.
seloctive media with wide-mouthed pipettes (Ploetz et al, 1985). Whole grain oats or barley (approximately 2 ml of water/g of
The most widely used seloctive media developed for dry grain) are autoclaved in large flasks, storage jars, or trays
Rhizactonia is Ko and Rora's medium (Ko and Hora, 1971), for 1 hr on each of 2 successive days, and inoculated with agar
or modifications of Ko and Rora's medium (Appendix A) plugs of actively growing cultures. After growing 2-3 wk, the
(Castro et al, 1988; Gangopadhyay and Grover, 1985; Kataria grain can be air-dried and stored whole, or ground in a mill
and Gisi, 1989). Other media that are used include the tannic to pass through a 2-mm screen, and stored dry in paper bags
acid medium (Ferris and Mitchell, 1976; Flowers, 1976), gallic or covered containers at room temperature. Cultures were
acid and gallic acid plus benomyl medium (Ferris and Mitchell, stored on dried sorghum grain at 4 C for 9 yr with no apparent
1976), tannic acid plus benomyl medium (Sumner and Bell, loss of virulence (Ruppel et al, 1979). Rhizactonia can survive
1982), and ethanol-potassium nitrate medium (frujillo et al, up to 5-6 yr in liquid nitrogen (Dahman et al, 1983), and the
1987) (Appendix A). The choice of media varies with the soil American Type Culture Colloction keeps their Rhizactonia
type, spocies of Rhizoctonia to be researched, and individual isolates in cryogenic storage with liquid nitrogen (Hwang,
preference. 1966).
ISOLATE MAINTENANCE AND STORAGE INOCUUThf PRODUCTION AND PATHOGENICITY

DETERl\UNATIONS
ISOLATE MAINTENANCE- Isolates can be maintained
in the laboratory at room temperatures (20-30 C) 6-12 mo in INOCULUM PRODUCTION- Cultures of R. solani and
test tubes of PDA (Sinclair, 1970; Sumner, unpublished), other species of Rhizoctonia can be grown on numerous plant
potato dextrose yeast agar (PDY A), in petri dishes of PDA materials and used as inoculum. For large volumes of
allowed to dehydrate at room temperature (Carling and Leiner, inoculum, wooden flats can be lined with paper and half filled
unpublished), natural plant materials, or on 4 % wheat bran soil with a 2: 1 mixture of oats and wheat, or barley and wheat, or
(w/w) (Butler, 1980). Cultures should not be stored in a a 2: 1:2 mixture of oats, wheat and vermiculite (Schroeder et al,
refrigerator, as some isolates of Rhizactonia lose viability in 2-3 1953). The medium is soaked for 24 hr in cold water or 2-3
mo at temperatures of 0-7 C (Butler, 1980; Sinclair, 1970). Jf hr in hot water. The trays are half filled, autoclaved for 1.5
cultures are transferred every 3-6 mo, then very little loss of hr on each of 2 successive days, cooled and inoculated. A
viability or pathogenicity is likely to occur (Sinclair, 1970). similar method can be used with moist barley grain in metal
Cultures can be grown on sterile 3 % cornmeal-sand (w/w), pans or erlenmeyer flasks. With barley grain in flasks, the
peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) hulls, and numerous plant grain was inoculated with AG-2 and incubated 2-3 week.
materials in flasks, allowed to· dry naturally, and stored in Longer incubation periods decreased virulence and
161
aggressiveness (Ruppel et al, 1979). Cultures of grain are cm above the seed piece results in infection of both root and
commonly dried, and sometimes ground with a mill, and stored sprout tissue by virulent isolates of R. solani (Carling and
in paper bags or closed containers until used. Virulence and Leiner, unpublished).
inoculum potential of inoculum produced by this method may For crown and stem diseases, inoculum may be scattered
decline after a few week. over or around the base of plants and covered with a shallow
All R. solani and related fungi can be grown on a 2-4% layer of soil sometime after plants emerge, or incorporated into
cornmeal-washed, quartz sand (w/w) adjusted lo 18-20% soil around plants sometime after emergence. Agar plugs from
moisture (v/w) in wide-mouth glass jars (Papavizas and Davey, cultures may be placed directly against stems, crowns, and
1962; Papaviz.as and Lewis, 1986) or on 3% commeal-sand- other wounded or nonwounded plant parts (Sinclair, 1970). In
water (3:97: 15, w/w/w), in test tubes or 100 ml to 3-L flasks peanut, wounding lateral branches by pinching with pliers,
(Sumner, unpublished). The inoculum is incubated 2-3 wk placing a single infested ryegrass seed on the wound, and
before use and can be stored dry in flasks in laboratory wrapping with moistened cheesecloth and parafilm wa~ a
cabinets 6-12 mo with little loss of viability, but there is a loss useful technique in the greenhouse (Barnes, 1989).
of inoculum potential after 2-3 mo. Storage in laboratory In field studies, inoculum grown on whole grain or grain
cabinets for periods of time longer than 13 mo results in a mixed with infested soil can be mixed in and around plants or
rapid loss of viability (Sumner, unpublished). incorporated into soil before planting (Houston, 1945;
Rhizoctonia solani AG-4 and AG-2-2 were grown on LeClerg, 1941; Papavizas and Lewis, 1986). Cornmeal-sand
peanut pod-shell segments (1.5-x 1.5-cm) plus 0.5% sucrose, inoculum can be scattered over the row and incorporated with
peanut seed, and a I: I (w/w) mixture of peanut pod-shell a power-driven rototiller before planting (Sumner and Minton,
segments plus peanut seed. All were autoclaved in flasks with 1989), or placed in-furrow at planting. For broadcast
water (1:2 or 1:1 w/w) for 30 min on 2 successive days, and incorporation, disk-harrows, power-driven rototillers, plows,
inoculated. Cultures of R. solani AG-2-2 were virulent on chisels, or other equipment can be used. Granule applicators
com after 2 mo, and AG-2-2 was recovered from 33 % of the can be modified to place inoculum into the furrow, over the
pod-shell segments 10 wk after they were buried 3 or 10 cm row, or next to the plants so that large numbers of plots can be
deep in soil planted to com in pots in a greenhouse. After 1 infested (Ruppel et al, 1979). Inoculum rates may vary from
yr in flasks in a laboratory at 20-35 C, R. solani AG-2-2 was 14-56 kg/ha of grain (Papavizas and Lewis, 1986), or 140-1500
isolated from 98 % of the pod-shell segments and 80 % of the kg/ha of cornmeal-sand (Sumner and Minton, 1989).
peanut seeds (Sumner, unpublished). When doing pathogenicity studies with R. solani AG-4 for
If sclerotia are desired as inoculum, they can be produced disease resistance, only one isolate rather than a mixture of
on frozen cut bean pods (van Bruggen and Arneson, 1985), isolates should be used. Th.is is because the H-factor is a
peptone-sucrose-yeast extract broth containing 1-2 % peptone genetic mechanism that promotes outbreeding, and
and 2 % sucrose (McCoy and Kraft, 1984), or PDA made with heterokaryons with more than two unlike H-factors are
an extract of 200 g fresh potatoes at pH 5.8 overpoured with nonpathogenic (Anderson, 1982).
a blended 3-day-<>ld culture of R. solani on PDA (Manning et Disease severity can be determined in a number of ways.
al, 1970). Seeds can be counted at planting, and pre- and post-emergence
damping-off calculated. Plants can be dug 2-4 wk after
PATHOGENICITY DETERMINATIONS- Soil in pots, planting (longer with perennial crops) and roots, hypocotyls,
pans, or trays can be infested with cultures of R. solani and pegs, pods, tubers, stolons, and other plant parts rated for
other species of Rhizoctonia grown on autoclaved soil, disease severity, or lesions counted or measured. In field tests,
cornmeal sand, oats, or other small grains and other natural yields should be taken, as root-disease severity and root growth
materials described previously. Inoculum can be mixed with may not be related to yield (Carling et al, 1989; Sumner and
soil treated with aerated steam for 30 min at 60 C (Baker, Csinos, 1986).
1970), steam sterilized soil if an aerator is not available, or
moist soil heated to 60-70 C for 30 min in an oven. If there
is no source of steam, soil can be fumigated in a container with COMMENTS
methyl bromide, but the soil must be thoroughly aerated before
it is used for experiments. Some crops are sensitive to methyl Techniques in molecular biology have been used lo
bromide (Baker, 1970). By planning in advance, soil can be advance understanding of relationships among isolates of
stored several months in closed containers until inoculum levels Rhizoctonia. Kuninaga and Yokosawa (l982a,b, 1983,
of soilbome pathogens fall to very low levels, and further soil 1984a,b, 1985a,b) reported on DNA base sequence homology
treatment is unnecessary. within and between groups of R. solani. These studies verified
Inoculum can be mixed in soil at 0.01 to 4% (v/v) to the existence of genetic differences between the anastomosis
determine the influence of inoculum density on disease severity groups of R. solani, and also, reported homogeneity and
(Houston, 1945; Papaviz.as and Davey, 1959). Inoculum can heterogeneity within AGs, identifying subgroups within AG-4
be mixed into soil with fertilizer (and pesticides if desired, and AG-6. Vilgalys (1988) obtained similar results in
Sunmer and Csinos, 1986) in buckets or concrete mixers. DNA/DNA hybridization studies and confirmed the existence
Infested soil is placed to seeding depth in containers, the host of subgroups within AG-4.
seed planted, the seed covered with infested soil, containers A more recent study of ribosomal DNA restriction
placed into growth rooms or greenhouses, and water added to fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in R. solani (Vilgalys
bring the soil to the moisture holding capacity (approximately and Gonzales, 1990) also. indicates a pattern of variation that is
3.0 kPa). If transplants or vegetatively propagated materials consistent with the current system of intra.specific grouping in
are used, containers are filled, the host transplanted, and water R. solani based upon anastomosis. Also, the relationship
added. With potatoes, placement of a layer of inoculum 1-2 within and among AGs of R. sol.,.,,ni is more clearly revealed.
162
For example, the existence of tmique RFLPs in isolates of Moscow. 68 pp.
AG-BI indicates the correctness of its independent group Castro, C., Davis, J.R., and Wiese, M.V. 1988. Quantitative
identity in spite of bridging capabilities. Future work with estimation of Rhizoctonia so/ani AG-3 in soil. Phytopathology
molecular techniques undoubtedly will provide much more 78:1287-1292.
Clark, C.A., Sasser, J.N., and Barker, K.R. 1978. Elutriation
useful information for the plant pathologist.
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Dahmen, H., Staub, Th., and Schwinn, F.J. 1983. Technique for
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163
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Neate, S.M., and Warcup, J.H. 1985. Anastomosis grouping of some Characteriz.ation of isolates of Rhi;octonia solani from cereal
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Rhizoctonia so/ani and related fungi. Mycologia 65:941-944. light and electron microscopy. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jpn.
Tu, C.C., Roberts, D.A., and Kimbrough, J.W. 1969. Hyphal fusion, 27:399-413.
nuclear conditions and perfect stages of three species of Yokoyama, K., Ogoshi, A., and Ui, T. 1983. Studies on hyphal
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Ui, T., Nailci, T., and Akimoto, M. 1976. A sieve-flotation technique fusion v.~th light microscopy. Trans. l\1ycol. Soc. Jpn
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Soc. Jpn. 42:46-48. anastomosis of Rhizoctonia so/ani. IL The ultrastructural changes
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165
.
/•(:/S<,7Jtd ihp;rfc; sl I
Dr. JULIE M. NICOL

c/o CIMMYT, Int.
Col. Juarez
06600 Mexico, D .F
Soilborne
Phytopathogenic
Fungi
Edited by
Larry L. Singleton
Stillwater
Jeanne D. Mihail
Columbia
Charles M. Rush
Bushland
APS PRESS
St. Paul, Minnesota




retrieval system, computer, database, or software, or by

official duties.

Methods for Measurement of Crop Losses
Caused by Soilborne Fungal Pathogens
KB. Johnson
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology,

Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-2902
INTRODUCTION to consider when designing an experiment are: 1) effects of

disease on crop productivity; 2) the influence of inoculum
The initial objective of this chapter is to discuss important density on disease development; and 3) timing of infection and
biological considerations that lead to variation in the impact of disease development with respect to yield development.
soilbome root pathogens on crop yield. The second part will
describe experimental techniques used to assess the effects of AFFECTS OF SOILBORNE PATHOGENS ON CROP
these pathogens on yields. The chapter will conclude with a PRODUCTIVITY- Design of a crop loss experiment should
discussion of objective-specific approaches used to model, begin with development of a hypothesis or expectation for how
summarize, and predict yield losses caused by soilbome fungal disease impacts yield. Crop-yield losses may correspond one
pathogens. to one with incremental percentage increases in disease or the
The methodology described is most appropriate for fungi response may be nonlinear. The distinction is important
that cause "monocyclic" disease (Zadoks and Schein, 1979) in because it influences the range and number of disease
annual field and vegetable crops. With diseases of this type, treatments desired. Insight into how a pathogen impacts yield
infections in the current crop result from inoculum produced in can be gained by considering how the disease affects individual
a previous crop(s), and the new infectious propagules produced components of crop productivity. A simple method is to
in the current crop are the primary inoculum for the next consider how disease influences solar radiation interception
planting. The common practice of repeatedly growing the (i.e., capture of sunlight) and efficiency of radiation use
same crop or cultivar within a field often is the reason these (Johnson, 1987; Waggoner and Berger, 1987). Diseases that
diseases increase to economically damaging levels. reduce stand or cause premature loss of leaves reduce radiation
interception. Those that limit the photosynthetic rate or turgor
REASONS FOR STUDY OF CROP LOSSES- The in green tissue, either directly (wilts) or indirectly (root rots),
methods and approaches described herein must be adapted affect radiation use efficiency.
within the context of any specific study. Objectives of crop- The relationship between yield and radiation interception
loss experiments include: 1) development of decision aids to is linear (Monteith, 1977), but the relationship between
determine the need for control actions (e.g., fumigation or radiation interception and leaf-area index (unit area of leaves
rotation); 2) evaluation of alternative within-season management per unit area) is nonlinear (Fig. l). Radiation interception
practices (e.g., timing of planting, frequency of irrigation, increases with crop growth, but the rate of increase of radiation
fertility, etc.); 3) determination of disease susceptibility and interception diminishes with increasing leaf-area index. For
yield response of different cultivars; 4) development of an many crops, leaf-area index will at some time of the season
understanding of disease progression and factors that may exceed the point on the radiation interception/leaf-area index
interact with primary fungal pathogens (e.g., nematodes); and curve where the addition of more leaves does not significantly
5) development of mathematical yield loss prediction tools. add to the capture of more of sunlight. Consequently, the
relationship between diseases that reduce foliar interception of
CROP-LOSS REFERENCES- Gomez and Gomez (1984) sunlight and crop yield also is nonlinear. For example, 10 %
have developed an excellent statistical reference to guide design loss of a stand of soybeans (Gycine max [L.] Merr.) in a
and analysis of agricultural experiments. Further discussion of random pattern to a damping off is not likely to impact yield
crop-loss methodology can be found in Chiarappa (1971, because the plants that remain are able to intercept nearly the
1981), James and Teng (1979), and Teng and Shane {1984). same amount of radiation after only a short delay. If,
however, the severity of damping off increases or the
distribution becomes increasingly nonrandom (Ferrandino,
BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS THAT AFFECT 1989), the incremental rate of yield loss owing to disease will
EXPERIMENT AL DESIGN mcrease.
For diseases that affect radiation-use efficiency, linear
Experimental design, including the choice of variables to proportionality is a more likely expectation for the relationship
measure, the range of treatments, and the timing and frequency between severity of disease and suppression of yield. An
of data collection, is influenced by the biology and physiology example is development of root rot near midseason. Root r?ts
of a particular disease and crop. Principal biological factors may limit nutrient uptake, internal water potential,
236
photosynthesis, and increase respiration. The diseased plant rapidly the plants die once diseased. Early and sustained
may still capture its share of sunlight but energy conversion in disease development will have a greater impact on yield;
remaining green leaf tissues is poor compared to healthy conversely, late infection may have little or no effect because
neighbors. The consequence is that at low disease intensities, much of the harvestable portion of the plant has been produce.d.
a plant disease that primarily impacts radiation-use efficiency The rate at which plants become infected also varies. When
will have a greater impact on yield than a similar amount of a the rate of infection of new individuals is low, the effect of
disease that primarily affects radiation interception (Johnson, disease on yield may depend on whether or not the disease has
1987). a greater effect on radiation interception or radiation use
efficiency. Environmental conditions can interact with a
z pathogen and effect how quickly a diseased plant declines
0 1.0-.------------------~
l- towards complete senescence. Such conditions usually are not
o.. predictable early in the season. Consequently, if early-season
w
• •
g
w
0.8 • • measurements like initial inoculum density or time of epidemic
1-- onset (i.e., first infection) are chosen as variables on which to
z base a predictive yield-loss equation, the more removed the
z 0.6 variable is in time from when yield is measured, the greater the
0
1--
chance for environmental conditions to introduce variability into
<( the expected yield-loss response.
0 0.4
<(
Understanding factors that lead to variation in time of
a: infection and disease development also can guide the choice of
..J variables on which to base treatment comparisons and
~~ 0.2 RI 0.9 • (1 - exp( -0.667 • LAI)
correlative yield-loss equations. Several variables should be
I--
considered: epidemic onset time, rate of plant infection, and
a: 0.0 -t----,-----,..-----.----..-----..----1 integral measurements of disease progress and its effect on crop
0
~ 0 2 4 6 condition. The rate of plant infection is most highly correlated
a: with yield loss when disease onset time is relatively constant.
a. LEAF AREA INDEX The integral of the disease progress curve, commonly called the
area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), is often
Fig. l. The relationship between leaf are.a index and negatively correlated with yield. Compared to the infection
proportion of solar radiation intercepted in a potato crop. rate, AUDPC is desirable because it can account for variation
Data are from Allen and Scott (1980). The line and in both time of disease onset and disease intensity (feng and
equation were fitted by the author. Johnson, 1988). The inverse of AUDPC, the integral of green
leaf-area duration has been correlated with crop productivity
INOCULUM DENSITY- Knowledge of the relationship (Waggoner and Berger, 1987).
between inoculum density of a soilborne fungal pathogen and
the disease it causes is essential to studies of disease effects on
yield, particularly if a measurement of inoculurn density will be EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
used to describe or predict yield-loss potential. More often
than not, the relationship between inoculum density and disease ESTABLISHMENT OF DISEASE- The most important
is a nonlinear saturation curve similar in shape to the curve in and difficult aspect of crop-loss experimentation is development
Figure 1. At low to moderate inoculum densities, an increase of a set of treatments that will create a reproducible and
Iii the number of infectious propagules results in a proportional realistic range of disease epidemics. The variation between
!Sicrease in disease. But, as the inoculum concentration in the these epidemics will provide the base on which to develop a
soil increases, the rate of increase in disease diminishes, crop-loss model or perhaps to attach statistical significance to
possibly to the point where the continued addition of more a factor that may interact with disease. Many of the methods
inoculum fails to increase disease. In this extreme case, used to ere.ate epidemics were first developed with foliar
probably every plant eventually becomes diseased, and the crop diseases. They include: use of fungicides to prevent, delay,
may or may not produce an economic yield. If a harvestable or stop epidemics; use of inoculum in different concentrations
yield is still produced, a maximum yield-loss value (something and at variable application times, and use cultivars that are
less that 100%) for a particular disease has been established. genetically similar but differ in disease resistance (James and
TIUs information is useful because it can prevent erroneous Teng, 1979). Soilbome disease epidemics, by nature of their
crop-loss predictions. For example, a situation where the subterranean habit and limited number of within-season disease
inoculum density/yield-loss relationship was linearly cycles, do not offer as many opportunities for experimental
extrapolated beyond the range of data from which it was control of epidemic development. Establishment of a range of
developed. preplant inoculum densities is the most common method used
to achieve treatment differences in crop-loss experiments.
TIMING OF INFECTION- The timing of infection and Some of the newer fungicides such as metalaxyl, which is
disease development is the third important consideration that effective against Oomycetes, may have potential for use in
aids development of hypotheses for how soilbome fungal crop-loss experimentation,(Sandler et al, 1989). For the most
disease affects yield. Healthy crops begin development with an part, however, fungicides are not widely used as tools for
expectation to fulfill a potential yield. Disease limits this modifying soilbome disease epidemics. If available, genetically
potential. The level of suppression depends on how quickly the similar crop cultivars that differ only in disease resistance are
majority of the crop population becomes infected, and how a good choice as a type of experimental treatment [e.g.,
237
cultivars resistant to Phytophthora root rot of soybean caused Most often, one of two statistical methods is used to summarize
by Phytoph!hora megaspenna Drechs. f. sp. glycinea Kuan & results: regression or analysis of variance (ANOV A) (Madden,
Erwin. (Moots et al, 1988)]. 1983). Both methods involve creation of models that test for
Establishment of a set of plots that represent a range of linear trends in sets of data. Regression models are develope,d
initial inoculum concentrations is done in one of three ways: I) to predict quantitative differences in a dependent variable based
by inoculation of soil with fungal propagules obtained from on the measured value of a quantitative independent variable.
another source, 2) by fumigation of areas within an infested For example, a regression model can be constructed to test the
field, and 3) by establishment of experiments in several to hypothesis that yield loss is a correlative function of AUDPC.
many fields that represent a range of inoculum levels. This function would take the form:
Combinations of all three methods are common. Each method
has advantages and disadvantages, which depend on the YL = ~ + .!2 · AUDPC
particular crop, pathogen, and resources available to complete
the study. The expense of treatment establishment is a where !! is the intercept of line on the Y axis and .!:>. the
consideration with each approach. linear regression coefficient, is the slope of the line or the
Scientifically, infestation of soil is the best approach for incremental change in yield loss (YL) for each unit increase in
reasons of reproducibility and precision. Infestation of soil is AUDPC. A statistically significant model can be used to
done with fungal propagules cultured in a laboratory or by predict loss of yield from several measurements of disease.
collection and transport of propagules associated with infested Analysis of variance models are developed to evaluate and
crop debris from a diseased site. Both laboratory-grown separate the effects of two or more independent treatments on
inoculum and infectious propagules associated with crop debris a dependent, response variable. A crop-loss experiment where
corrunonly are ground into relatively fine pieces before an ANOV A model is appropriate is the hypothesis that the
incorporation into the soil. Infection efficiency of inoculum method of irrigation (furrow or overhead) interacts wit~
may vary by source. inoculum density to significantly enhance disease and loss of
The multiple-site and fumigation approaches most often are yield. Compared to regression approaches, ANOVA places
used within grower's fields. Such sites offer realistic cultural greater emphasis on understanding a response as opposed to
conditions but require careful coordination of experimental prediction of a response, and on qualitative separation of
activities with normal management operations. Use of several independe11i factors as opposed to description of the effect of an
fields or sites within a field that represent a range of inoculum independent variable along a quantitative continuum.
densities has a shortcoming in that researchers rarely if ever With regard to replication, studies designed for regression
choose these sites randomly. Sites chosen systematically based analysis should maximize the number of treatments and limit
on past disease history or years in production can have excess replication of identical treatments. Replication need not
unidentified biases associated with them that confound be uniform across all identically treated experimental units, but
experimental results (e.g. subtle differences in soil type, those treatments that are most highly replicated should be
management practice, etc.). Experiment stations sometime<; nearer the extremes of a relatively wide range of disease or
have replicated, long-term rotation studies that potentially could inoculum treatments. Typically, number of replications ranges
provide a range of natural disease infestations (Sumner et al, from 2-5. In comparison, experiments designed for ANOV A
1985). may need to restrict the number of treatments so as not to
Crop-loss experiments in which fumigants are used require jeopardize the number of identically treated experimental units.
special consideration. Larger plot sizes are required because The number of replications in crop loss experiment designe,d to
normal tillage operations remix some of the fumigated and understand qualitative responses ranges from 4-10, depending
nonfumigated soil along the edge of the fumigated wne. on the expected variability of the responses to be measured.
Fumigation treatments also raise questions on effects of the Most often, treatments are arranged within randomized blocks
chemicals on other biotic components of soil. Fumigated and where every treatment has an equal number of replications
nonfumigated plots may differ in nutrient levels, mycorrhizal (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).
development, soil compaction, as well as in the amount of
nondecomposed organic matter. A good choice of THE CHOICE AND FREQUENCY OF DISEASE
experimental design is the split block (Gomez and Gomez, MEASUREMENTS- Measurement of disease or pathogen
1984) because the large whole-plots are established for the intensity is a fundamental aspect of any study with the objective
fumigation treatments and subplots are then divided into of understanding or prediction of disease effects on yield. The
cultivar treatments, or additional inoculations, etc. Inclusion of choice of variables to measure as well as the frequency of
a completely resistant cultivar (or another plant species) in an measurement must be considered carefully before an
experiment that involves fumigants allows for evaluation of experiment begins. Often, researchers belatedly wish they had
potential side effects of the chemical that are unrelated to taken the time to measure additional variables or to record
disease. disease ratings more frequently after an experiment has been
completed.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND THE NEED FOR The nature of a disease and the specific purpose for an
REPLICATION- In the field, responses measured on experiment dictate the variables to be measured. Foliar crop-
identically treated experimental field plots are variable, and loss models use disease symptoms (e.g., leaf spots) as
randomized replication of experimental units is required in predictors of yield losses (Teng and Shane, 1984) .., Similarly,
order to attach statistical significance to the results obtained for soilbome disease, below-ground disease-sympt0m ratings
(Gomez and Gomez, 1984). The amount of replication needed can be useful yield-loss predictors. An example would be a
in an experiment designed to measure crop productivity losses root-rot severity scale that separates destructively sampled
depends on the statistical approach used to analyze the results. plants into separate percentage severity classes (Basu et al,
238
1976). Destructive sampling, however, is not always feasible etc.) are determined with crop growth-stage keys (James and
in crop-loss studies because at least some of the plants must Teng, 1979). One to several such keys are published for major
remain in the ground for the entire season to develop yield. In crops, but minor crops may require a researcher to make their
addition, it may be more important to choose measurements own key. Another approach to measure stage of host
that can be recorded on the same experimental unit on several development is to use thermal unit accumulators (i.e., "degree-
occasions. These measurements can be as simple as a day" models) (Pruess, 1983). Degree-days are accumulated by
determination of disease incidence, which is defined as the taking the difference between mean daily temperature and a
proportion of plants within a crop (or treatment) that are predefined base temperature, and then adding this difference to
diseased, or they may be sequential ratings of disease severity, the summed total from the previous day. The base temperature
which might include assessments of defoliation, chlorosis, is set at the point below which a crop would not be expected
stunting, etc. Other variables measure the productive capacity to grow. The sum total at the beginning of the first day (crop
of a crop. Examples, many already alluded to, are radiation emergence) is zero. For example, a potato (Solanum
interception, green leaf-area duration, leaf-area index, tuberosum L.) crop may require 1000 degree-days to develop
photosynthesis, number of leaves per unit area, and plant dry from emergence to maturity. If the base temperature is l 0 C,
weight. Special equipment is required to measure some of 100 days would be required for the crop to mature in an area
these variables including a sunfleck ceptometer for radiation with a mean temperature of 20 C but only 80 days would be
interception (a long, bar shaped light sensor), an area meter for required if the mean temperature was 22.5 C. The degree-day
leaf area index, gas exchange analyzer for photosynthesis and model approach is most useful in crops where distinct
large drying ovens set at 60-70 C for crop biomass developmental events are not sharply delineated and instead, a
determinations. crop exhibits a long period of vegetative growth (e.g., potatoes,
Similarly, the frequency of measurement is determined by sugar beets (Beta vulgaris L.), forages).
the biology of the disease and objectives of the experiment. Yield usually is measured once at the end of the season,
Variables that measure effects of disease (e.g., AUDPC, but additional information is gained if components of a plant
radiation interception, green leaf-area duration) may require that contribute to yield such as tiller, tuber, or grain number
weekly or biweekly observation throughout the season. In are measured on more than one occasion within the season.
contrast, initial inoculum density is determined once. Similarly, sequential measurements of grain or tuber weight
Sequential observations should attempt to include "key points" during the season can add understanding as to when the effecl~
in the epidemic that describe disease dynamics and certify that of disease begin to impact the yield development process
the data accurately reflect differences obtained between (Johnson, 1988).
treatments. ·Such points include the epidemic onset when there Yield variability between identically treated plots is an
is little difference between diseased and healthy treatments, the important problem that greatly affects the statistical significance
point(s) in time when the difference between the various of results. This problem is controlled by choosing uniform
treatments is (are) maximal, and a final assessment just before experimental sites, establishing uniform crop stands free of
harvest. weed competition, using appropriate machinery, and by
The next step is a plot-sampling scheme. Resources (time modifying plot size. Plot-size considerations are discussed
and personnel) available for sampling must be used efficiently. below.
Commonly, plot-sampling schemes require a tradeoff to be
made between the precision and detail of measurements and THE PARADOX OF PLOT SIZE- Field studies with
resources available for data collection. The factors that soilbome disease causing organisms sometimes are conducted
influence this tradeoff include plant to plant variability of within "microplots". Typical microplots are small in size
disease symptoms, the size and location of the area to be (0.25-2.00 m in diam), and bo.-dered with walls (plastic,
measured, the number of replications in the experiments, and fiberglass, or clay tile) that extend above the soil surface from
the objective of the study. A concept termed "relative net 5-15 cm and below the surface from 25-50 cm.
precision" can guide development of a sampling scheme. For The principal advantage of microplots is that they offer
plots of equal size, relative net precision is defined as the very precise experimental control of inoculum density.
inverse product of the cost (time and labor) required to sample Nematologists have used microplots extensively because
a plot and the variance of the disease measurement within plots nematodes can be difficult to rear in large quantities and the
that have received identical treatments (Cochran, 1977). within treatment and within plot variation of nematode density
Values for both variables are determined from prior experience is difficult to control in larger scale field plots. Microplots
or preliminary experiments. Cost of sampling can be lowered have been used in some field studies with soilbome fungal
by limiting the proportion (area) of a plot that is actually diseases (Rowe et al, 1985, Starr et al, 1989). In yield-loss
measured. Restricting the size of the sampling unit, however, studies with soilbome fungi, the relative ease of inoculum
may increase the variability of the measurement(s). Thus, the production and incorporation into field soil may outweigh the
goal of a good sampling scheme is to choose a sampling unit disadvantages of microplots.
that optimizes relative net precision. Often, making multiple The disadvantages of microplots are threefold. First, a
within-plot measurements on several small, randomly selected major concern is that microplots create representational errors
sampling units (e.g., single plants) results in a scheme with owing to their small size and the artificial borders. For
high relative net precision. Additional techniques that incr~ example, root development may be altered or restricted, and ·
relative net precision can be found in statistical literature (e.g., plant growth and canopy structure is often unrealistic. Second,
Cochran, 1977; Gomez and Gomez, 1984). microplots, owing to their small size, limit the amount of
Disease measurements must be recorded with the date, and sequential destructive sampling that can be done. The third
an assessment of the developmental or phenological stage of major disadvantage is that within identically treated plots,
crop growth. Developmental stdges (tillering, head emergence, measurements of yield become increasingly variable as plot size
239
decreases. Ideally, field experiments should be designed to approach is greatest when there is a quantitative relationship
limit within treatment variation for both inoculum density and between inoculum density and amount of disease, a limited
for yield. However, optimally designing an experiment for number of disease cycles within a season, and limited dispersal
both of these considerations is a paradoxical problem (Figure capability in the pathogen. The predictive equation is the result
2). Once again, objectives of an experiment may determine of yield loss/inoculum density experiments designed to be
whether large plots or microplots are appropriate. Experiments analyzed by regression. Extrapolation of a field plot-developed
designed with several independent factors that require precise predictive e.quation to disease management in a grower's field
control (e.g., inoculum density, secondary pathogen density, requires a sampling method that accurately estimates fungal
irrigation frequency, etc.) may be better suited to microplot populations (resting spores, sclerotia, propagative units, etc.)
designs. Such experiments typically are highly replicated, and over large areas, and preliminary comparisons of actual yield-
the yield data are subjected to ANOV A. Conversely, loss responses to those predicted. The latter may require multi-
experiments designed to develop precise predictive e.quations site experiments that involve fumigation. Regression-based
based on one or two independent variables are best approached predictive e.quations commonly are specific to the region (or
with a larger plot size. Large plots allow for the development soil type) where they were developed. This specificity results
of a realistic crop canopy and usually, within well managed from regional- or soil-specific effects of environment and
plots on uniform sites, the variation in yield from identically cultural conditions on inoculum enumeration techniques, and of
treated plots is small. Increasing the plot size may exacerbate infection and disease development processes (Nnodu and
the problem of maintaining uniformity in the inoculum and Harrison, 1979).
disease treatments, but plot to plot variation in disease or Another approach to the same objective is to use a
inoculum density is not as detrimental to the development of statistical technique termed "discriminant analysis" (Francl et
statistically significant regression models as compared to al, 1987). This technique places fields into yield loss risk
ANOV A models. categories based on the preplant inoculum density of a
pathogen(s). The risk categories outline appropriate
management actions such as the recommendation that high risk
fields be fumigated or placed in rotation, while intermediate
z risk fields may require modified cultural practices. Similar to
z 0 the regression approach, development of a discriminant function
I- re.quires an extensive database of yield loss and pathogen-
J: INOCULUM
I- ~
inoculum-density measurements from replicated plots and/or
~
a:
>
<t
DENSITY
,,, multiple locations (Franc! et al, 1987).
w
> I-
z
'\,,'
,,
I- w ,.,,. PLANT POPULATION/YIELD-LOSS
<t
...I
w
::!:
I-
.,,..,,. RELATIONSHIPS- Some soilbome pathogens reduce crop
a: <t stand. As described earlier, the relationship between yield and
w
a: stand loss is likely to be nonlinear. One method to determine
I-
the yield-loss function is to simulate diseased-induced stand
losses by artificially removing a proportion of plants from
TRADITIONAL
MICROPLOT
FIELD PLOT
replicated plot areas (James et al, 1973). Pattern of plant
PLOT SIZE removal as well as time of removal should closely mimic the
actual disease.
Fig. 2. Effects of plot size on the relative within treatment Plant population/yield-loss relationships also can be
variation of yield (solid line) and disease or inoculum evaluated by planting different ratios of crop genotypes that
density (dashed line). differ in susceptibility into pathogen-infested field soil.
Different cultivars can be used but if available, use of isolines
(i.e., genetically similar plants that only differ in disease
APPROACHES TO SUMMARY, MODELING, AND susceptibility) is the preferred method (Moots et al, 1988).
PREDICTION OF CROP LOSSES
EPIDEMIC ONSET AS A YIELD LOSS PREDICTOR-
The purpose of this section is to provide examples of The time in the season when disease symptoms first appear can
objectives for generating crop-loss information and extending predict yield loss. Model development is done in plots that
this information to real world situations. Most of the vary in inoculum density or in time of inoculation.
approaches described allow for the development of a functional Measurement of epidemic onset should be based on crop-
relationship between yield loss and a quantitative measurement growth stage or stage of phenological development (Pullman
of disease. Linear (and sometimes nonlinear) regression and Devay, 1982). Tills approach produces a tool useful for
analysis is the most common technique employed for conducting extensive surveys of disease importance or to
development of these relationships (Gomez and Gomez, 1984; inform growers on how to best manage a crop for the
Teng and Shane, 1984). remainder of a season.
CROP LOSS PREDICCTONS BASED ON THE CORRELATION OF SYMPTOM RATINGS TO YIELD

AMOUNT OF INITTAL INOCULUM- The knowledge LOSS- Based on prevalence in the literature, symptom ratings
provided by a predictive equation based on a preplant soil are the most widely used measure to relate disease effects to
inoculum assay can be used to aid management decisions (e.g., yield. In general, this approach describes crop loss after it has
fumigation, cultivar selection, or rotation). Value of this occurred. The functional relationships between disease and
240
yield that result from this approach are useful as tools for SUMMARY
documenting yield loss in regional surveys or experiments, and The procedure for development of a study to describe the
possibly to rapidly and inexpensively evaluate cultivars and effects of soilbome pathogens on yield begins with a defined
management practices by eliminating the need to actually objective and an understanding of how the disease biology
harvest plots. In contrast to epidemic onset time, symptom impacts crop prcxluctivity. Most approaches to this problem
assessments must be made at the same crop growth or require field plots arranged in a replicated, statistically-sound
phenological stage(s) used in model development. Again, experimental design. The objective of the study and disease
symptom ratings may be based on arbitrary scales (Basu et al, biology guide the choice of variables to measure, the frequency
1976), incidence measurements (number of plants infected) of measurements, and the method or model used to summariz.e
(Pataky et al, 1983), or percentage severity ratings (Bockus and experimental results.
Sim, 1982). Sequential severity or incidence ratings can be
transformed to an integral variable such as area under the
disease progress curve (Johnson et al, 1987). LITERATURE CITED
CROP PRODUCTIVITY AS A FUNCTION OF Adams, S.S., and Rouse, D.I. 1986. The effect ofVerticillium wilt on
HEALTHY LEAF AREA- Population-level knowledge of how PAR absorbtion and yield loss of potatoes. (Abstr.)
disease affects crop productivity is gained by monitoring the Phytopathology 76: 1068.
status of the crop canopy in diseased and non-diseased Allen, E.J., and Scott, R.K. 1980. An analysis of growth of the potato
crop. J. Agric. Sci. (Carnb.) 94:583-606.
situations. Important factors addressed with this approach
Basu, P.K., Brown, N.J., Crete, R., Gourley, C.O., Johnston, H.W.,
include: phenological timing of yield reductions, functional Pepin, H.S., and Seaman, W.L. 1976. Yield loss conversion
relationship between intensity of disease and economic damage, factors for Fusarium root rot of pea. Can. Pl. Dis. Surv. 56:26-
and mechanistically, the interaction of environmental conditions 32.
with a pathogen to enhance disease and crop loss. As stated Bauer, M.E. 1985. Spectral inputs to crop identification and condition
previously, both variability in radiation interception and leaf- assessment. Proc. IEEE 73:1071-1085.
area index have been related to yield loss with regression Backus, W.W., and Sim, T. 1982. Quantifying Cephalosporium stripe
analysis techniques (Adams and Rouse, 1986; Waggoner and disease severity on winter wheat. Phytopathology 72:493-495.
Berger, 1987). Cochran, W.G. 1977. Sampling Techniques, 3rd. ed. John Wiley &
Another approach to estimating the productivity potential Sons, New York, 428 pp.
Chiarappa, L., ed. 1971. Crop Loss Assessment Methods. F.A.0.
of the crop canopy is to use remote sensing techniques (Bauer,
manual on the evaluation and prevention of losses by pests,
1985). These techniques measure the reflectance of specific diseases and weeds. Commonwealth Agriculture Bur., Farnham
wavelengths of radiation from the canopy surface. A healthy Royal (UK): loose leafed. 255pp.
crop canopy will have a specific radiation reflectance pattern Chiarappa, L., ed. 1981. Crop Loss Assessment Methods.
while a diseased, stressed, or defoliated crop canopy may have Supplement 3. F.A.0./Commonwealth Agriculture Bur.,
another. Powell et al (1976) used false-color infrared images Farnham Royal (UK): 123pp.
of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) fields collected in aerial Ferrandino, F.J. 1989. A distribution-free method for estimating the
surveys to make regional estimates of yield loss caused by effect of aggregated plant damage on crop yield. Phytopathology
Cylindrocladium black rot (C. crotalariae (Loos) Bell & 79:1229-1232.
Franc!, L.J., Madden, L.V .. Rowe, R.C.,and Riedel, R.M. 1987.
Sobers). This technique required researchers to verify their
Potato yield loss prediction and discrimination using preplant
disease diagnoses with ground surveys. Spectral reflectance population densities of Verticilliwn dahliae and Praiylenchus
instrumentation also has been adapted for use in small plots penetrans. Phytopathology 77:579-584.
(Nutter, 1989). In the small plot situation, spectral reflectance Gomez, K.A., and Gomez, A.A. 1984. Statistical Procedures for
measurement can add objectivity to the recording of non- Agricultural Research, 2nd ed. J. Wiley and Sons, New York,
distinct symptoms (e.g., internal water stress, systemic 680pp.
chlorosis, defoliation, etc.). Evaluation of breeding lines and Gutierrez, A.P., and DeVay, J.E. 1986. Studies of plant-pathogen-
management practices are examples of practical applications of weather interactions: Cotton and Verticillium wilt. Pages 205-
the technology to soilbome diseases. 231. in: Plant Disease Epidemiology, Vol. I, K.J. Leonard and
W.E. Fry, eds. Macmillan, New York.
James, W.C., Lawrence, C.H., and Shih, C.S. 1973. Yield losses due
INTEGRATION OF COMPLEX PRODUCTIVITY
to missing plants in potato crops. Am. Pot. J. 50:345-353.
PROBLEMS- Increasingly, crop-growth-simulation models are James, W.C., and Teng, P.S. 1979. The quantification of production
being used to understand and predict the potential effects of constraints associated with plant diseases. Pages 201-267. in:
soilbome disease on crop yield (Rouse, 1988). Crop models, Applied Biology, Vol. fV, Coaker, T.H. ed. Academic Press,
which are available for most major field crops (Whisler et al, London.
1986), offer the potential to better understand the links that Johnson, K.B. 1987. Defoliation, disease, and growth: A reply.
occur between plant growth and the direct and indirect effects Phytopathology 77: 1495-1497.
of environment on disease dynamics and yield development. Johnson, K.B., Teng, P.S., and Radcliffe, E.B. 1987. Analysis of
The field methods used to develop a data base for crop potato foliage losses caused by interacting infestations of early
blight, Verticillium wilt, and potato leafhopper; and the
simulation are similar to those discussed herein. However,
relationship to yield. Z. PflKrankh. PflSchutz 94:22-33.
they may require additional periodic measurements of important Johnson, K.B. 1988. Modeling the influences of plant infection rate
growth variables such as dry matter accumulation in specific and air temperature on potato foliage and yield losses caused by
plant tissues (Johnson, 1988; Gutierrez and DeVay, 1986), and Verticillium dahliae. Phytopathology 78:1198-1205.
measurement of the rates of photosynthesis and transpiration in Madden, L.V. 1983. Measuring and modeling crop losses at the field
diseased and healthy crops (Rouse, 1988). level. Phytopathology 73: 1591-1596.
Monteith, J.L. 1977. Climate and the efficiency of crop production in
241
Britain. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London 281 :277-294. Sandler, H.A., Timmer, L.W., Graham, J.H., and Zitko, S.E. 1989.
Moots, C.K., Nickell, C.D., and Gray, L.E. 1988. Effects of soybean Effect of fungicide applications on populations of Phytopluhora
stand reduction and Phytophthora root rot on yield. Plant Dis. parasitica and on feeder root densities and fruit yield of citrus
72:900-904. trees. Plant Dis. 73:902-906.
Nnodu, E.C., and Harrison, M.D. 1979. The relationship between Starr, J.M., Jeger, M.J., Martyn, R.D., and Schilling, K. 1989.
Verticilliwn albo-atrwn inoculum density and potato yield. Am. Effects of Meloidogyne incognito and Fusarium oxysporwn f. sp.
Pot. J. 56:11-25. vasinfectum on plant mortality and yield of cotton.
Nutter, F.W. 1989. Detection and measurement of plant disease Phytopathology 79:640-646.
gradients in peanut with a multispectral radiometer. Sumner, D.R., Dowler, C.C., Johnson, A.W., Chalfant, R.B., Glaze,
Phytopathology 79:958-963. N.C., Phatak, S.C., and Epperson, J.E. 1985. Effect of root
Pataky, J.K., Beute, M.K., Wynne, J.C., and Carlson, G.A. 1983. diseases and nematodes on yield of com in an irrigated multiple-
A critical-point yield loss model for Cylindrocladium black rot of crop system with pest management. Plant Dis. 69:382-387.
peanut. Phytopathology 73:1559-1563. Teng, P.S., and Johnson, K.B. 1988. Analysis of epidemiological
Powell, N.L., Garren, K.H., Griffen, G.J., and Porter, D.M. 1976. components in yield loss assessment. Pages 179-189. in:
Estimating Cylindrocladium black rot disease losses in peanut Experimental Techniques in Plant Disease Epidemiology, Kranz,
fields from aerial infrared imagery. Plant Dis. Rep. 60:1003- J., and Rotem, J., eds. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
1007. Teng, P.S., and Shane, W.W. 1984. Crop losses caused by plant
Pruess, K.P. 1983. Degree-day methods for pest management. pathogens. CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2:21-47.
Environ. Entomol. 12:943-948. Waggoner, P.E., and Berger, R.D. 1987. Defoliation, disease, and
Pullman, G.S., and Devay, J.E. 1982. Epidemiology of Verticillium growth. Phytopathology 77:393-398.
of cotton: Effects of disease development on lint yield. Whisler, F.D., Acock, B., Baker, D.N., Fye, R.E., Hodges, H.F.,
Phytopathology 72:554-559. Lambert, J.R., Lemmon, H.E., Mckinion, J.M., and Reddy,
Rouse, D.I. 1988. Use of crop-growth models to predict the effects of V.R. 1986. Crop simulation models in agronomic systems. •
disease. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 26:183-201. Advances Agron. 40:141-208. ,
Rowe, R.C., Riedel, R.M., and Martin, M.J. 1985. Synergistic Zadoks, J.C., and Schein, R.D. 1979. Epidemiology and Plant
interactions between Verticilliwn dahliae and Pratylenchus Disease Management. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 427 pp.
penetrans in potato early dying disease. Phytopathology 75:412-
418.
242
CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PLANT PATIIOLOGY 14: 76-85, 1992
Wheat root health management and environmental concern
R. James Cook
USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Root Disease and Biological Control Research Unit, 367 Johnson Hall, WSU, Pullman,
Washington 99164-6430.
Accepted for publication 199112 19
This paper was presented at a symposium on root health management and environmental concern held during the annual meeting of the
Canadian Phytopathological Society, Banff, Alberta, June 24-26, 1991. --
Probably no single factor would do more for nitrogen-use efficiency, while also increasing crop yields, than a root system suffi-
ciently healthy to take full advantage of applied nitrogen. This is especially important for wheat because of the large acreages and
the large amounts of nitrogen used. Root diseases are the inevitable result of little or no crop rotation. The average yield response
of wheat to soil fumigation (used as a research tool) in the semi-arid/subhumid and irrigated Pacific Northwest has been 70, 22,
and 7% in fields planted every year, every other year, and every third year to wheat, respectively. By inference, enough nitrogen
goes unused because of poor wheat root health, in these fields to produce 70, 22, and 7% more wheat, respectively. Wheat- grow-
ing in fumigated soil heads 3-5 days earlier, suggesting that part of the benefit of healthy roots is greater uptake of P, which, if
limiting to the plants because of poor root health, could also prevent full use of nitrogen. The poor performance of wheat planted
directly into wheat or barley stubble is the result of take-all and rhizoctonia and pythium root rots favored by the combination of
no crop rotation together with surface residues that keep the soil cool and moist for these diseases. These diseases are less
destructive in fields with stubble burned or buried by clean tillage, but these practices raise environmental concerns for loss of
organic matter and loss of soil from erosion. Biological control through crop rotation, suppressive soils, and, in the future, antago-
nists introduced by "seed bacterization," has the potential to increase nitrogen-use efficiency and reduce the need for tillage and
stubble burning while introducing no new environmental concerns.
Cook, R.J. 1992. Wheat root health management and environmental concern. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 14: 76-85.
Un systeme racinaire suffisamment sain permettant de mettre pleinement a profit I' azote applique represente le facteur qui, pris
individuellement, peut probablement contribuer le plus a une utilisation efficace de l'azote tout en favorisant un accroissement du
rendement des cultures. Ceci est tout particulierement important pour le ble, compte tenu des surfaces importantes de culture et
des quantiles abondantes d'azote utilisees. Les maladies racinaires sont la resultante inevitable de }'absence ou d'une utilisation
mitigee des rotations de cultures. La reponse en rendement moyen du ble a une fumigation du sol (utilisee comme outil de
recherche) dans la region semi-aride, a faible humidite et irriguee du Nord-ouest de la oote du Pacifique a ete de 70, 22 et 7%
pour des champs de ble ensemences a tous les ans, a tous les deux ans et a tous les trois ans respectivement. Par deductions,
l'azote non utilise dans ces champs a cause du pauvre etat sanitaire des racines, serait suffisant pour produire 70, 22 et 7% plus de
ble respectivement. Dans un sol fumige, le ble a une epiaison de 3 a 5 jours plus hative, ce qui suggere qu'une partie des bene-
fices associes a un systeme racinaire sain est une meilleure absorption du P, dont !'absorption restreinte par la plante possedant un
systeme racinaire en mauvaise sante peut egalement empecher une utilisation complete de l'azote. La pietre performance du ble
seme directement dans le chaume de ble OU d'orge, resulte du pietin-echaudage et de pourritures racinaires causees par le
Rhizoctonia et le Pythium favorises par !'absence d'une rotation de cultures combinee avec la presence de residus en surface qui
maintiennent l'humidite du sol a un niveau favorable aces maladies. Celles-ci sont moins dommageables dans les champs oit le
chaume est briHe ou enfoui, bien que de telles pratiques soulevent des questions environnementales en ce qui a trait a la perte de
matiere organique et a I' erosion des sols. La lutte biologique par le biais de rotation de cultures, de sols suppressifs, et dans le
futur, par !'introduction d'antagonistes par la "bacterisation de la semence", a le potentiel pour permettre une utilisation plus effi-
cace de l'azote et reduire les besoins de herser et de briiler le chaume tout en evitant d'introduire de nouveaux soucis environ-
nementaux.
Most concerns for the environment in the context of Each wheat-growing area of the world can expect
plant health management are related to the use of to encounter one or more root disease or nematode
chemical pesticides. In the case of \vheat root health problems, usually in mixtures in the same field, on
management, we must choose between two environ- the same plant, or on the same root. In this paper, I
mental concerns: loss of soil and soil organic matter will focus mainly on experiences with wheat in the
because of tillage and stubble burning used to man- Pacific Northwest of the United States. In addition,
age wheat root diseases, or inefficient use of fertilizer whereas there are many benefits to crop husbandry
and especially nitrogen if these root diseases are not and to the environment when root diseases are con-
managed. There is also less straw returned to soil by trolled, I will limit this paper to a discussion of con-
the smaller and poorly tillered plants, typical of cerns for tillage and stubble burning used to control
wheat with root disease, and root disease can leave a the wheat root-infecting fungi and the benefits of root
wheat crop more vulnerable to weeds because of less disease control in terms of increased nitrogen-use
competitive plants and of soil more available for col- efficiency.
onization by weed roots.
76
COOK: SYMPOSIUM/ROOT HEALTH 77
Wheat-growing agroecosystems is a potentially severe problem in the semi-arid,

in the Pacific Northwest wheat-fallow areas if direct drilling ("stubbling in")
The Pacific Northwest is ideal for production of is used (see section below on tillage), but it is a more
winter wheat because of deep silt-loam soils, mild widespread, chronic problem in the annually cropped
wet winters, warm (occasionally hot) dry summers, areas of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington and under
and more than 2000 growing degree days (celsius irrigation in wheat grown after wheat or barley.
scale, with 0°C base) accumulated during more than Pythium root rot occurs ~hroughout the four wheat-
300 calendar days between planting in the fall of one growing agroecosystems,:'tmt is a problem mainly in
year and harvesting in the summer of the next year the Palouse region and wes~.of the Cascades.
(24). The region is also suitable for spring wheat. In addition to root diseases, cephalosporium stripe,
Available water, provided as precipitation mainly a disease of the vascular system caused by
between October and May, is the major yield-deter- Cephalosporium gramineum (5), and pseudocer-
mining factor across the region (24). In the arid/semi- cosporella foot rot (8), a basal stem (eyespot) disease
arid wheat-fallow agroecosystems, rainfall averages of wheat caused by Pseudocercosporella herpotri-
only 20---40 cm and wheat is grown every other year choides, have historically been the two most impor-
alternated with fallow, In the humid wheat-growing tant residue-borne diseases of wheat in this region.
agroecosystems, rainfall averages 100-150 cm and Both are problems mainly of winter wheat grown in a
wheat may be grown every year in the same field or two-year rotation, which permits earlier seeding com-
more commonly in rotations with many kinds of pared with consecutive wheat crops, and both are
crops. In the mostly sub-humid (or wet end of semi- problems in the semi-arid and subhumid regions.
arid) Palouse wheat-growing agroecosystems, precip-
itation averages 40-60 or 70 cm annually, and wheat Benefits of wheat root health
may be grown every year in the same field or in 2- or management to nitrogen-use efficiency
3-year rotations with barley, spring peas, lentils, or Nitrogen fertilizers represent the largest single cost
fallow. The fourth major agroecosystem has come in energy consumption associated with crop produc-
into existence over the past 40 years with the expan- tion in the United States (58), and the largest single
sion of irrigation in the arid and semi-arid portions of on-farm direct cost in crop production (47). Nitrogen
the Pacific Northwest where wheat may be grown as nitrate is also one of the major ground-water cont-
continuously in the same field or in various crop rota- aminants (59). Thus, any contribution toward greater
tions, usually with potatoes (commonly one crop of nitrogen-use efficiency for crops would be significant
potatoes followed by three consecutive crops of both in terms of lower production costs and lower
wheat), alfalfa, common beans, or corn. threat to ground water quality. The chances for
impact are especially great with a crop such as wheat;
Root diseases and soilborne pathogens not only is this crop heavily fertilized with nitrogen,
of wheat in the Pacific Northwest it may be grown on more acres of land than any other
Virtually every root disease, soilborne pathogen, or food crop in North America and possibly the world.
nematode problem known to affect wheat is economi- Probably no single factor would do more for nitro-
cally important somewhere in the region. These gen-use efficiency in modern-day wheat production
include: take-all caused by Gaeumannomyces than having a root system sufficiently healthy to take
graminis var. tritici (21), pythium root rot caused by full advantage of the nitrogen applied for the crop.
several Pythium species (9,19,22,23,35), rhizoctonia There is now both circumstantial and direct evidence
root rot caused mainly by Rhizoctonia solani AG8 that with root diseases left unmanaged, nitrates are
but to some extent also R. oryzae (48,63), common more likely to move below the rooting zone and
root rot caused by Cochliobolus sativus, and fusarium hence forever out of reach of the crop, presumably
root and foot (crown) rot caused by Fusarium culmo- ending up eventually in ground water.
rum and F. graminearum (11,13). Several nematode Response of wheat to soil fumigation. The first
species are also potentially important, including the major clue that wheat in the Pacific Northwest was
only U.S. records of the cereal cyst nematode not taking full advantage of nitrogen applied for the
Heterodera avenae (31,36). Fusarium root and foot crop was obtained from field experiments with soil
rot, and to a lesser extent common root rot, occur in fumigation carried out in the Palouse and irrigated
the wheat-fallow agroecosystems (arid/semi-arid) areas (19,22,45). Yield increases of 10-20% in
regions. Take-all occurs in the humid areas west of response to soil fumigation were common, and in
Cascades, in the irrigation districts, and in the subhu- some experiments the yields were greater by 50, 60,
mid Palouse region in low places within fields or in and even as much as 100% (from 0.5 t/ha to as much
years of above-normal rainfall. Rhizoctonia root rot as 3.0-4.0 t/ha). These data confirm the results of
78 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PLANT PATHOLOGY, VOLUME 14, 1992
similar experiments conducted with wheat in known to destroy the fine feeder rootlets and root
Australia (51,54,55). hairs of cereal plants (4,22) and grasses (41).
Since this greater yield was obtained without Rhizoctonia solani AG8 girdles and then severs the
adding more fertilizer, one must conclude that the axes of both lateral and main roots (52,63); since this
wheat in the untreated areas of the experiments, and damage occurs in the top 10-15 cm of soil, these
representative of the farmer's field where the tests roots thereafter are severely restricted in ability to
were conducted, did not use the amount of fertilizer explore the soil for nutrie,nts. Take-all destroys both
sufficient to produce this greater yield despite ade- seminal or crown (nodal) roots in the top 30 cm of
quate amounts of nitrogen. Soil tests of random fields soil and likewise renders these roots virtually useless
in eastern Washington during 1990 have revealed to the plant. Any of these three root diseases, alone or
surplus available nitrogen in the top 180-cm rooting in various combinations, reduces the density of wheat
depth of nearly every field and enough residual avail- roots in the top 15-30 cm of soil by 25-50 % com-
able nitrogen in some fields to grow a normal wheat monly and in some cases by 75-80% (22,24).
crop without adding more nitrogen (W. Pan and B. Control of pythium root rot can account, in part,
Miller, unpublished). for the consistent fumigation response in the semi-
The increased growth and yield response of agro- arid/subhumid agroecosystems of the inland Pacific
nomic crops such as wheat to soil fumigation is com- Northwest (19,22). Control of take-all and/or rhizoc-
monly dismissed as a response of the crop to the tonia root rot accounts for the response in some fields
flush of nitrogen and other mineral nutrients released of the subhumid Palouse and especially for wheat
by the killed microbial biomass. There is a flush of grown under irrigation (19,20). In Australia, control
nitrogen in soil following fumigation, and the nitro- of the cereal cyst nematode, alone or in combination
gen tends to remain in the ammonium form, but this with take-all, rhizoctonia root rot, and possibly pythi-
modest flush of nitrogen and/or the nitrogen remain- um root rot, accounts for most or all of the increased
ing in the ammonium form cannot account for the growth and yield response of wheat (51,54,55).
crop growth and yield response to soil fumigation An important effect frequently overlooked is the
(1,14,19,64). Rovira and Ridge (54) showed in inability of a diseased root system to explore the soil
Australia that wheat did not use the nitrogen below for nutrients. Cook and Haglund (19) showed that
50-60 cm depth in a nonfumigated plot but used vir- wheat protected from Pythium infections by meta-
tually all available N to 100 cm (the lowest depth laxyl took up significantly more phosphorus (based
measured) in a fumigated plot (Fig. 1). If wheat on tissue tests) than wheat grown without protection
growth is limited by available nitrogen in the soil, by this fungicide. Wheat typically heads 3-5 days
and the so-called flush of nitrogen released from earlier in fumigated than nonfumigated plots, which
killed organisms helps overcome this shortage, why is not a response expected from increased availability
is nitrogen left unused in nonfumigated soil? The of nitrogen but is expected from increased uptake of
several lines of evidence that the soil fumigation phosphorus. Further evidence for this hypothesis has
response of wheat is not the result of more nitrogen been obtained from experiments with fumigated and
made available by the fumigant are given in Tables 1 nonfumigated plots of spring wheat and spring barley
and 2. where fertilizer (N,P,S,) placement was varied at the
Effects of root disease on the nutrient-absorp- time of planting. With both kinds of grain crops, the
tive capacity of roots. Pythium spp. are well best growth and highest yields in nonfumigated plots
Nitrate-N {ugog-1 )
30 0
•
: plant.a
p
25
!
.c
35 ...
145
..
:g 55
65
75
8
Natural
.. fumigated
Figure 1. Nitrate-nitrogen at 10-cm intervals down the soil profile

in adjacent untreated (a) and fumigated (b) plots with (solid cir-
cles) and without (open circles) wheat planted in 1973 in South
Australia. Redrawn from Rovira and Ridge (54).
Table 1. Evidence that the increased growth and yield response of wheat to soil fumiga-
tion results from improved root health and not from increased nitrogen in the soil
Evidence Reference( s)
It has not been possible to duplicate the Cook and Haglund 1982 (19),
response by adding nitrogen. Cook et al. 1987, Moore (22)
and Cook 1984 (45), Rovira (45).
and Simon 1985 (55)
The "flush" of mineral nitrogen and inhibition Cook and Haglund 19S2 (19)
of nitrification do not, of themselves, cause an
increased growth and yield response (see Table 2).
Wheat extracts more nitrogen from fumigated soil Rovira and Ridge 1978 (54)
and it leaves nitrogen unused in natural soil (Fig. 1). R.J. Cook, unpublished
The increased growth and yield response to methyl Cook et al. 1980 (23)
bromide has been duplicated in the field by
application of metalaxyl as an in-furrow
granular application.
Wheat heads out several days earlier in fumigated Cook et al. 1987 (22)
plots than in adjacent nonfumigated plots, not a
response expected if more nitrogen fertilizer
accounted for the fumigation response.
have been obtained with fertilizer placed 4-5 cm Environmental concerns for
directly beneath the seed, whereas in fumigated plots wheat disease management by tillage
(where root diseases are controlled), the growth and Tillage serves many familiar purposes, including
yield were not significantly different whether the fer- mechanical weed control, accelerated mineralization
tilizer was placed directly beneath or at the same of nitrogen from organic matter, improved water cap-
depth but up to 15 cm to one side of the seed at the ture and storage in the soil profile, and preparation of
time of planting (17,24). a seedbed. However, tillage of the kind that buries
Improvements in acquisition of nutrients such as P, crop residue and pulverizes the soil into a garden-
through improved exploration of soil by the roots, type seedbed also sets the stage for soil erosion, caus-
will result in increased plant growth and ability of the es a loss in organic matter, and is expensive in time
plant to produce more roots and explore still more and fuel required to perform the operations.
soil to take up still more of the nutrients, including In North America, the first experiments for grow-
more nitrogen. ing wheat with less tillage, and with straw residues
Table 2. Increased tillering of wheat in response to soil fumigation at two loca-

tions in eastern Washington, and evidence that the response does not result from
increases in available N that accompanied the fumigation treatment (from Cook
1984 (14))
Available Nb and number of tillers per location

Pullman Walla Walla
Treatment• NO,-N NH4 -N Tillers NO,-N NHi-N Tillers
Check 129.6 12.1 725 20.6 9.7 835
Telone 101.0 36.8* 701 20.3 138.6** 962
Telone C 124.9 29.1* 975* 28.8 105.2** 1031*
* **Values are significantly different from the check at P = 0.05 (*)and
p = 0.01 (**).
Fumigants applied at 250 L ha· 1 • Telone is 1-3, dichloropropene, Telone
C contains 17% chloropicrin.
b
Total nitrate and ammonium (µg.g- 1) in the top 40 cm of soil. Soil sam-
ples were taken at Pullman in November and at Walla Walla in March.
Nitrate probably had leached below 40 cm at Walla Walla by the time of
sampling.
left maximally on the soil surface (mulch tillage), research went in the direction of searching for and
were begun in the wake of the "dust bowl" days in attempting to prove a role of putative phytotoxins.
the late 1930s and early 40s (43). However, Despite the evidence that substances toxic to wheat
researchers and farmers alike noted from the outset plants are liberated by rotting straw (10,30,38,39,42),
that yields of wheat were commonly lower with phytotoxins have never been shown to cause symp-
mulch tillage than with the more conventional "clean toms typical of the problem in the field, namely poor
tillage," especially in the wetter areas or the wetter tillering, stunting of plants at all ages, small heads,
years (43,65). and pale green or chloroti~ leaves.
Nutrient immobilization theory. Initial work on The root disease theo.ry. A third hypothesis
the problem of poor wheat growth with mulch tillage (Table 3) is that root diseases, singly or in various
focused on the hypothesis that plant nutrients, mixtures, account for the poorer performance of
notably N but possibly also P and S, were temporari- wheat grown with wheat residues left maximally on
ly immobilized during microbial breakdown of the the soil surface. A variable overlooked or unestimat-
wheat residues on the soil surface. This hypothesis ed in previous studies is that wheat planted directly
probably seemed logical because decomposing straw into stubble and other residue of a previous wheat
residue can be a temporary sink for mineral nutrients crop is also wheat grown without the benefit of crop
before it becomes a source of these nutrients. No rotation. (How else can a grower practically plant
doubt this explanation also seemed logical because wheat into the residue of a previous wheat crop?)
wheat plants grown with mulch tillage show symp- Where straw was placed on the surface of a field
toms of nutrient deficiency, including small size, planted to wheat after lentils (rotated), there was no
poor tillering, small heads, and pale green or chlorot- detrimental effect on the wheat and yields were
ic leaves. However, the experimental evidence from improved, presumably because the straw as a mulch
Canada (29), Australia (40), and the United States resulted in more water available to the wheat (Cook,
(56) did not support this hypothesis. Moreover, straw unpublished). Moreover, inspection of the washed
should be a temporary sink for mineral nutrients roots of wheat dug from fields not managed in a rota-
whether buried in the soil or mulched on the soil sur- tion and direct drilled has consistently revealed obvi-
face, yet the problem has been associated specifically ous infections characteristics of take-all, pythium root
with surface residues. Nutrient immobilization may rot, and/or rhizoctonia root rot, depending on the site
occur but does not account for the widespread prob- and year. Parallel studies in Australia have produced
lem of poor growth of wheat planted into wheat similar results (reviewed in 53). To date, the
residue. pathogens responsible for these three root diseases
The phytotoxin (allelopathy) theory. Another are the only soil microorganisms shown experimen-
hypothesis, first proposed by McCalla and Duley tally under field conditions to cause all the symptoms
(44), was that the straw liberated substances during characteristic of this problem and to cause more dam-
decomposition that were toxic to the wheat. Thus, age to wheat grown with surface residues and no
corn emerged poorly or not at all when planted in tillage compared with surface residues buried with
pots of natural field soil taken from a tillage layer, clean tillage (53).
amended with fresh wheat straw, and kept wet, but Thus, we can conclude that among the many famil-
emerged normally or significantly better when plant- iar benefits, tillage is also done for root disease con-
ed in the same soil not amended with wheat straw or trol. Indeed, from my own observations with fumigat-
amended with wheat straw but kept in a drier ed experimental plots, it would appear for the subhu-
(drained) condition (44 ). Had the connection been mid, humid, and irrigated agroecosystems of the
made between the failure of corn to emerge in wet, Pacific Northwest that tillage is mainly for control of
straw-amended soil and Hoppe.'s (32) work in soilborne pathogens. Consistently, wheat in my exper-
Wisconsin on Pythium damage to corn in cold, wet iments has yielded more if direct drilled than when
soils, it is possible that research on the straw mulch seeded into a prepared seedbed if the soil is fumigated.
problem for wheat would have taken a much different As long as economic incentives exist for growing
direction. We know now that the "injurious" effects wheat every year or every other year in the same
of fresh-straw amendments on emergence and vigor field, and we have no other options for root disease
of wheat seedlings can be nullified with either meta- control, farmers will continue to use various forms of
laxy l or mild steam treatment of the soil before tillage to maximize crop performance and possibly to
adding fresh untreated straw (18). However, in the improve nitrogen-use efficiency because of the bigger
absence of tools such as metalaxyl and pasteurization crop that can be produced. However, these practices
equipment, the connection between fresh residue and will continue to leave the soil vulnerable to erosion
increased Pythium activity was not made. The by water and wind.
Table 3. Evidence that root disease and not putative phytotoxins from rotting straw
accounts for the poor performance of wheat planted into residue of wheat
Evidence Reference( s)
The detrimental effect of straw on the soil Cook et al. 1980 (23),
surface on wheat growth and yield is eliminated Moore & Cook 1984 (45)
by soil fumigation.
The critical microorganisms eliminated by Cook & Haglund 1991 qo)
soil fumigation are in the soil and not in the straw.
The problem is unique to wheat after wheat Cook, unpublished
with either no break crop or only an intervening
fallow; straw placed as a mulch on experimental
plots in a crop rotation was not detrimental to
the wheat.
The problem is greatest in wet years or wet Zingg & Whitfield 1957 (65)
areas, soil conditions well known to favor
root diseases.
The symptoms characteristic of the crop Cook et al. 1980 (23), Moore
residue effect are the symptoms of root & Cook 1984 (45),
diseases, and plants grown in this management Rovira 1986 (52),
system have take-all, rhizoctonia root rot Weller et al. 1986 (63),
and/or pythium root rot, in various combinations. Cook & Haglund 1991 (20)
The pathogens responsible for take-all, Rovira 1986 (52), Moore &
rhizoctonia root rot, and pythium root rot are Cook 1984 (45), Cook et al.
the only soil microorganisms shown 1980 (23), Weller et al. 1986 (63)
experimentally under field conditions to cause
more damage to wheat with no till than with
conventional tillage.
The detrimental effects of fresh straw Cook et al. 1990 (18)
on growth of wheat in pots is eliminated by
metalaxyl fungicide or pasteurization of the
soil with moist heat at 60°C/30 min., and can
be reproduced when Pythium spp. are added back
to pasteurized soil.
Environmental concerns for parenchyma after the plant dies (5). Burning this
root disease management by burning inoculum source can reduce the incidence of
Some farmers have turned to stubble burning as a cephalosporium stripe in winter wheat (3).
means to increase wheat yields while growing wheat Unquestionably, a major benefit of burning is
after wheat, especially if no tillage is used. Burning is through the greater (or more rapid) warming and dry-
practiced almost exclusively in combination with ing of the top 10-15 cm of soil occupied by
pathogens such as G. graminis var. tritici, R. solani,
wheat monoculture. In contrast, stubble burning is
and Pythium spp. Each of these pathogens becomes
rarely, if ever, necessary when some kind of crop
less active as this layer of soil (where they reside)
rotation is used, but is a major environmental concern
dries out. Cook and Haglund (20) confirmed the
because of the long-term detrimental effects on soil experience of farmers, that wheat yields where wheat
organic matter content and other soil properties followed wheat were greater in response to burning,
(26,50). • but showed further with soil fumigation that microor-
The question of whether stubble burning controls ganisms associated with the poor performance of
diseases has been controversial. Bruehl (7) found that wheat in natural soil with straw mulches were in the
F. culmorum survived in stubble to within 0.5 to 1.0 soil and not in the straw. Take-all, rhizoctonia root
cm of the char. The bulk of the inoculum of this rot, and pythium root rot all were damaging on wheat
pathogen, and that of G. graminis var. tritici, is in the nonfumigated plots covered with either fumi-
formed in stem bases (the crown) and roots and there- gated or nonfumigated straw. Direct evidence for an
fore mostly out of reach of fire. On the other hand, C. effect of surface residues on take-all was obtained by
gramineum colonizes a large portion of the culms of C.L. Douglas, L.F. Elliott, and R.J. Cook (unpub-
infected plants, beginning in the xylem as a vascular lished) in a field study near Pullman, WA Where
pathogen and then growing into the surrounding stem straw was removed by burning, take-all occurred on
82 CANADIANJOURNALOFPlANTPATHOLOGY, VOLUME 14, 1992
about 20% of the plants. Where the stubble either inhabiting pathogens, predation, parasitism, and
was left standing (natural), or was burned and then antibiosis. Crop rotation is almost as effective as soil
straw immediately returned to the plots as a layer (to fumigation for control of soilborne pathogens of
replace that burned), the incidence of plants positive wheat (15), but it takes more time.
for take-all was about 40%. The burning per se con- A 2-year break (susceptible crops no more than
ferred no lasting effect on the pathogen. This is to be every third year) is required to control those
expected if the only effect of eliminating the straw is pathogens that establish in the stem bases of wheat.
to change the soil environment such that it is less These pathogens are ]'(. herpotrichoides, C. gra-
favorable to disease development. mineum, G. graminis var·.. tritici, and F. culmorum.
The evidence indicates that if wheat root pathogens Stem bases, being cellulosic in nature, are more resis-
could be controlled, stubble burning would provide tant to decay and are therefore relatively long-lasting
little or no yield advantage for wheat. On the con- as a food base for occupants once thoroughly estab-
trary, considering that available water should be the lished in the substrate (6). In the Pacific Northwest,
limiting factor to yield, and recognizing the well- C. gramineum and P. herpotrichoides each are
known benefits of straw mulches to water conserva- important on winter wheat and winter barley but not
tion, yields should be higher in fields with straw left on the spring-grown cereals, and therefore the 2-year
on the soil surface if root diseases could be con- break required to control these two diseases may
trolled. include either spring wheat or spring barley as well as
peas, lentils, or fallow. On the other hand, G. gramin-
Environmental benefits of biological control is var. tritici is important on both spring and winter
Biological control is the use of natural or modified wheat in this region, and so the rotation must not use
organisms, their genes, or gene products to reduce the spring wheat during the 2-year break in agroecosys-
effects of diseases and pests (46). Two approaches to tems where this pathogen is important. All three dis-
biological control are now used for soilborne eases can be controlled by a 3-year rotation of spring
pathogens of wheat. As one approach, the natural barley, peas (or lentils or fallow), and winter wheat
cycles of resident (indigenous or naturally occurring) (23).
microbial biocontrol agents are managed as part of Fusarium culmorum occupies the lower one to
the "crop rotation effect" for cephalosporium stripe, three internodes of diseased wheat plants. It also
pseudocercosporella foot rot, take-all, and rhizoctonia forms chlamydospores in the stem tissues that are
root rot, or as a disease decline effect with long-term freed into the soil as these tissues decompose (11 ).
wheat monoculture in the case of take-all (23). As the Chlamydospore inoculum of this pathogen is relative-
other major approach, host plant resistance is used to 1y long lived (34) and is not eliminated during the
control cephalosporium stripe, pseudocercosporella conventional 2- or 3-year rotations away from wheat.
foot rot, and fusarium root and foot rot. Work is This disease must, therefore, be managed by other
under way in the Pacific Northwest on a third methods (see section on host resistance).
approach: the use of introduced antagonists as a liv- A 1-year break or even shorter is typically adequate
ing seed treatment ("bacterization") for control of to control pathogens that establish only in the roots of
take-all (61) and pythium root rot (62). wheat or barley. Thus, while barley is a host for the
There is no evidence with any of these biological take-all fungus, the pathogen is limited largely or
controls of unwanted effects on the environment. On entirely to the roots of spring barley, and root tissues,
the contrary, these biological controls have opened being shorter lived as a substrate for occupancy by
the way for less stubble burning, less tillage, more this pathogen in soil (33), permit control of take-all
efficient use of nitrogen fertilizer, less fungicide, and with only a 1-year break to a nonhost crop between
higher grain yields. spring barley and the next wheat crop. Pythium and
Biological control with resident antagonists Rhizoctonia spp. each have a wide host range, but
through the crop rotation effect. Crop rotation - they are limited largely or entirely to roots of suscep-
not growing the same crop in the same field more tible plants, which are typically eliminated as a food
than every 2nd or 3rd year (or longer interval) - base for these pathogens in one year, or even a few
allows time for the soil to "sanitize" between the months if soil conditions are suitable to the decom-
crops that serve as hosts to any given soilborne posing activity of saprophytic microorganisms.
pathogen. This sanitizing process involves entire In spite of its reputation as a saprophyte in soil,
communities of soil microorganisms that are respon- experience in the Pacific Northwest indicates that
sible for depletion of the energy status of propagules, Rhizoctonia solani is among the easiest root
competition for host residue that otherwise would pathogens of wheat to control by even very short fal-
serve exclusively as an energy source for residue- low breaks. For example, this pathogen can be devas-
tating to spring wheat or barley direct drilled into cephalosporium stripe. Those who grow wheat in a 2-
standing stubble where volunteer (self-sown) wheat year rotation now have the option of growing the
or barley plants, produced from seed left in the field white winter wheat cultivar Lewjain with resistance
from the previous crop, are treated with glyphosate equal to or better than Gaines and Nugaines.
just prior to planting. The disease can be especially Control of fusarium foot rot, caused by F. culmo-
destructive in those strips in a field corresponding to rum, with "host resistance" involves not applying
the "combine row" of the previous crop - strips more nitrogen than the crqp needs to yield to the lim-
where volunteer plants produced from spilled seeds its of its water supply. Wheat not under water stress
are most concentrated. It is best when controlling vol- is highly resistant to this di~ase (13,49). Some wheat
unteer plants with glyphosate to spray and then wait cultivars tend to be water stress-tolerant and others
up to 2 or 3 weeks if possible before planting (53, water stress-avoiders, and both types typically have
R.W. Smiley, A.G. Ogg, and R.J. Cook, unpub- shown less fusarium foot rot when not under stress
lished). Even this relatively short period can result in because of over-fertilization with nitrogen (12).
remarkably less rhizoctonia root rot compared with a Future work may be needed with high-protein (hard
treatment only 2-3 days before planting the next or bread-type) wheat where the high amounts of
crop. The additional few days is thought to provide nitrogen that are sometimes used to obtain higher
the time necessary for decay of the root tissues so protein may also favor plant water stress and hence
critical to this pathogen as its food base for attack of fusarium foot rot.
the next crop. Research in progress on biological control with
Pythium spp., with their ability to form relatively introduced antagonists. A repeated exposure of the
long-lived oospores, fall into the category with F. soil microbiota to diseased roots of the same crop can
culmorum - not controlled by the normal 2- or 3- be expected to favor increases in populations of
year crop rotations. On the other hand, it is likely that microorganisms adapted to or having the ability to
different crop sequences favor different mixtures of exploit these diseased roots (25). These microorgan-
Pythium spp. (35). isms, in tum, represents potential candidates for bio-
Biological control through host plant resistance. logical control as introduced antagonists. The suc-
Pseudocercosporella foot rot, cephalosporium stripe, cessful biological control of crown gall by
and fusarium foot rot each can now be controlled Agrobacterium radiobacter strain K84 fits this
largely by host plant resistance. Use of resistant culti- model. Strain K84 is but one of many strains of
vars or, in the case of fusarium foot rot of wheat, agrobacteria adapted to galls and with ability to
management of cultivars to permit maximum expres- catabolize the opines produced by gall tissues (28).
sion of resistance, in combination with 2- or 3-year Equally important, strain K84 has the ability to inhib-
rotations, provides virtually complete control without it Agrobacterium tumefaciens biotypes 1 and 2 by
use of fungicide yet permits early fall seeding and the production of the antibiotic agrocin 84 (37).
use of conservation tillage. Apparently, strain K84 has evolved the ability to
The resistance to pseudocercosporella foot rot was exploit the galled tissue but does not cause the galls
obtained by a "wide cross" with Aegilops ventricosa (28). Take-all decline also fits this model. The evi-
(27), a wild diploid relative of wheat. This resistance dence indicates that root-associated bacteria, most
was first used in northern Europe where pseudocer- notably strains of fluorescent pseudomonads, colo-
cosporella foot rot has been a problem for many nize the roots and especially the take-all lesions on
years. The winter wheat cultivars Madsen and Hyak, the roots of wheat. With continued monoculture of
a soft white common and club wheat, respectively, wheat, and following successive outbreaks of take-
were recently released as resistant to this disease for all, there is a significant shift in the make-up of these
production in the Inland Pacific Nmthwest (2). root-associated bacteria in favor of types with ability
The first semi-dwarf cultivars of winter wheat to make antibiotics inhibitory to the take-all fungus.
grown in the Pacific Northwest, namely Gaines and This qualitative and quantitative shift in make-up of
Nugaines (60), had considerable resistance to root-associated bacteria is thought to account for the
cephalosporium stripe. However, the significance of well-known take-all decline (25).
this resistance was generally underestimated until the The bacterial populations favored by wheat roots
1970s, when newer higher-yielding cultivars were and take-all lesions represent an enormous range of
introduced as their replacements (G.W. Bruehl, per- microbial germplasm available for testing as candi-
sonal communication). The cultivar Stephens, in par- date microbial biocontrol agents. By selecting from
ticular, possibly the highest yielding and currently this range of microbial germplasm for ability to
most popular soft white winter wheat cultivar in the inhibit the target pathogen, and then introducing one
Pacific Northwest, is extremely susceptible to or more of these organisms singly or as mixtures with
the seed at the time of planting, it has been possible Bruehl, ed., Biology and Control of Soil-borne Plant
to obtain significant protection of wheat against take- Pathogens. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul,
MN.
all both in small plots on the experiment station with 7. Bruehl, G.W. 1987. Soilborne Plant Pathogens. Macmillan,
artificial inoculum and in large field plots in grower's NY. 368pp.
fields with natural inoculum. The average yield 8. Bruehl, G.W., W.L. Nelson, F. Koehler, and O.A. Vogel.
response to seed treatments has been 10.4% with one 1968. Experiments with Cercosporella foot rot (strawbreak-
er) disease of winter wheat. Wash. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull.
combination of strains tested over 10 site-years in 694.
naturally infested fields and 15% with another strain 9. Chamswarng, C., and R.j .. Cook. 1985. Identification and
over 5 site-years in naturally infested fields (16). comparative pathogenicity i;if Pythium species from wheat
Research on two of these strains, namely P. fluo- roots and wheat-field soils in the Pacific Northwest.
rescens 2-79 and P. aureofaciens 30-84, shows that Phytopathology 75:821-827.
10. Cochran, V.L., L.F. Elliott, and R.I. Papendick. 1977. The
ability to produce antibiotics in the rhizosphere is production of phytotoxins from surface crop residues. Soil
responsible for about 80% of their biocontrol activity Sci. Soc. Am. J. 41:903-908.
(57). Undoubtedly, there are many mechanisms of 11. Cook, R,J. 1968. Fusarium root and foot rot of cereals in the
biocontrol by these many strains of bacteria. Some Pacific Northwest. Phytopathology 58:127-131.
12. Cook, R,J. 1973. Influence of low plant and soil water poten-
mechanisms (or strains) work better in some soils, tials on diseases caused by soil-borne fungi. Phytopathology
whereas other mechanisms (or strains) work better in 63:451-457.
other soils. We have also obtained strains with activi- 13. Cook, R.J. 1980. Fusarium foot rot of wheat and its control in
ty against pythium root rot (62). We are now testing the Pacific Northwest. Plant Dis. 64:1061-1066.
mixtures of strains as a means to broaden both the 14. Cook, R,J. 1984. Root health: Importance and Relations to
Farming Systems. Pages 111-127 in D.F. Bezdicek and J.F.
spectrum of activity against the mixture of wheat root Power, eds., Organic Farming: Current Technology and Its
diseases and to increase the chances of successful Role in a Sustainable Agriculture. Amer. Soc. Agron.
biocontrol in different soils. Special Publications.
15. Cook, R,J. 1990. Diseases caused by root-infecting pathogens
Conclusions in dryland agriculture. Pages 215-239 in B. A. Stewart, ed.,
Advances in Soil Science. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Poor root health is a major contributing factor to 13:214-239.
inefficient use of nitrogen fertilizer by wheat grown 16. Cook, R.J. 1991. Challenges and Rewards of Sustainable
with short or no crop rotation and conservation Agriculture Research and Education. Pages 32-76 in
tillage. The environmental concerns are the high Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education in the
potential for nitrates to go unused and eventually Field. National Acad. Sciences. 437 pp.
17. Cook, R.J. 1991. Influence of in-row fertilizer banding and
leach into the ground water if root diseases are not associated soil disturbance on performance of spring wheat
adequately controlled, and the loss of soil organic and spring barley direct-drilled into Rhizoctonia-infested
matter and greater soil erosion if stubble burning and soil. Phytopathology 81: 1165.
conventional tillage are used to control these dis- 18. Cook, R.J., C. Chamswarng, and W. -h. Tang. 1990.
Influence of wheat chaff and tiJiage on Pythium populations
eases. Biological control achieved by resident antago- and Pythium damage to wheat. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22:939-
nists responsible for the crop rotation effect and 947.
pathogen-suppressive soils, and potentially by antag- 19. Cook, R.J., and W.A. Haglund. 1982. Pythium root rot: A
onists introduced into the wheat rhizosphere by "seed barrier to yield of Pacific Northwest wheat. Wash. State
bacterization," offers the best if not the only practical College of Agric. Res. Bull. XB0913. 20 pp.
20. Cook, R.J., and W.A. Haglund. 1991. Wheat yield depres-
alternative to protecting and maintaining adequate sion associated with conservation tillage caused by root
root health for wheat while introducing no new envi- pathogens in the soil not phytotoxins from the straw. Soil
ronmental concerns. Biol. Biochem. 23:1125-1132.
21. Cook, R.J., D. Huber, R.L. Powelson, and G.W. Bruehl.
l. Aldrich, D.G., and J.P. Martin. 1952. Effect of fumigation 1968. Occurrence of take-all in wheat in the Pacific
on some chemical properties of soils. Soil Sci. 73:149-159. Northwest. Plant Dis. Rep. 52:716-718.
2. Allan, R.E., and D.E. Roberts. 1991. Inheritance of reaction 22. Cook, R.J., J.W. Sitton, and W.A. Haglund. 1987. Increased
to strawbreaker foot rot in two wheat populations. Crop Sci. growth and yield responses of wheat to reduction in the
(In Press) Pythium populations by soil treatments. Phytopathology
3. Bockus, W.W., J.P. O'Connor, and P,J. Raymond. 1983. 77:1192-1198.
Effect of residue management method on incidence of 23. Cook, R.J., J.W. Sitton, and J.T. Walder. 1980. Evidence for
Cephalosporium stripe under continuous winter wheat pro- Pythium as a pathogen of direct drilled wheat in the Pacific
duction. Plant Dis. 67:1323-1324. Northwest. Plant Dis. 64:102-103.
4. Bruehl, G.W. 1951. Root rot in cereals and grasses. South 24. Cook, R.J., and R.J. Veseth. 1991. Wheat Health
Dak. Farm Home Research 2:76-79. Management. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. 151 pp.
5. Bruehl, G.W. 1968. Ecology of Cephalosporium stripe disease 25. Cook, R.J., and D.M. Weller. 1987. Management of take-all
of winter wheat in Washington. Plant Dis. Rep. 58:590-594. in consecutive crops of wheat or barley. Pages 41-76 in I.
6. Bruehl, G.W. 1975. Systems and mechanisms of residue pos- Chet, ed., Nonconventional Methods of Disease Control.
session by pioneer fungal colonists. Pages 77-83 in G. W. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 372 pp.
26. Dormaar, J.F., U.J. Pittman, and E.D. Spratt. 1979. 48. Ogoshi, A., R.J. Cook, and E.N. Bassett. 1990. Rhizoctonia
Burning crop residues: Effect on selected soil characteristics species and anastomosis groups causing root rot of wheat and
and long-term wheat yields. Can. J. Soil Sci. 59:79-86. barley in the Pacific Northwest. Phytopathology 80:784-788.
27. Doussinault, G., Al Delibes, R. Sanchez-Monge, and F. 49. Papendick, R.I., and R.J. Cook. 1974. Plant water stress and
Garcia-Olmedo. 1983. Transfer of a dominant gene for development of Fusarium foot rot in wheat subjected to dif-
resistance to eyespot disease from a wild grass to hexaploid ferent cultural practices. Phytopathology 64:358-363.
wheat. Nature 303:698-700. 50. Rasmussen, P., H. Colins, and R.W. Smiley. 1989. Long-
28. Farrand, S.K. 1990. Agrobacterium radiobacter strain K84: term management effects on soil productivity and crop
A model biocontrol system. Pages 691-697 in R.R. Baker yields in semi-arid regions of eastern Oregon. Oregon State
and P.E. Dunn, eds., New Directions in Biological Control, Univ., Columbia Basin Agric. Res. Ctr. Sta. Bull. 695.
Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York. 837 pp. 51. Rovira, A.D. 1976. Studies on soil fumigation. I. Effects in
29. Ferguson, W.S., and B. J. Gorby. 1964. Effect of straw on ammonium, Nitrate, and phosphase in soil and on the
availability of nitrogen to cereal crops. Can. J. Soil Sci. growth, nutrition, and yield of wheat. Soil Biol. Biochem.
44:286-291. 8:241-247.
30. Guenzi, W.D., T.M. McCalla, and F.A. Norstadt. 1967. 52. Rovira, A.D. 1986. Influence of crop rotation and tillage on
Presence and persistence of phytotoxic substances in wheat, Rhizoctonia bare patch of wheat. Phytopathology 76:669-673.
oat, com and sorghum residues. Agron. J. 59:163-165. 53. Rovira, A. D., L.F. Elliott, and R.J. Cook. 1990. The impact
31. Hafez, S.L., and A.M. Golden. 1984. First report of oat cyst of cropping systems on rhizosphere organisms affecting
nematode in eastern Washington. Plant Dis. 68:351. plant health. Pages 439-458 in J.M. Lynch, ed., The
32. Hoppe, P.E. 1949. Differences in Pythium injury to corn Rhizosphere. John Wiley and Sons.
seedlings at high and low temperatures. Phytopathology 54. Rovira, A.D., and E.H. Ridge. 1978. The effect of methyl
39:77-84. bromide and chloropicrin on some chemical and biological
33. Hornby, D. 1975. lnoculum of the take-all fungus: nature, properties of soil and on the growth and nutrition of wheat.
measurement, distribution and survival. EPPO (Eur. Pages 231-250 in D. Mulder, ed., Soil Disinfestation,
Mediterr. Plant Prot. Organ.) Bull. 4:319-333. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
34. Inglis, D.A., and R.J. Cook. 1986. The persistence of chlamy- 55. Rovira, A.D., and A. Simon. 1985. Growth, nutrition and.
dospores of Fusarium culmorum in wheat-field soils of east- yield of wheat in calcareous sandy loams of South Australia:
ern Washington. Phytopathology 76:1205-1208. Effect of soil fumigation, fungicide, nematicide, and nitro-
35. Ingram, D.M., and R.J. Cook. 1990. Pathogenicity of four gen fertilizers. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17:279-284.
Pythium species to wheat, barley, peas, and lentils. Plant 56. Smika, D.E., A.C. Black, and B.W. Breb. 1969. Soil nitrate,
Pathol. 39: 110-117. soil water, and grain yields in wheat-fallow rotation in the
36. Jensen, H.J., H. Esthiaghi, P.A. Koepsell, and N. Goetze. Great Plains as influenced by straw mulch. Agron. J.
1975. The oat cyst nematode, Heterodera avenae, occurs on 61:785-787.
oats in Oregon. Plant Dis. Rep. 59:1-3. 57. Thomashow, L.S., and D.M. Weller. 1990. Application of
37. Kerr, A. 1980. Biological control of crown gall through pro- fluorescent pseudomonads to control root diseases of wheat
duction of agrocin 84. Plant Dis. 64:25-30. and some mechanisms of disease suppression. Pages 109-
38. Kimber, R.W.L. 1967. Phytotoxicity from plant residues. I. 122 in D. Hornby, ed., Biological Control of Soil-borne
The influence of rotted wheat straw on seedling growth. Plant Pathogens. C.A.B. International, 479 pp.
Aust. J. Agric. Res. 18:361-374. 58. Torgerson, D., J. Duncan, T. Prato, A. Dargan, and C.
39. Kimber, R.W.L. 1973a. Phytotoxicity from plant residues. II. Cisco. 1983. Energy and U.S. Agriculture, 1978, 1980, and
The effect of time of rotting of straw from some grasses and 1981: State and National Fuel Use Tables, U.S. Department
legumes on growth of wheat seedlings. Plant Soil 38:347- of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
361. 59. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1987. The magnitude and
40. Kimber, R.W.L. 1973b. Phytotoxicity from plant residues. costs of ground water contamination from agricultural
III. The relative effect of toxins and nitrogen immobilization chemicals: A national perspective. Staff Report AGES
on the germination and growth of wheat. Plant Soil 38:543- 870318, Economic Research Service, Washington, D.C.
555. 60. Vogel, O.A., J.C. Craddock, Jr., C.E. Muir, E.E.Everson,
41. Kraft, J.M., R.M. Endo, and D.C. Erwin. 1967. Infection of and C.R. Rohde. 1956. Semidwarf growth habit in winter
primary roots of bentgrass by zoospores of Pythium aphani- wheat improvement for the Pacific Northwest. Agron. J.
dermatum. Phytopathology 57: 86-90. 48:76-78.
42. Lynch, J.M. 1977. Phytotoxicity of acetic acid produced in 61. Weller, D.M., and R.J. Cook. 1983. Suppression of take-all
the anaerobic decomposition of wheat straw. J. Applied of wheat by seed treatments with fluorescent pseudomonads.
Bact. 42:81-87. Phytopathology 73:463-469.
43. McCalla, T.M., and T.J. Army. 1961. Stubble-mulch farm- 62. Weller, D.M., and R.J. Cook. 1986. Increased growth of
ing. Adv. Agron. 13:124-196. wheat by seed treatments with fluorescent pseudomonads,
44. McCalla, T.M., and F.C. Duley. 1949. Stubble-mulch studies and implications of Pythium control. Can. J. Plant Pathol.
III. Influence of soil microorganisms and crop residues on 8:328-334.
the germination, growth and direction of root growth of com 63. Weller, D.M., R.J. Cook, G. MacNish, E.N. Bassett, R.L.
seedlings. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 14:196-199. Powelson, and R.R. Petersen. 1986. Rhizoctonia bare patch
45. Moore, K.J., and R.J. Cook. 1984. Increased take-all of of small grains favored by reduced tillage in the Pacific
wheat with direct-drilling in the Pacific Northwest. Northwest. Plant Dis. 70:70-73.
Phytopathology 74:1044-1049. 64. Wilhelm, S., and A.O. Paulus. 1980. How soil fumigation
46. National Academy of Sciences. 1987. Biological Control in benefits the California strawberry industry. Plant Dis.
Managed Ecosystems. National Academy of Sciences Press, 64:264-270.
Wash. D.C. 12 pp. 65. Zingg, A.W., and CJ. Whitfield. 1957. Stubble-mulch farm-
47. National Research Council. 1989. Alternative Agriculture. ing in the western states. U.S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull.
National Academy Press, Wash. D.C. 1166:1-56.
Australasian Plant Pathology, 2001, 30, 119-126
Management of wheat and barley root diseases

in modern farming systems
R. James Cook
Endowed Chair in Wheat Research, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 9916:4-6430, USA.
A Keynote paper presented at the Second Australasian Soi/borne Diseases Symposium, Lorne, 5---8 March 2001
Abstract. Root diseases, namely take-all and Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rots, are so widespread and
occur so uniformly within fields of wheat and barley in the U.S. Pacific Northwest (PNW) that we have come to
accept these crops with these diseases as normal 'healthy' crops. The main reasons for the expanding range and
increasing prevalence of root diseases on wheat and barley in this and many other cereal-growing areas of the world
are two-fold: increased frequency of cereals in the rotation and the use of less, or no, tillage. Both trends are here
to stay because of their economic advantages and environmental benefits. Managing these diseases in these modern
farming systems is no small challenge since, unlike most leaf diseases of these crops, all cultivars of wheat and
barley are more or less equally susceptible to all four root diseases. Through a combination of cultural practices, the
severity of these diseases can at least be limited to 'chronic', while 'acute' outbreaks or what growers call 'wrecks',
are relatively rare. These practices are timely and effective management of volunteer and grass weed hosts before
planting; placement of fertiliser, especially phosphorus, beneath the seed within easy access of diseased roots; soil
disturbance below the seed; trash removal from within the seed row; pairing the row for a more open canopy to
favour warming and drying of soil beneath the crop residue; and the use of fresh seed and treatment of the seed with
a combination of fungicides for improved seedling vigour. No equivalent effort has been made in any other crop to
manage a disease complex without the benefit of host plant resistance. In spite of this, these practices, together with
take-all decline, only elevate yields to about 80% of the potential as revealed by fumigated (methyl bromide) check
plots. Future research must concentrate on the development of host plant resistance, including host plant resistance
with transgenes.
Introduction Kansas. Root diseases are a classic example of 'out of sight,

Development of the crop cultivars and practices necessary out of mind'.
to effectively and affordably manage root diseases quite During a 3-year survey in the PNW, take-all (caused by
likely offers the best, if not the only, remaining opportunity Gaeumanomyces graminis (Sacc.) von Arx & Oliver var.
for further significant increases in the yields of wheat and tritici Walker) was found to occur in 75% of fields at levels
barley in modern fanning systems. 'Modern fanning sufficient to be yield limiting, including the vast dryland
systems' can be defined as intensive, high-yield agriculture (non-irrigated) portions of this region (Ramsey et al. 2000).
achieved through adoption of 'Green Revolution' The level of take-all was roughly the same whether the fields
technologies. In the U.S. Pacific Northwest (PNW), root were re-cropped to wheat or alternated with a 12- to 14-
diseases have become so widespread and occur so uniformly month summer fallow (a common 2-year rotation). Take-all
within fields of wheat and barley that we have come to accept decline provides the only significant means of improving
these crops with these diseases as normal 'healthy' crops. yields in wheat monoculture, which may explain why the
Typically, one-fourth to one-half of the roots in these crops amount of disease in these fields is about the same for
are girdled with lesions, stripped of root hairs or the fine continuous and every-other-year wheat. Rhizoctonia root rot
rootlets, or completely severed. If the above-ground parts of caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kiihn AG8 was first reported
our cereal crops were as damaged and diseased as the roots, on wheat and barley in the PNW about 15 years ago (Weller
there would be no let up of support and effort until the et al. 1986) and is now found on one or more roots of
problems were solved. Based on experimental measurements essentially all barley and wheat plants in fields cropped
of yield limitations due to root diseases, and taking the U.S. continuously to cereals (no fallow break). This practice
land area planted to wheat at 27 million hectares, I estimate accounts for 40% of wheat and barley production in the
that root diseases cost the U.S. about 10 million tonnes PNW and the percentage is growing. Bipolaris sorokiniana
annually, about the amount of wheat produced each year in Sacc. in Sorok. (cause of common root rot), once limited to
©Australasian Plant Pathology Society 2001 10.1071/APO!Ol 0 0815-3191/01/020119

120 R. J.Cook
winter wheat planted in early autumn into fallow in this especially true for soils in the PNW where microbial
region, was recently shown to occur on roots or stem bases of breakdown of infested crop residue is already naturally slow.
80% of wheat samples collected from random fields When conditions are moist enough for microbial activity, the
representing the entire eastern Washington dryland wheat- soils typically are cold or even frozen and when warm
growing area (K. L. Schroeder and D. M. Weller, enough for microbial activity, the soils typically are dry.
unpublished). Fusarium root and crown rot, caused by Returning to traditional long-term crop rotations is no
F culmorum (Smith) Sacc. and F graminearum Schwabe longer an option for areas such a~ the PNW. Other than the
GpI, also once limited to winter wheat seeded into fallow in irrigated Columbia Basin of Washington and adjacent
early autumn (Cook 1980), caused severe damage in 2000 on Oregon, and the Snake River Plains of southern Idaho, the
hard-red (high protein) spring wheat seeded directly into vast inter-mountain region between the Cascades and
standing stubble (no-till) of winter or spring cereals in Rockies is almost entirely limited by climate to the
eastern Washington. Nematodes are also now a threat to root production of cool-season crops. The broadleaf crops
health for wheat (R.W. Smiley, personal communication). available for use in rotations are the cool-season pulses
Pythium root rot has been widespread and damaging on (peas, lentils and chickpeas) and brassicas (canola, rape and
wheat for decades in virtually all management systems yellow mustard). On the other hand, the region is ideally
(Cook and Haglund 1982). suited to wheat and barley and is among the few areas in the
The main reasons for the expanding range and increasing world where winter and spring cereals grow more or less
prevalence of root diseases on wheat and barley in this and equally well. The region is also suited to the production of
many other areas of the world are twofold. First, like modem the entire range of cereals based on end-use quality,
dryland cereal-based agriculture, wheat and barley make up including a full range of grain-protein contents in the case of
from at least two-thirds to all of the rotation in the PNW states. wheat, feed and malting-quality barley, club wheats (low-
Second, like cereal production throughout the world, the trend grain protein), triticale and durum.
in the PNW is toward direct seeding or 'no-till', meaning that Rotations between wheat and barley or between spring and
the residue of the previous crop is left on the soil surface and winter cereals help in the management of weeds and crop
the only soil disturbance is that required to inject the fertiliser residue. However, all cultivars of a given type of cereal are
and plant the crop. These two trends, intensive cereals and equally susceptible to the same root diseases, other than some
direct seeding, are only the latest and most drastic in a long modest differences in ability to escape, tolerate, or possibly
line of changes adopted or being adopted by growers in recover from root disease. More importantly, all cultivars of a
response to the need to become more efficient in the face of given type of crop, including the broadleaf crops available as
global competition and the need to save soil and water rotation crops with cereals, serve as hosts and are equally
resources in the interest oflong-term sustainability. susceptible to R. solani AG8 and the Pythium species that have
become such important pathogens on direct-seeded cereals.
Clean tillage and long crop rotations - R. solani AG8 causes identical and characteristic spear-tip
relics of the 20th century? symptoms on the roots of every broadleaf and cereal species
Research programs must take into account the likelihood we have tested (Cook, unpublished). The only effective 'break'
that clean tillage is obsolete and that direct seeding will for the management of this pathogen is a period with no plants
become the conventional method for production of cereals in the field (Rovira and Venn 1985; Rovira 1986). Different
and probably all broad-acre dryland crops world-wide. A Pythium species may be favoured by different crop species,
recent report showed that the potential for crops to contribute e.g. P irregulare Buisman by barley and P ultimum Trow by
to greenhouse warming, based on a complete acc9unting of peas (Ingram and Cook 1990), but collectively they present a
greenhouse gases, is lower (better) for no-till than organic ubiquitous presence in soils where their main effect, in
systems and significantly lower for no-till than for addition to infection of germinating seeds, is to strip away the
conventional tillage and planting (Robertson et al. 2000). In fine rootlets and root hairs of plants with essentially no escapes
addition to the potential to sequester carbon, direct-seed (Cook et al. 1987).
systems are more efficient than conventional systems
because the direct seeded crops are planted and fertilised in Innovative approaches to the management of wheat and
a single pass. They have a higher yield potential under rain- barley root diseases
fed conditions due to improved water capture and The approaches discussed below are for the management
conservation and provide habitat for birds and other wildlife of root diseases in continuous, direct-seeded cereals. They
because crop residue is left on the soil surface. are by no means unique to the PNW, but rather they represent
Unfortunately, the soilborne pathogens responsible for root the best ideas drawn from research around the world and
diseases of wheat and barley also survive longer and have a especially from research in Australia where some of the
higher inoculum potential in soils left relatively undisturbed finest work has been, and continues to be done on
and covered with crop residue (Cook 1992). This is management of wheat and barley root diseases. The adoption
Management of wheat and barley root diseases 121
in the PNW of ideas and practices from Australia is no weeds to the inoculum potential of pathogens is minor in this
coincidence. In addition to long-standing exchanges and situation compared with their inoculum potential in the
outstanding cooperation among the groups in the PNW and relatively fresh stubble bases of the crop just harvested. In
Australia, our two regions share many similarities in soils other words, the break between harvest (August) and
and climate and, therefore, also have had to contend with the planting (October) is too short for significant loss of
same mixtures of root diseases. inoculum potential of the pathogens, and the green bridge
1
It should also be noted that, while we are still well short becomes largely redundant.
of complete root disease control for wheat and barley, the
progress made, without depending on traditional crop Precision placement offertiliser
rotations, clean tillage, stubble burning or resistant cultivars, Most drills designed for seeding directly into standing
has taught us and the growers we serve how to farm better stubble are also equipped to place fertiliser somewhere
than ever before. below, or below and to one side of, the seed at the time of
planting. However, it was not until the response of crops to
Management of the 'green bridge' placement of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) was
No single discovery turned into practice has done more to compared in adjacent fumigated (methyl bromide under a
limit the severity of root diseases in continuous direct-seeded tarp) and non-fumigated plots that we realised the critical
cereals, especially ofRhizoctonia root rot, than the discovery importance of nutrient-access for diseased roots (Cook and
by Roget et al. ( 1987) of the need for timely and effective Veseth 1991; Cook et al. 2000). In fumigated plots, the NPS
elimination of volunteer (self-sown) plants and grass weeds can be placed below and up to 15 cm to one side of the seed
in the stubble of one crop before planting the next crop. Prior with no effect on growth or yield of the crop, whereas in
to this discovery, growers were applying their bum-down natural soil with a natural mixture of root pathogens, the
herbicide, e.g. glyphosate or Roundup, one or two days growth and yield of both wheat and barley are depressed
before direct-seeding, since this assured the greatest possible when NPS is placed more than 5--6 cm to one side of the
target of volunteer cereals and grass weeds for the herbicide seed. Presumably the effect is mainly one of access to the
treatment. Because of the finding of Roget et al. ( 1987), relatively immobile P, and the failure of plants to access this
which was confirmed by Smiley et al. (1992) for the PNW, or other nutrients when roots are diseased is due quite simply
the practice now is to provide a period of2-3 weeks or longer to the absence of roots or root hairs.
between application of the bum-down herbicide and planting For one-pass, direct-seed systems, seed and fertiliser are
the new crop. The term 'green bridge' describes what applied with the same machine as a single pass. For two-pass,
actually happens. The green plants serve as a living 'bridge' direct-seed systems, nitrogen is applied as one pass with one
of host plants for root pathogens between the decomposing machine and seed is applied with a drill as a second pass; all
stubble of the crop just harvested and the new crop seeded P and S and some N are still applied with the drill, usually
directly into that stubble several months later. The inoculum with the seed.
potential of R. solani AG8 actually increases during the first
few days after infected plants are treated with glyphosate, Soil disturbance and residue cleaning in the seed row
presumably because of a collapse of defences as the shikimic The severity of Rhizoctonia root rot can be greatly
acid pathway shuts down (Rubin et al. 1984). However, reduced by soil disturbance, such as that achieved with
because young roots are relatively quick to decompose when conventional tillage (MacNish 1985; Rovira 1986). In the
dead, the food base so critical to the inoculum potential of PNW, this disease is largely limited to direct-seed systems
R. solani AG8 is short lived. (Weller et al. 1986; Pumphrey et al. 1987). Seeding directly
The greatest responses to effective green bridge into undisturbed soil has also been shown to exacerbate take-
management in the PNW have been with spring cereals all under PNW conditions (Moore and Cook 1984) but not
seeded directly into stubble of a cereal harvested the previous under South-Eastern U.S. conditions where wheat is direct-
fall. This cropping system provides up to 8 months between seeded into soybean stubble in a double-crop system
autumn harvest (August of one calendar year) and spring (Rothrock 1987). Drills used for direct seeding differ greatly
planting (April of the next calendar year). Ideally, these fields in the amount of soil disturbance provided both within the
should already be sprayed before winter (November) if seed row and below the seed. Roget et al. ( 1996) showed that
autumn rains support an adequate green-up. The second best for conditions in South Australia, sowing points designed to
treatment is to spray during the first open period in late disturb the soil below the seed resulted in less Rhizoctonia
winter (late February or early March) to provide at least root rot and take-all compared to direct-seed treatments that
1 month between spraying and seeding. Under PNW did not disturb the soil below the seed. In contrast,
conditions, management of the green bridge is not as critical Schi.llinger et al. ( 1999) found similar amounts of
for winter wheat direct-seeded into stubble in the autumn Rhizoctonia root rot on spring barley whether direct-seeded
since, typically, any contribution of volunteer and grass with aggressive soil disturbance within the seed row and
122 R.J. Cook
below the seed or with virtually no soil disturbance. While beneath the seed. Root ratings showed less Rhizoctonia root
conventional tillage almost eliminates Rhizoctonia root rot rot in one study and less take-all in another study in response
and reduces the amount of take-all in the PNW, there is still to a 17 /43 cm paired-row configuration compared to adjacent
no clear evidence of potential for management of either plots with uniform 30-cm row spacing. Fumigation and
Rhizoctonia root rot or take-all with openers designed for straw removal each nullified the benefits of pairing the rows,
soil disturbance. Different growers have preferences for presumably because these treatments also reduced or
different openers but all openers seem more or less similar, eliminated pressure from the root diseases so that any paired-
provided that (i) the seed is placed at a uniform and row benefit was redundant.
controlled depth into contact with moist soil and (ii) The occurrence of yield responses to the paired-row
fertiliser, especially P, is placed within easy access of the spacing when fertiliser was placed within, but not between,
seedling roots. the seed rows suggests that any improvement in root health
Stubble burning can provide almost complete control of when rows were paired was insufficient to help these plants
Rhizoctonia root rot and take-all in the PNW (Cook and reach the fertiliser, especially the P placed between, rather
Haglund 1991 ; Cook et al. 2000). Returning straw to the than within, the seed rows. This finding reinforces a principle
surface laid bare by burning results in a return to severe root of integrated disease management, which is that effective
disease, pointing clearly to an influence of the straw on the management often results from the combination of practices
environment of the pathogens and not to a sterilising effect and not any one practice by itself. These results, like the
of the burning on the pathogen-infested soil. Soil made bare- experience discussed earlier on soil disturbance and row
black by burning warms and dries faster during periods cleaning, must also be recognised as the outcomes of subtle
between rains than does soil uniformly covered with straw. differences achieved through environmental effects;
This is important since these root diseases are favoured by differences that do little more than nudge the system towards
cool, wet soil conditions. This also raises the question of less root disease and the crop towards greater productivity.
whether sowing points or row cleaners that move the residue
into the space between the rows is helpful because they Planting at an angle to the old stubble rows
favour greater or faster warming and drying of the top few Since most inoculum of the root pathogens resides within
centimetres of soil around the plants where the pathogens are the tiller bases and associated root tissue, it follows that
active. To test this hypothesis would require a design that planting the new crop at an angle to the stubble rows of the
experimentally separates a soil-disturbance effect from a previous crop will provide better control of the amount of
row-cleaning effect. If the primary effect is through greater seed placed between, rather than within, the old stubble rows.
warming and drying of soil, then one could expect, as Seeding in the same direction as the old stubble rows
happens, different responses in different years or in areas introduces the risk of long stretches of rows being planted
with different patterns of rainfall and evaporation. directly on top of old stubble compared to groups of two or
three plants in rows where they cross the old stubble rows.
Paired-row spacing Even if the same percentage of new plants occurs in old
If greater warming and drying of the soil are helpful to stubble rows, theoretically and practically, the impact on
root disease control, then exposing the soil surface with yield is less where the plants occur in small clusters within
wider row spacing should also be helpful. Unfortunately, rows of healthy plants than where they occur as entire lengths
simply increasing the space between the rows also results in of row. Some PNW growers have now adopted the practice
fewer rows and hence, potentially, a lower density of plants. of seeding at an angle to old stubble rows within the limits of
To overcome this problem, Cook et al. (2000) co!Ilpared a their need to plant their hilly terrain on the contour.
uniform 30-cm row spacing with a 'paired-row' spacing.
Two rows were sown at 17 cm apart alternating with a 43 cm Importance offresh, high-quality seed
spacing between each pair of rows, thereby providing the High-quality seed is a pillar of green revolution
same number of rows and hence plant density per unit area technologies. What has not been as widely recognised is that
as a conventional spacing. These two-row spacings were, in seed deterioration with aging can increase the susceptibility
tum, tested in combination with (i) all fertiliser placed of the germinating wheat seeds to infection by Pythium
beneath the seed compared with between the rows, and species (Hering et al. 1987). The older the seed, the greater
(ii) different levels of root disease pressure created by the frequency of dead or dying cells in the seed coat and
fumigating or leaving the soil natural with, and without, the other seed tissues, especially if the seed is stored in a warm
removal of crop residue by burning. environment typical of storage bins during the summer
Pairing the rows resulted in significantly higher yields of months. As these seeds begin to imbibe water from moist
wheat, specifically when tested in natural soil with straw soil, the contents of the dead cells becomes part of the seed
residue on the soil surface and all fertiliser placed directly exudate well known to stimulate infection by Pythium
species. A typical seed germination test may not reveal the Disease decline phenomena and biological
subtle but critical differences in Pythium susceptibility of seed treatments
2-3 or 4-year-old versus new (fresh) seed. Planting fresh After green bridge management and precision placement
seed is especially important when planting into cold, wet of fertiliser, take-all decline is probably the single most
trashy seed beds typical of direct-seed systems so favourable important factor contributing to the stable or consistent and
to Pythium (Cook et al. 1990). gradually increasing yields of continuous direct-seeded
cereals. Unfortunately, take-all decline requires 12-15 years
Seed treatments with fungicides to develop (Cook 1988; Raaijmakers et al. 1997). Yields then
Seed treatments are helpful against soilbome pathogens, if approach, on average, 80-90% of the potential demonstrated
for no other reason than for protection of the germinating seed by soil fumigation or that which can be obtained with a
and the improvement of seedling vigour. Smiley and Patterson 3-year or longer crop rotation. Decline of Rhizoctonia root
( 1995) reported a 5% (185 kg ha- 1) increase in grain yield for rot with continuous cereals has also been documented (Lucas
winter wheat grown conventionally in eastern Oregon in et al. 1993; Roget 1995), but the extent to which this occurs,
response to seed treatments (Vitavax, carboxin and Dividend, or has occurred, in the Northwest is still unknown.
difenoconzole) intended mainly for smut control. Of particular interest to our program in Pullman has been
The introduction by the agrochemical company Novartis of the question of whether a benefit as good or better than take-
seed-treatment products containing metalaxyl, sold in North all decline can be obtained without waiting for take-all
America under the trade name of Apron, represented a decline to develop, by introducing (either singly or as
significant improvement over thiram and captan for protection mixtures) the microorganisms responsible for take-all
of germinating seeds against infection by Pythium species decline as living seed treatments. This two-decade effort was
(Cook et al. 1980; Cook and Zhang 1985). Likewise, started in 1979 (Weller and Cook 1983) and the historical
difenoconzole and tebuconazole (Raxil) have some activity aspects and progress were recently reviewed (Mathre et al.
against Rhizoctonia root rot. Today, Dividend and Raxil are 1999). Therefore, only the recent work on seed treatments
both used in combination with Apron. Either Apron or with three unique strains of rhizobacteria are discussed here.
Dividend used alone has resulted in yield depressions, The strains are (i) Bacillus species L324-90 with limited but
possibly because suppression of Pythium favours Rhizoctonia demonstrable rhizosphere competence, broad-spectrum
and vice versa. Earlier work with soil amendments ofDexon antibiotic activity and ability to grow at 5°C or colder (Kim
to control Pythium spp. were shown to increase Rhizoctonia et al. 1991a and b) (ii) Pseudomonasfiuorescens Qc69 with
pod rot of peanuts and, conversely, soil amendments with modest rhizosphere competence but no known antibiotic
pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) to control R. solani were activity (Pierson and Weller 1994) and (iii) Pseudomonas
shown to increase Pythium pod rot of peanut (Garren 1965). fiuorescens Q8Rl with outstanding rhizosphere competence
My tests with seed treatments have been conducted and ability to inhibit the take-all pathogen by production
exclusively with winter and spring wheat seeded directly into of the antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol. Q8Rl is
cereal stubble with maximal green bridge management, rows representative of a collection of fluorescent pseudomonad
spaced uniformly at 30 cm apart, crop residue left on the soil genotypes thought to account primarily for take-all decline
surface/not burned) and all fertiliser placed under the seed. (Raaijmakers and Weller 1998). Strains L324-90 and Qc69
Based on a statistical t-test for observations across multiple were both obtained from the rhizosphere of wheat growing in
locations and years, the average yield response to Dividend fields that had undergone take-all decline and could possibly
+Apron was an increase of 3.1% (190 kg ha- 1) and 8.1% represent a portion of the rhizosphere community
(270 kg ha- 1) for winter and spring wheat, ,respectively. responsible for take-all decline. However, their role in take-
Similarly, the yield average response to Raxil +Apron was an all decline, if any, is probably secondary. Each of these three
increase of 9.5% (220 kg ha- 1) and 5.7% (170 kg ha- 1) for strains has been tested alone and in combination with
winter and spring wheat, respectively. Because of the Dividend and Raxil, with and without Apron or thiram.
variability, these responses are only significant at the level of Strains L324-90 and Qc69 have shown the greatest
P = 0.1. Nevertheless, the percentage increases are similar to, potential when combined with one or more chemical
or slightly higher than those obtained by Smiley and fungicides. For example, Qc69 produced an average 8.4%
Patterson (1995). However, to place these yield increases and 17. 7% yield increase for winter and spring wheat,
into perspective, the average yield increase to methyl respectively, when combined with Dividend compared with
bromide soil fumigation in these same tests was 24% (900 kg 1.2% and 3.2 % for Qc69 alone, and 5.2% and no increase
ha- 1) and 32% (1000 kg ha- 1) for winter and spring wheat, for Dividend alone on winter and spring wheat, respectively.
respectively. Seed treatments pay, but obviously the yield Both combination treatments and Dividend alone on winter
increases are well below the potential as revealed by the wheat were significant at P = 0.01 whereas none of the other
yields in fumigated plots. yield increases were significant even at P = 0.1. The limiting
124 R. J. Cook
factor economically for these biological treatments is rot when seeded early on fallow with heavy nitrogen
dosage: L324-90 must be applied at high populations of 105 fertilisation. These conditions can lead to plant water stress
CFU per seed and Qc69 has been applied at 5 x I 06 or 10 7 because of tiller and leaf formation in excess of what can be
CFU per seed. supported to 'finish' the crop with available soil water. High
Strain Q8Rl is more promising, but like L324-90 and nitrogen fertility is necessary to produce high grain protein,
Qc69, it works best when combined with one of the chemical which may account for the recent outbreaks ofFusarium root
fungicides. This is not surprising, considering that the activity and crown rot on hard-red ipring wheat in eastern
of this strain is apparently limited to take-all, whereas typically Washington. Since 'resistance' is· apparently due more to
two or more root diseases affect PNW wheat in any given field escape or tolerance mechanisms rather than true host-plant
and year. On winter wheat where the most data are available, resistance, breeding for both high-protein grain and
the average yield response to this strain has been 5.4% when resistance to Fusarium root and crown rot presents a
used alone and 15.2%, 9.3% and 12% when combined with challenge. In some fields, the pathogen is F culmorum and in
Dividend+ Apron, Dividend, and Raxil + thiram, respectively. others, F graminearum. In Queensland, resistance or
All four yield responses are significant at P = 0.1. These yield tolerance to Fusarium crown rot caused by F graminearum
responses represent nearly half of the potential of that is associated with shallow crowns (Wildermuth et al. 1999).
achieved experimentally with soil fumigation. Because of its R. W. Smiley (personal communication) is now evaluating
outstanding rhizosphere competence, Q8Rl is used at only I 03 this germplasm for resistance to Fusarium root and crown rot
CFU per seed. under PNW conditions.
The lack of useful genes for resistance to aphid-vectored
Development of host plant resistance especially through plant viruses is being solved by turning to transgenes,
plant transformations specifically coat-protein genes or other genes from the
It is no longer good enough to limit our work on root targeted viruses themselves as a source of resistance
disease management entirely to management by cultural (Gonsalves 1998). Likewise, the lack of useful genes for
practices and seed treatments while depending little, or not at resistance to European corn borer, Colorado potato beetle,
all, on host-plant resistance. The list above, impressive and several insect pests of cotton is being solved by turning
though it may be, is not enough to manage these diseases, to a family oftransgenes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for
even with good green bridge management and fertiliser production of proteins toxic to these targeted insect pests. In
placement beneath the seed. This is indicated by the 25-30% no case can the use of trans genes be better justified than for
yield increases achieved in response to soil fumigation. Seed the management ofroot diseases. Even in cases of potentially
treatments with combinations of fungicides and Q8Rl have useful resistance available within a distant relative, such as
the potential to capture half or more of the shortfall between the resistance to take-all in D. villosum, molecular methods
best cultural practices and best root disease control. Whether may be more efficient or possibly the only methods by which
this technology will be scaled up and marketed commercially to transfer and express the resistance in commercially
remains to be seen (Mathre et al. 1999). In either case, we are acceptable cultivars.
at, or near, the limits of what can be accomplished with Research with transgenes for resistance to Rhizoctonia
cultural practices and possibly also with seed treatments. We root rot of broadleaf crops has focused, with some success,
must now seriously turn to host plant resistance for our next on genes for production of chitinase (Broglie et al. 1991;
breakthrough. Thus far, the only serious attempt at host-plant Lori to et al. 1998). The results ofLorito et al. ( 1998) with the
resistance to wheat and barley root diseases has been the endochitinase gene from Trichoderma harzianum expressed
work in Queensland aimed at resistance to Fusarium crown in tobacco and potato led us to test this same gene expressed
rot (Wildermuth et al. 1999). ' in barley (Wu et al. 2000). We chose barley over wheat for
Resistance to both the wheat and oat strains of take-all this work because of its diploid genome and greater
fungus, and to R. solani AG8 occurs in Dasypyrum villosum susceptibility to R. solani AG8. Of approximately 140 plants
(=Haynaldia villosa) (Linde-Laursen et al. 1973; S. Jones that tested positive for endo42 based on PCR, all were as
and R.J. Cook, unpublished), a distant relative of wheat. In susceptible as the cultivar 'Golden Promise,' the unmodified
both cases, this resistance is expressed in the seminal roots check. We are now conducting tests to determine whether the
of seedlings, indicating true physiological resistance. Thus gene is possibly not expressed. Other genes, such as those for
far, however, it has not been possible to transfer this production of exochitinase (N-acetyl-n-hexosamidase), in
resistance to hexaploid wheat. combination with endo42, show promise as a source of
The superior performance of some soft-white winter resistance in apple to Venturia inequalis (Bolar et al. 2001).
wheat cultivars, when infected by Fusarium culmorum under Future research should also focus more on the molecular
dryland conditions in the PNW, has been associated with the biology and biochemistry of how plants respond to and
ability of these cultivars to avoid or tolerate water stress defend themselves against root pathogens. Vijayan et al.
(Cook 1980). Even these cultivars can develop severe crown (1998) showed for the model plantArabidopsis thaliana that
a jasmonic-acid-mediated signalling system plays a major Ingram DM, Cook RJ (1990) Pathogenicity of four Pythium species to
role in the ability of these plants to resist total root wheat, barley, peas, and lentils. Plant Pathology 39, 110---117
destruction by a weakly pathogenic species of Pythium. An Kim DS, Cook RJ, Weller DM (1997a) Bacillus spp. L324-92 for
biological control of three root diseases of wheat grown with
understanding of the molecular basis for the milder reduced tillage. Phytopathology 87, 551-558.
Fusarium root and crown rot caused by F. culmorum on Kim DS, Weller DM, Cook RJ (1997b) Population dynamics of
wheat not under water stress (Cook 1980), or why plants Bacillus spp. L324-92Rl 2 and Pseudomonas fluorescens 2-79RN 10
convert from susceptible to 'supersusceptible' to R. solani in the rhizosphere of wheat. Phytbpathology 87, 559-564.
Linde-Laursen I, Jensen HP, J0rgensen, JH (1973) Resistance of
AG8 when treated with glyphosate (Smiley et al. 1992),
Tritica/e, Aegilops, and Haynaldia· species to the take-all fungus,
could also give clues to ways that the plant's own defences Gaeumannomyces graminis. Zeitschrift far Pflanzenziichten 70,
might be enhanced through genetic modification. These 200---213.
approaches may well offer the best, if not the only, means to Lucas P, Smiley W, Collins HP(l 993) Decline of Rhizoctonia root rot
root disease management through host plant resistance and on wheat in soils infested with Rhizoctonia solani AG-8.
Phytopathology 83, 260---263.
should be pursued without further delay.
Lorita M, Woo SL, Fernandez JG, Colucci G, Harman GE, Pintor-Toro
JA, Filippone E, Muccifora S, Lawrence CB, Zoina A, Tuzun S,
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Bolar JP, Norelli JL, Harman GE, Brown SK, Aldwinckle HS (2001) improving plant resistance to fungal pathogens Proceedings of the
Synergistic activity of endochitinase and exochitinase from National Academy of Sciences USA 95, 7860---7865.
Trichoderma atroviride (T harzianum) against the pathogenic MacNish GC ( 1985) Methods of reducing Rhizoctonia patch of cereals
fungus Venturia inaequalis in transgenic apple plants. Transgenic in Western Australia. Plant Pathology 34, 175-181.
Technologies (in press). Mathre DM, Cook RJ, Callan NW (1999) From discovery to use:
Broglie K, Chet I, Holliday M, Cressman R, Biddle P, Knowlton S, Traversing the world of commercialising biocontrol agents for plant
Mauvais CJ, Broglie R (1991) Transgenic plants with enhanced disease control. Plant Disease 83, 972-983.
resistance to the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani. Science 254, Moore KJ, Cook RJ (1984) Increased take-all of wheat with direct-
1194-1197. drilling in the Pacific Northwest. Phytopathology 74, 1044-1049.
Cook RJ (1980) Fusarium foot rot of wheat and its control in the Pacific Pierson EA, Weller DM. (1994) Use of mixtures of fluorescent
Northwest. Plant Disease 64, 1061-1066. pseudomonads to suppress take-all and improve growth of wheat.
Cook RJ (1988) Biological control and holistic plant-health care in Phytopathology 84, 940---947.
agriculture. American Journal ofAlternative Agriculture 3, 51-62. Pumphrey FV, Wilkins DE, Hane DC, Smiley RW (1987) Influence of
Cook RJ (1992) Wheat root health management and environmental tillage and nitrogen fertiliser on Rhizoctonia root rot of direct-
concern. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 14, 76-85. drilled wheat by short-term chemical fallow. Plant Disease 71,
Cook RJ, Chamswarng C, Tang W-h (1990) Influence of wheat chaff 125-127.
and tillage on Pythium populations and Pythium damage to wheat. Raaijmakers JM, Weller DM (1998) Natural plant protection by 2,4-
Soil Biology and Biochemistry 22, 939-94 7. diacetylphloroglucinol-producing Pseudomonas spp. in take-all
Cook RJ, Haglund WA ( 1982) Pythium root rot: A barrier to yield of decline soils. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 11, 144-152.
Pacific Northwest wheat. Washington State College of Agricultural Raaijmakers JM, Weller DM, Thomashow LS (1997) Frequency of
Research Bulletin No. XB0913. 20 pp. antibiotic producing Pseudomonas spp. in natural environments.
Cook RJ, Haglund WA (1991) Wheat yield depression associated with Applied Environmental Microbiology. 63. 881-887.
conservation tillage caused by root pathogens in the soil not Ramsey NE, Cook RJ, Halsey ME (2000) Prevalence of wheat take-all
phytotoxins from the straw. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 23, in the Pacific Northwest. Phytopathology 90: S63 (abstract).
1125-1132. Robertson GP, Paul EA, Harwood RR (2000) Greenhouse gases in
Cook RJ,-Ownley BH, Zhang H, Vakoch D (2000) Influence ofpaired- intensive agriculture: contributions of individual gases to the
row spacing and fertiliser placement on yield and root diseases of radiative forcing of the atmosphere. Science 298, 1922-1925.
direct-seeded wheat. Crop Science 40, 1079-1087. Roget DK (1995) Decline in root rot (Rhizoctonia solani AG-8) in
Cook RJ, Sitton JW, Haglund WA (1987) Influence of soil treatments on wheat in a tillage and rotation experiment at Avon, South Australia.
growth and yield of wheat and implications for control of Pythium Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 35, 1009-1013.
root rot. Phytopathology 77, 1192-1198. ' Roget DK, Neate SM, Rovira AD ( 1996) Effect of sowing point design
Cook RJ, Sitton JW, Waldher JT (1980) Evidence for Pythium as a and tillage practice on the incidence of Rhizoctonia root rot, take-
pathogen of direct drilled wheat in the Pacific Northwest. Plant all and cereal cyst nematode in wheat and barley.Australian Journal
Disease 64, 1061-1066. of Experimental Agriculture 36, 683--{i93.
Cook RJ, Veseth RJ (1991) 'Wheat health management.' (APS Press: Roget DK, Venn NR, Rovira AD ( 1987) Reduction in Rhizoctonia root
St. Paul, MN) rot of direct drilled wheat by short-term chemical fallow. Australian
Cook RJ, Zhang BX ( 1985) Degrees of sensitivity to metalaxyl within Journal of Experimental Agriculture 27, 425-430.
the Pythium spp. pathogenic to wheat in the Pacific Northwest. Rothrock CS ( 1987) Take-all of wheat as affected by tillage and wheat-
Plant Disease 69, 686--688. soybean double cropping. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 19,
Garren KH (1965) In 'Ecology ofsoilborne plant pathogens' (Eds KF 307-311.
Baker and WC Snyder) p. 478 (University of California, Berkeley Rovira AD ( 1986) Influence of crop rotation and tillage on Rhizoctonia
Press) bare patch of wheat. Phytopathology 76, 669--{i73. -
Gonsalves D ( 1998) Control of papaya ring spot virus in papaya; a case Rovira AD, Venn NR (1985) Effect of rotation and tillage on take-all
study. Annual Review of Phytopathology 36, 415-43 7. and Rhizoctonia root rot of wheat. In 'Ecology and management of
Hering TF, Cook RJ, Tang W-h ( 1987) Infection of wheat embryos by soilborne plant diseases'. (Eds CA Parker, AD Rovira, KJ Moore,
Pythium species during seed germination and the influence of PT Wong and JF Kollmorgen) pp. 255-258 (American
seedage and soil matric potential. Phytopathology 77, 1104-1108. Phytopathological Society: St. Paul, MN)
126 R.J.Cook
Rubin JL, Gaines CG, Jensen RA (1984) Glyphosate inhibition of Weller DM, Cook RJ (1983) Suppression of take-all of wheat by seed
5-Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase from suspension- treatments with fluorescent pseudomonads. Phytopathology 73,
cultured cells of Nicotiana silvestris. Plant Physiology 75, 463-469.
839-845. Weller DM, Cook RJ, MacNish G, Bassett EN, Powelson RL, Petersen
Schillinger WF, Cook RJ, Papendick RI (1999). Increased cropping RR ( 1986) Rhizoctonia bare patch of small grains favoured by
intensity for low-precipitation dryland farming using no-till. reduced tillage in the Pacific Northwest. Plant Disease 70, 70-73.
Agronomy Journal 91, 744-752. Wildermuth GB, McNamara RB, Sparks T, Davis M (1999) Sources and
Smiley RW, Ogg Jr AG, Cook RJ (1992) Influence of glyphosate on types of resistance to crown rot of wheat. In 'Proceedings of the 9th
Rhizoctonia root rot and growth and yield of barley. Plant Disease sssembly of the wheat breeding society of Australia, 27 Sept.-I Oct.
76,937-942. 1999, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia'.
Smiley RW, Patterson L-M (I 995) Winter wheat yield and profitability (Eds P Williamson, P Banks, J Thompson and A Campbell) pp. ~5.
from dividend and vitavax seed treatments. Journal of Production Wu Y, Cook RJ, Horvath H, Kannangara GG, von Wettstein D (2000)
Agriculture 8, 350-354. Transformation of barley for resistance to Rhizoctonia root rot with
Vijayan P, Shockey J, Levesque CA, Cook RJ, Browse J (1998) A role a codon-optimized chitinase gene from Trichoderma harzianum.
for jasmonate in pathogen defence of Arabidopsis. Proceedings of International Rhizoctonia Symposium, Taichung, Taiwan, 17-20
the National Academy of Sciences USA 95, 7209-7214. August 2000.
http://www.publish.csiro.au/joumals/app
P/0111 Pmducrion ond Pmrccrio11 Series No 30
BREAD
WHEAT
Improvement
and production
Edited by
B.C. Curtis
Former International Maize
and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) scientist
S. Rajaram
Director, Wheat Programme, CIMMYT
H. Gomez Macpherson
Cereals Officer, FAO Crop and Grassland Service
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this
information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city
or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.
The designations "developed" and "developing" economies are
intended tor statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a
judgement about the stage reached by a particular country or area in
the development process.
ISBN 92-5-104809-6
All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product
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Reproduction of material in this information product tor resale or other commercial
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©FAQ 2002
Bread wheat: improl'ement and production 345
-~---------- -- -- ---- -------- ---- - -
Important nematode pests

J.M. Nicol
Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that implementing the possible control(s). These
live in many habitats. At least 2 500 species will be discussed briefly for each nematode.
of plant-parasitic nematodes have been The purpose of this chapter is to provide
described, characterized by the presence of a an insight into the economically important
stylet, which is used for penetration of host nematodes on small grains, their currently
plant tissue. Most attack roots and under- known distribution and damage potential, and
ground parts of plants, but some are able to the management options that exist for their
feed on leaves and flowers. control. For further references and illustra-
Plant-parasitic nematodes are of great eco- tion of these nematodes, refer to the reviews
nomic importance. However, because most of of Kort ( 1972), Griffin ( 1984 ), Sikora ( 1988 ).
them live in the soil, they represent one of Swarup and Sosa-Moss ( 1990) and Ri voal and
the most difficult pest problems to identify. Cook (l 993 ).
demonstrate and control (Stirling et al.,
1998). Their effects are commonly under- CEREAL CYST NEMATODES
estimated by farmers, agronomists and pest Distribution
management consultants, but it has been The cereal cyst nematodes, Heterodera spp.,
estimated that some l 0 percent of world crop are a group of several closely related species
production is lost as a result of plant nematode and are considered to be one of the most im-
damage (Whitehead, 1998). portant groups of plant-parasitic nematodes
Although many nematodes have been found on a worldwide basis. The most commonly
associated with small-grained cereals, only a recorded species of economic importance on
few of them are considered economically cereals is H. avenae. which has been detected
important. Those of importance include: in many countries. including Australia.
(i) cereal cyst nematodes, Heteroderd spp.; Canada, Israel, South Africa, Japan and most
(ii) root lesion nematodes, Pratylenchus spp.; European countries (Kort, 1972), as well as
(iii) root knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp.; India (Sharma and Swamp, 1984; Sikora,
(iv) seed gall nematode, Anguina tritici; and 1988) and countries within North Africa and
(v) stem nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci. Each West Asia, including Morocco, Tunisia,
of these is described and discussed below. Pakistan and Libya (Sikora, 1988), and re-
Management of nematodes may be ap- cently Algeria (Mokabli et al., 200 l) and
proached by using a combination of methods Saudi Arabia (Ibrahim et al., 1999). Although
in an integrated pest management system or its distribution is global, much of the research
may involve only one of these methods. Some· has been confined to Europe, Canada,
of the most commonly practised methods will Australia and India (Swamp and Sosa-Moss,
be discussed, including crop rotation, the use 1990).
of resistant and tolerant cultivars, cultural Heterodera avenae is the principal species
practices and chemicals. It is important to on temperate cereals (Rivoal and Cook,
stress that the most appropriate control 1993 ), while another important cereal species,
method will be determined by the nematode H. latipons, is essentially only Mediterranean
involved and the economic feasibility of in distribution, being found in Syria (Sikora
346 /111portant nematode pests
---------------
and Oostendorp, 1986; Scholz, 200 I), Israel determined largely by temperature (Rivoal
(Kort, 1972; Mor et al., 1992), Cyprus and Cook, 1993 ).
(Sikora, 1988), Italy and Libya (Kort, 1972). The symptoms produced on the roots are
However, it is also known to occur in north- different dependent on the host. Wheat
ern Europe (Sabova et al., 1988). Other attacked by H. avenae shows increased root
Heterodera species known to be of impor- production such that the roots have a 'bushy
tance to cereals include: H. hordecalis in knotted' appearance usually with several
Sweden, Germany and the United Kingdom females visible at each knot (Rivoal and Cook,
(Andersson, 1974; Sturhan, 1982; Cook and 1993) as illustrated in Plate 55. Oat roots are
York, l 982a); H. zeae, which is found in shortened and thickened, while barley roots
India, Pakistan (Sharma and Swamp, 1984; appear less affected. Other species of
Maqbool, 1988) and Iraq (Stephan, 1988); Heterodera also appear to produce host-
H. filipjevi in Russia (Balakhnina, 1989) and specific symptoms on the roots of cereals. For
Turkey (Nicol et al., unpublished data); and example, in Israel H. latipons did not pro-
various others, including H. mant, duce knotted roots as H. avenae (Mor et al.,
H. bifenestra and H. pakistanensis, and an 1992). Above-ground symptoms of H. avenae
unrelated species of cyst nematode, appear early in the season as pale green
Punctodera punctata (Sikora, 1988). Other patches of plants with fewer tillers. Patches
cyst nematode species have been found on may vary in size from I m 2 to l 00 m 2 or more.
cereals, but they have not been shown to be In France. successful detection of H. avenae
economically important. Most of these species in wheat fields was achieved with the use of
are difficult to differentiate easily and require radiothermometry (Nicolas et al., 1991; Lili
a strong taxonomic understanding of morpho- et al., 1991 ). It is possible that this technique
logical traits of cysts or juveniles. Recent could be extended to thermography, which
molecular techniques, such as random could improve the detection of cereal cyst
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of the nematode attacks in large areas.
ribosomal DNA, have enabled solid taxo- Heterodera avenae is the best known
nomic differentiation among several entities species, but is polymorphous with many
of the cereal cyst nematode complex (Bekal pathotypes (Andersen and Andersen, 1982;
et al., 1997; Subbotin et al., 2000). Cook and Rivoal, 1998). The induction or
suppression of dormancy (diapause) by
Biology different temperatures regulates the hatching
The host range of H. avenae is restricted to of H. avenae juveniles. In Mediterranean
graminaceous plants. There is sexual dimor- climates, the diapause is obligate and durable,
phism with the male remaining worm-like, acting when the climate is hot and dry and
whereas the female becomes lemon-shaped being suppressed when the soil temperature
and spends its life inside or attached to the falls and moisture rises (Rivoal and Cook,
root. The adult white female is clearly visible 1993 ). The diapause requirements in other
on roots with the swollen body, about 1 mm climates with Heterodera species are less well
across, protruding from the root surface. Eggs understood but they are essential to under-
are retained within the female's body, and standing the biology and control of those
after the female has rlied, the body wall species.
hardens to a resistant brown cyst, which pro- To date, the pathotypes of H. avenae have
tects the eggs and juveniles. The eggs within been recognized with the test developed by
the cyst remain viable for several years (Kort, Andersen and Andersen ( 1982) designated
1972). Heterodera avenae has only one The International Cereal Test Assortment for
generation per year, with the hatch of eggs Defining Cereal Cyst Nematode Pathotypes,
Bread wheat: improvement and production 347
TABLE 22.1
Pathotypes of cereal cyst nematodes defined by an International Test
Assortment of cereal cultivars
Pathotype Heterodera m·enae group Ha I pathotypes Ha2 Ha3 H.h." Hb h
Hall Ha2l Ha3 l Ha4 l Ha5 l Ha61 Ha71 Hal2 Hal3 Ha23 Ha33 Hhl Hbl
Differential
Barley
Emir [Rha?c] sd s s R s s s s s s s
Ortolan [Rha f] R R R R R R R s s s s s s
Siri [Rha.2'] R R R s s s R R s s s s s
Morocco [Rha.'.f] R R R R R R R R R R R R s
Varde s s s s s s s s s s
KVL 191 R R R s s s R
Baja Aragon R R R R R s s R s R
Herta s s R R R s s
Martin 403-2 R R R R R R s s s s
Dalmastische {R) s R (S) s s (R) s (R) s
La Estanzuela s (R) (R) s
Harlan 43 R R R R s
Oats
Sun II s R R R R s R s s s s R s
Nidar s s s R s s s s R s
Pus a Hybrid BS 1 R R R R R R R s R s R s
Silva {R) R (R) R (R) (R) (R) s R s
Avena sterilis R R R R R R R R R R R s
IGV.H 76-646 R R R R R s s s s
Wheat
Capa s s s s s s s s s R s
Loras R R R (R) R R (R) s s R R
lskamish K-2-light s R (R) s s s s R R
AUS 10894 R R R s R (R) s s R R
Psathias s s s s R R s
"H hordecalis.
bff bifenestra.
"Resistance genes 1 to 3 in barley defining 3 pathotype groups.
dS =susceptible; R =resistant; (S) or (R) =intermediate: - =no observation.
Source: From Rivoal and Cook, 1993; and previously modified from Andersen and Andersen. 1982.
which has been modified by Rivoal and Cook Economic importance

( 1993) and is presented in Table 22.1. In these Heterodera avenae has been associated with
tests, it is quite difficult to make clear-cut economic levels of damage exclusively in
distinctions between resistance and suscepti- light soils. However, it can cause economic
bility based on the number of cysts alone. damage irrespective of soil type when the in-
Further, pathotypes may also occur in mix- tensity of cereal cropping exceeds a certain
tures, which complicates delineation of the limit (Kort, 1972). Yield losses due to this
pathotype in a particular sample (Swarup and nematode are: 15 to 20 percent on wheat in
Sosa-Moss, 1990). Pakistan (Maqbool, 1988); 40 to 92 percent
348 Important nematode pests
on wheat and 17 to 77 percent on barley in from several Mediterranean countries

Saudi Arabia (Ibrahim et al., 1999); and associated with the poor growth of wheat
20 percent on barley and 23 to 50 percent on (Kort, 1972). Unfortunately, this nematode
wheat in Australia (Meagher, 1972). has not been studied in detail, and information
Recent studies by Scholz (2001) implicate on its host range, biology and pathogenicity
yield loss with both barley and durum wheat is scarce; nonetheless. it is suspected to be an
with H. latipons. Also H. avenae and H. zeae important constraint on barley and durum
are major pests of wheat and barley in wheat production in temperate semi-arid
Pakistan (Maqbool, 1988). In India, H. zeae regions (Sikora. 1988: Scholz, 2001 ). Other
is considered to be one of the most economi- cyst nematodes, such as P. punctata and
cally important nematodes attacking cereals H. hordecalis, have been described from roots
(Sharma and Swamp, 1984 ). Heterodera of cereals in several countries, but their dis-
avenae has been associated with severe tribution and economic importance is
diseases present in India known as molya, but unknown.
it only occurs on temperate cereals, such as
barley and wheat, while tropical cereals, such Control
as sorghum and maize, are non-hosts (Gill One of the most efficient methods of
and Swamp, 1971; Sharma and Swamp, controlling H. avenae is with grass-free
1984 ). In the northwestern part of India, rotations using non-host crops. In long-term
between four- and sixteen-fold increases in experiments, non-host or resistant cereal fre-
yield of wheat and barley have been obtained quencies of 50 percent (80 percent in lighter
after nematicide treatments (Swamp et al., soils) keep populations below damaging
1976). thresholds (Rivoal and Besse, 1982; Fisher
Staggering annual yield losses of 3 million and Hancock, 1991 ). Clean fallow and/or
pounds sterling in Europe, 72 million deep summer ploughing reduce the popula-
Australian dollars in Australia and 9 million tion density of the nematode but are not
US dollars in India have been calculated as always environmentally sound.
being caused by H. avenae (Wallace, 1965; Cultivar resistance is considered one of the
Brown, 1981; Van Berkum and Seshadri, best methods for nematode control and has
1970). The losses in Australia are now greatly been found to be successful in several
reduced due to control of the disease with countries such as Australia, Sweden and
resistant and tolerant cultivars. France on a farm scale (R. Rivoal, personal
Little is known about the economic communication, 2000). However, it has also
importance of the species H. latipons, even been observed that the use of resistance,
though it was first described in 1969 (Sikora, especially derived from single dominant
1988). Field studies in Cyprus indicated a genes, may cause a disequilibrium in the bio-
50 percent yield loss on barley (Philis, 1988). logical communities and possibly ecological
Because the cysts are similar in size and replacement with other nematodes, such as
shape, it is possible that previous findings of Pratylenchus (Lasserre et al., 1994 ). Another
this recently described nematode species have - potential concern is the breakdown of resis-
erroneously been attributed to the economi- tance sources with repeated use. This has
cally important H. avenae (Kort, 1972). In occurred in France with the resistant oat
West Asia and North Africa, H. latipons has cultivar Panema and the appearance of a new
been found on wheat and barley in four H. avenae pathotype (Lasserre et al., 1996).
countries (Sikora, 1988). It has also recently In order for cultivar resistance to be effec-
been confirmed in Turkey (Nicol et al., tive and durable, a sufficient understanding
unpublished data). It has also been reported of the number of species and pathotypes
-----~---·--··~----- ---------------------~ --
within species is essential. The International found in Mcintosh et al. (2001 ). Some of
Cereal Test Assortment for Defining Cereal these markers are actively being implemented
Cyst Nematode Pathotypes (Andersen and in marker-assisted selection and pyramiding
Andersen, 1982) offers classification of of gene resistance in Australian cereal
pathotype variation; pathotypes from breeding programmes against H. avenae,
Australia and India are often distinct from pathotype Ha 13 (Jefferies et al., 1997:
those in Europe (Sikora, 1988). Although Ogbonnaya et al., 1998). This is an example
useful, a pathotype scheme for a species com- where there is sufficient understanding of the
plex based on interaction with three cereal biology of the pathogen and genetic control
genera will not easily describe extensive of the resistance so that both conventional
variation in virulence (Ri voal and Cook, breeding and the modem tools of molecular
1993). Furthermore, to date there are few biology can be combined to the advancement
molecular or other diagnostic methods that of controlling this disease. Such potential
can provide consistent and reliable pathotype exists for other nematodes, but will require a
and pathogenicity differentiation. similar understanding and combining of
The extensive review by Rivoal and Cook related skill base.
(1993), revised in Table 22.2, gives some The utilization of these identified sources.
indication of the worldwide accessions of and possibly of other as yet unidentified
germplasm within oats, barley, triticale, rye, sources of resistance. is country-specific and
wheat and wild grass relatives that offer dependent on the number and types of
control of some of the species and pathotypes Heterodera species and pathotypes that need
described in Table 22.1 and, where known, to be controlled. Many developing countries
the genetic control and chromosome location. unfortunately have limited resources and/or
Some resistant cul ti vars simultaneously expertise to establish this information, and
reduce populations of several European current control methods are based on under-
pathotypes (Williams and Siddiqi, 1972). standing the response of local cultivars to the
Since this review, developments have found pathogen(s ). For example, in Israel all locally
additional Triticum accessions that appear to grown wheat and barley cultivars tested
possess high degrees of resistance to a broad against H. avenae and H. latipons are
array of Heterodera species and pathotypes. excellent hosts. However, the oat cultivars
Molecular technology has also been applied tested were extremely poor hosts to H. avenae
to identify markers for various cereal cyst but good hosts to H. latipons (Mor et al.,
nematode resistance genes using techniques 1992). In Mediterranean countries, such as
such as RFLP and polymerase chain reaction Algeria, Spain, Israel and southern France,
(PCR) in both barley (Kretschmer et al., oats appeared generally to be a poor host for
1997; Barr et al., 1998) and wheat (Williams H. ave nae, in comparison to northern Europe
et al., 1994; Eastwood et al., l 994a; where they are considered to be a good host,
Ogbonnaya et al., 1996; Lagudah et al., 1998; suggesting the possibility that the nematode
Paull et al., 1998). Furthermore, many of the has developed host race types (R. Rivoal, per-
wild grass relatives have been introgressed sonal communication, 2000). In order to
into a hexaploid wheat background for make the best use of existing research
breeding purposes. Many of these have had findings, greater collaboration between
molecular work applied to identify the loca- research institutions and countries where the
tion and the possibility to produce markers nematode is considered important is essential.
to the known gene(s). More details about An excellent example of this is the most
introgressions, substitutions and molecular recent report by Rivoal et al. (2001), which
characterization of these materials can be offers a great start to unravelling the
TABLE 22.2
Principal sources of genes used for breeding resistance to Heterodera avenae in cerealsb
2 I~
Cereal species Cultivar or line Origin Genetic information Remarks' Used Referencesd
Oats
Avena sterilis 1376 - 1,2 or 3 dominant genes R, worldwide UK, Belgium, Australia
A. sativa Panama UK 1 dominant gene from 1376 S, Australia UK
Nelson Sweden 1 dominant gene from C.I. 3444, - tm. Europe, France
allelic to Panama, 2 dominant genes
A. byzantlna NZ Cape New Zealand ? S, UK Australia
Mortgage Lifter Australia 2 recessive genes
TAMO 301, 302 Texas, USA ? - Australia
No. 11527 - ? R, Siberia
Barley
HorrJeum spp. many cvs e .g.
Emir N. Europe ? R, to some pathotypes in
many cvs
Drost Sweden 1 dominant gene (Rhat) R, to some pathotypes in N. Europe
many cvs
Ortolan Germany 1 or 2 dominant genes, allelic to Rhat R, to some pathotypes in
many cvs
ex. L.P.' 191 ?N. Africa 1 dominant gene (Rha2), not linked to many bred cvs; pR, N. Europe
Rhat Australia
ex. Morocco N. Africa 1 dominant gene (Rha3), allelic to Rha2 - Australia 1
L.P. 191 - 1or 2 dominant genes - - 1
Morocco - ? - - 1
Athena is Greece 1 dominant gene, not Rha1 Australia 1
Nile, C.I. 3576 Egypt 1 dominant gene, similar to Rha2 Australia 1
C.I. 8147 Turkey 1 dominant gene, not Rhat Australia 1
Martin Algeria 2 dominant genes, ?similar to Rha3 Australia 1
C164, RD2052 India 1 dominant gene R, pathotype-1 (Delhi India 6
population)
Wheat
Triticum aP;,civurn Lorus, ALS 10894
Katyil
-, Australia
Australia
1 dominant gene, Cret (formerly
Cent) on chromosome 2BL
Cent
CreF on chromosome 7U'
S, India; pR to several
pathotypes
S, India
pR in cv Molineux
tm. Europe, Australia
Australia
Australia
1, 4
1
1, 14
~0-
....
Festiguay Australia
AUS4930 = 'Iraq 48' Iraq ? R, to several cereal cyst Australia, France, 4, 8, 11, 12 ~
;::::
pathotypes and species CIMMYT (under ....
;::::
and Pratylenehus thomei evaluation)
T. durum Psathias - ? S, to some pathotypes 1 ~
~
also pR ....
0
7654, 7655, Sansome, - ? S, to some pathotypes France 1 ::::...
rt
Khapli also pR
~
2i
:..,
TABLE 22.2 l::l:i
~
(Continued) I:)
t::i...
s:
Cereal species Cultivar or line Origin Genetic information Remarks' Used Referencesd ~
(1::
I:)
Trltlcale
Trltlcoseca/e T701-4-6 Australia 1 dominant gene, chromosome also used in wheat breeding Australia 1 "'"
SRL, CreR ~-
Driva Australia ? = Ningadhu in cv Tabara Australia 1 Ci
Salvo Poland ? - UK 1 ~
(1::
;:i
Rye (1::
;:s
Seca/e eerea/e R173 Family - On chromosome 6RL, CreR R, Australia (Ha13) Australia (under 17 .....
I:)
investigation) ;:s
Wild grass t::i...
';:J
relatives
Aegllops tauschii CPl110813 Central Asia On chromosome 2DL, Cre4 R, Australia (Ha 13) and Australia synthetic 7, 15
Ci
t::i...
;;;::
(T. tauseh/1) several other countries hexaploid lines r,
Ae. tauschli AUS 18913 - 1 dominant gene on chromosome R, Australia (Ha13) and Australia advanced 7, 15 ::::-.
~
;::;
(T. tausehl~ 2DL, Cre3 several other countries breeding lines
T. var/ab/lie 1 West Asia Gene Rkn-mn1 on chromosome R, to various pathotypes France, Algeria, Spain, 1, 3, 9, 15
3U or 3S' and Melo/dogyne naasi India, Syria
and H. /at/pons
T. longissimum 18 - ? R and pR to several France (under evaluation) 4
pathotypes
T. ovatum 79 Mediterranean ? R and pR to several France (under evaluation) 4
basin pathotypes
T. triune/ale TR-353 Spain 1 dominant gene, Cre7 (formerly R, to several pathotypes Spain (under evaluation) 16
(Ae. triune/a/ls) CreAet) (French, Swedish, Spanish)
T. genlculata ? Spain, Bulgaria, ? R, to several H. avenae France, CIMMYT (under 18
(Ae. genleu/ata) Jordan, Tunisia populations and H. /at/pons evaluation)
T. ventrfcosum VPM 1 - On chromosome 2AS, Cre5 R, to French pathotype France, Australia (under 10, 13
(Ae. ventrleosa) (formerly CreX) (Ha12) evaluation)
T. ventrfcosum 11, AP-1, H-93-8 Mediterranean On genome N', Cre2 R, to Spanish, French and Spain (under evaluation) 1,5,2,15
(Ae. ventrleosa) basin UK (Ha11) pathotypes
T. ventrfcosum 11, AP-1, H-93-8, Mediterranean 1 dominant gene on chromosome R, to Australian pathotype Spain, Australia (under 13, 15
(Ae. ventrleosa) H-93-35 basin SN', Cre6 (Ha13), not effective evaluation)
against Spanish (Ha71)
•See also differentials listed in Table 22.1.

blnformation unavailable from reference = -; no published scientific studies conducted = ?
'R =resistant; pR =partially resistant; S =susceptible.
dl = Rivoal and Cook, 1993; 2 =Andres et al., 2001; 3 = Barloyetal., 1996; 4 = Bekaletal., 1998; 5 =Delibes et al., 1993; 6 = DhawanandGulati, 1995; 7 =Eastwood et al., 1994a;
8 = F. Green, personal communication, 1998; 9 = Jahier et al., 1998; 10 = Jahier et al., 2001; 11 =Nicol et al., 1998; 12 =Nicol et al., 2001; 13 =Ogbonnaya et al., 2001; 14 =Paull
et al., 1998; 15 = Rivoal et al., 2001; 16 = Romero et al., 1998; 17 =Taylor et al., 1998; 18 = Zaharieva et al., 2000.
i. c.>
CJ1
....
352 Important nematode 11ests
------------------~--
complexity of Heterodera populations and the Prat_vlenchus thomei is the most studied
existing knowledge of resistant sources and species on wheat and is a known parasite of
their possible uses in controlling the cereal cereals worldwide, being found in Syria
cyst nematode in different regions of the (Saxena et al., 1988: Greco et al., 1984 ).
world. former Yugoslavia, Mexico and Australia
The use of chemical fumigants and (Fortuner, 1977), Canada (Yu, 1997), Israel
nematicides, although proven effective in (Orion et al., 1982), Morocco (Ammati.
experimental fields in many countries, is not 1987), Pakistan and India (Maqbool, 1988).
an economically feasible option for most Algeria (Troccoli et al., 1992) and Italy
farmers. Application of nematicides for the (Lamberti, 1981 ). Unfortunately, very little
control of H. avenae on wheat has resulted is known about the economic importance and
in 50 to 75 percent yield increases in Pakistan, distribution of the other species on cereals.
but their use is not feasible on a commercial
scale (Maqbool, 1988). Biology
The deployment of biological control agents Pratylenchus species are polycyclic, polypha-
is not yet an option, but natural biological gous migratory root endoparasites that are not
control has been found to operate in some confined to fixed places for their development
circumstances. The fungi Nematophora and reproduction. Eggs are laid in the soil or
gynophila and Verticillium chlamydosporium inside plant roots. The nematode invades the
have been associated with reduction and sup- tissues of the plant root, migrating and
pression of H. avenae populations under feeding inside the root causing characteristic
intensive cereals in the United Kingdom dark brown or black lesions on the root sur-
(Kerry and Andersson, 1983; Kerry, 1987; face, hence its common name. Extensive
Kerry and Crump, 1998), and similar sup- lesioning, cortical degradation and reduction
pression may occur in other regions with in both seminal and lateral root systems is
similar climates. seen with increasing nematode density, as
illustrated in Plate 56. Secondary attack by
ROOT LESION NEMATODES fungi frequently occurs at these lesions. The
Distribution life cycle is variable between species and
The genus Pratylenchus is a large group with environment and ranges from 45 to 65 days
many species affecting both monocots and (Agrios, 1988). Above-ground symptoms of
dicots. Many of the species are morphologi- Pratylenchus on cereals, as with other cereal
cally similar, which makes them difficult to root nematodes, is non-specific where infected
identify. At least eight species of lesion nema- plants appear stunted and unthrifty, some-
todes have been recorded for small grains times with reduced numbers of tillers and
(Rivoal and Cook, 1993 ). Of these. four yellowed lower leaves (Plate 57).
species (P. thornei, P. crenatus, P. neglectus
and P. penetrans) have a worldwide distribu- Economic importance
tion, especially in the temperate zones (Kort, As previously mentioned, the most studied
1972). Pratylenchus crenatus is more. of these species on wheat is P. thornei and,
common in light soils, P. neglectus in loamy somewhat less so. P. neglectus and
soils and P. thomei in heavier soil types (Kort, P. penetrans. Pratylenchus thornei is consi-
1972). However, the work of Nicol ( 1996) dered the most economically important
suggests that both P. thornei and P. neglectus species in at least three countries; yield losses
can occur in a range of soil types, and mix- on wheat have been reported between 38 and
tures of the two species are not uncommon in 85 percent in Australia (Thompson and
southern Australia. Clewett, 1986; Doyle et al., 1987; Taylor and
McKay, 1993; Eastwood et al., I 994b; Nicol, suggesting there is future potential for gene
1996; Taylor et al., 1999), 32 percent in introgression. Some of this material also
Mexico (Van Gundy et al., 1974) and contained the Cre3 and other different
70 percent in lsrael (Orion et al., 1984 ). unidentified sources of cereal cyst nematode
Pratylenchus thornei appears to be associated resistance genes conferring resistance to some
with regions experiencing a Mediterranean cereal cyst nematode pathotypes. As with
climate. It is highly probable, given the dis- cereal cyst nematode, molecular biology is
tribution of this nematode, that similar losses also being used to investigate genetic control
may also be occurring in many other and location, followed by the identification
countries, however this has not been studied. of markers for resistance to both P thornei
The other species of lesion nematodes and P neglectus. Recent work with Australian
where yield loss studies have been conducted germplasm referred to by Mcintosh et al.
(P. neglectus and P. penetrans) are not (200 l) reports the gene Rinn] on chromo-
recognized as having a global distribution on some 7 AL effective against P neglectus, and
cereals, and the current yield loss studies two quantitative trait loci on chromosomes
would suggest that the damage potential of 2BS and 605 have been found for P thornei.
these nematodes is not as great as that of No commercial sources of resistance are
P thornei. In Australia, losses on wheat with currently available for other species of
P neglectus ranged from 16 to 23 percent Pratrlenchus that attack cereals.
(Vanstone et al., 1995; Taylor et al., 1998 ), The use of crop rotation is a limited option
while in Canada P. penetrans losses were for root lesion nematodes due to the polypha-
10 to 19 percent (Kimpinski et al., 1989). gous nature of the nematode. Little is
Yield loss work by Vanstone et al. ( 1998) in understood about the potential role of crop
the field where both P. thornei and rotation in controlling these nematodes.
P neglectus were present indicates losses although some field and laboratory work has
between 56 and 74 percent on wheat. Recent been undertaken to better understand the
studies by Sikora ( 1988) have identified ability of both P thornei (O'Brien, 1983;
P neglectus and P penetrans in addition to Clewell et al., 1993; Van Gundy et al., 1974;
P thornei on wheat and barley in North Africa Nicol, 1996; Hollaway et al., 2000) and
and all of these plus P zeae in West Asia. P neglectus (Vanstone et al., 1993; Lasserre
Further work is necessary to determine the et al., 1994; Taylor et al., 1998, 2000) to
significance of these species in these regions. utilize cereals and leguminous crops as hosts.
It is possible, depending on crop rotation
Control patterns and the population dynamics of the
Unlike cereal cyst nematode, no commercially nematodes, that resistant cultivars of cereals
available sources of cereal resistance to alone may not be sufficient to maintain the
P thomei are available, although sources of nematode below economic levels of damage.
tolerance have been used by cereal farmers As with other nematodes, chemical control,
in northern Australia for several years although in most cases effective against root
(Thompson et al., 1997). Work by Thompson lesion nematodes, is not economically viable
and Clewett ( 1986) and Nicol et al. ( 1996, with cereal crops. Cultural methods offer
1998, 2001) identified wheat lines that have some control options, but are of limited
proven field resistance, and work is con- effectiveness; in order to be of major signifi-
tinuing to breed this resistance into suitable cance, they need to be integrated with other
backgrounds. Recent work by Thompson and control measures. Di Vito et al. (1991) found
Haak ( 1997) identified 29 accessions from the that mulching fields with polyethylene film
D-genome donor to wheat, Aegilops tauschii, for six to eight weeks suppressed P thomei
populations by 50 percent. Van Gundy et al. Meloidogyne naasi is a polyphagous nema-

( 197 4) found that delaying the sowing of tode, reproducing on at least I 00 species of
winter irrigated wheat by one month in plants (Gooris and D' Herde, 1977) including
Mexico gave maximum yields. In Australia, barley, wheat, rye, sugar beet, onion and
cultivation reduced populations of P. thornei several broadleaf and monocot weeds (Kort,
(Thompson et al., 1983; Klein et al., 1987). 1972). However, Poaceae are considered to
be better hosts (Gooris, 1968). In Europe, oats
ROOT KNOT NEMATODES are a poor host compared with other cereals,
Distribution whereas in the United States, oats are an
Several Meloidogyne spp. are known to attack excellent host of M. naasi (Kort, 1972). Host
cereals and tend to favour light soils and races of M. naasi have been identified in the
warm temperatures. Several species attack United States by using differential hosts
Poaceae in cool climates, including (Michel et al., 1973 ), which makes con-
M. artiellia, M. chitwoodi, M. naasi, trolling this nematode more difficult.
M. microtyla and M. ottersoni (Sikora, 1988). Another species of root knot nematode that
In warm climates, M. graminicola, attacks cereals is M. artiellia, which has a
M. graminis, M. kikuyensis and M. spartinae wide host range including crucifers, cereals
are important (Taylor and Sasser, 1978). In and legumes (Ritter, 1972; Di Vito et al.,
tropical and subtropical areas, M. incognita, 1985). It is known to reproduce well on
M. javanica and M. arenaria are all known cereals and severely damage legumes (Sikora,
to attack cereal crops (Swamp and Sosa- 1988). This nematode is chiefly known from
Moss, 1990). Mediterranean Europe in Italy, France,
To date, only M. naasi and M. artiellia have Greece and Spain (Di Vito and Zacheo, 1987),
been shown to cause significant damage to but also in West Asia (Sikora, 1988), Syria
wheat and barley in the winter growing (Mamluk et al., 1983), Israel (Mor and Cohn,
season (Sikora, 1988). The most important 1989) and western Siberia (Shiabova, 1981).
and most studied species of the root knot Meloidogyne chitwoodi is a pest on cereals
nematodes on cereals worldwide are described in the Pacific Northwest of the United States
below. There is little information on most and is also found in Mexico, South Africa
other species, many of which are of unknown and Australia (Eisenback and Triantaphyllou,
importance. 1991). Many cereals, including wheat, oats,
Meloidogyne naasi is reported from the barley and maize, and a number of dicots are
United Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands, known to be hosts (Santo and O'Bannon,
France, Germany, former Yugoslavia, Iran, 1981). Meloidogyne graminis is not known
the United States and the former Soviet to be widely distributed, being limited to the
Union, occurring mostly in temperate southern United States where it is associated
climates (Kort, 1972). However, it has also with cereals and more often turf grasses
been found in Mediterranean areas on barley (Eriksson, 1972).
in the Maltese islands (Inserra et al., 1975)
and in New Zealand and Chile on small Biology
grains (Jepson, 1987). It is probably the most The young juveniles of M. naasi invade the
important root knot nematode affecting grain roots of cereals within one to one and one-
in most European countries in contrast to the half months of germination, after which small
United States (Kort, 1972). Meloidogyne galls on the root tips can be observed.
naasi does not appear to be widespread in Meloidogyne naasi generally has one
temperate semi-arid regions, such as West generation per season (Rivoal and Cook,
Asia and North Africa (Sikora, 1988). 1993). The juveniles develop, and the females
become almost spherical in shape. Females 1969; Mor and Cohn, 1989). In Italy,
deposit eggs in an egg sac. They usually 90 percent yield losses on wheat have been
appear eight to ten weeks after sowing and recorded (Di Vito and Greco, 1988).
are found embedded in the gall tissue (Kort, Meloidogyne chitwoodi, an important patho-
1972). Large galls may contain 100 or more gen of potatoes, also damages cereals in Utah,
egg-laying females (Rivoal and Cook, 1993). United States (Inserra et al., 1985), and
Later in the season, galling of the roots, Mexico (Cuevas and Sosa-Moss, 1990). In
especially the root tips, is common. Galls are controlled laboratory studies, M. incognita
typically curved, horseshoe or spiral-shaped and M. javanica have been shown to reduce
(Kort, 1972). The egg masses in galls survive plant growth of wheat (Roberto et al., 1981;
in the soil. Eggs have a diapause, broken by Sharma, 1981; Abdel Hamid et al., 1981 ),
increasing temperature after a cool period and M. incognita is a known field problem
(Antoniou, 1989). In warmer regions on per- on wheat in northwestern India (Swamp and
ennial or volunteer grass hosts, more than one Sosa-Moss, 1990).
generation per season is possible (Kort, 1972;
R. Rivoal, personal communication, 2000). Control
Symptoms of M. naasi attack closely Control methods for root knot nematodes
resemble those caused by H. avenae, with have only been investigated in detail for the
patches of poorly growing, yellowing plants known economically important species
that may vary in size from a few square metres M. naasi. Partial resistance was found in
to larger areas. Other root knot nematodes barley and also in Ae. tauschii and
attacking cereals are suspected to produce T monococcum, while full resistance was
similar symptoms, but most are much less identified with H. chilense, H. jabatum,
studied than M. naasi. Ae. umbellulatwn and Ae. variabile (Cook
and York, 1982b; Roberts et al., 1982; Person-
Economic importance Dedryver and Jahier, 1985; Person-Dedryver
Information on the economic importance of et al., 1990; Yu et al., 1990).
root knot nematodes on cereals is limited to Cultural management options for M. naasi
a few studied species. Meloidogyne naasi can include rotations using poor or non-host crops
seriously affect wheat yield in Chile (Cook et al., 1986) and the use of fallow
(Kilpatrick et al., 1976) and Europe (Person- during the hatching period (Allen et al., 1970;
Dedryver, 1986). On barley, it has been Gooris and D'Herde, 1972).
known to cause up to 75 percent yield loss in
California, United States (Allen et al., 1970). SEED GALL NEMATODES
It is also associated with yield loss on barley Distribution
in France (Caubel et al., 1972), Belgium Seed gall nematode (Anguina tritici),
(Gooris and D'Herde, 1977) and the United commonly known as ear cockle, is frequently
Kingdom (York, 1980). Severe losses can found on small grain cereals where farm-
occur with entire crops of spring barley lost saved seed is sown without the use of modem
in the Netherlands and France (Schneider, cleaning systems. Cereals are infected
1967). Meloidogyne naasi damage is not throughout West Asia and North Africa
known to be widespread in temperate, semi- (Sikora, 1988), the Indian subcontinent,
arid regions (Sikora, 1988), but rather has China, parts of Eastern Europe (Tesic, 1969;
been associated with wet and/or over- Swamp and Sosa-Moss, 1990), Iraq (Stephan,
compacted soils (Franklin, 1973). 1988) and Pakistan (Maqbool, 1988). It has
Damage to wheat by M. artiellia is known also been reported from most European
from Greece, southern Israel and Italy (Kyrou, countries, the Russian Federation, Australia,
356 Important nematode Jlf!Sfs
New Zealand, Egypt, Brazil and several areas and causing yield losses up to 30 percent
in the United States (Swarup and Sosa-Moss, (Stephan, 1988). Barley is also attacked in
1990). Iraq but with an isolate that does not affect
wheat (Al-Tabib et al., 1986).
Biology In Pakistan, seed gall is a known pest on
The nematode is spread in galled or 'cockled' wheat and barley and is found in nearly all
seeds when infected seed is sown. A single parts of the country. causing yield losses of
gall may contain over 10 000 dormant juve- 2 to 3 percent; association with the bacterium
niles. Once sown, the galls take up water, and produces serious yield losses on wheat
the juveniles emerge and remain between the (Maqbool, 1988). In China, Chu ( 1945) found
leaves of the growing plant. The primary yield losses between l 0 and 30 percent on
leaves become twisted and distorted, and the wheat.
plant may die from a heavy attack (Kort,
1972). In growing seedlings, the juveniles are Control
carried upward towards the growing point of Seed gall can easily be controlled through
the plant, and when the ear is formed, the seed hygiene: sowing clean, non-infected seed
flower head is invaded by the juveniles. As a obtained by using certified seed or by cleaning
result, the ovules and other flowering parts infected seed either with modern seed
of the plant are transmuted into galls or cleaning techniques or by sieving and fresh-
cockles. Inside the galls, the nematodes water flotation (Singh and Agrawal, 1987).
mature, and the females lay thousands of eggs Although seed gall has been eradicated from
from which the juveniles hatch and remain the Western Hemisphere through the adop-
dormant in the seed. The nematode is fa- tion of this approach. it remains a problem
voured by wet and cool weather (Kort, 1972). on the Indian subcontinent, in West Asia and
Symptoms of A. tritici attack may be indi- to some extent in China (Swarup and Sosa-
cated by small and dying plants with the Moss, 1990).
leaves generally twisted due to nematode in- For countries where hygiene practices are
fection (Swarup and Sosa-Moss, 1990). The difficult to implement, host resistance and
attacked ears are easily recognized by their crop rotation offer some control of seed gall.
smaller size and darkened colour compared Resistance to A. tritici has been identified in
with normal seeds, but the infected seeds may Iraq in both wheat and barley (Saleh and
be easily confused with common bunt (Tilletia Fattah, 1990) and in Pakistan (Shahina et al.,
tritici). Under dry conditions, the juveniles 1989) and is currently being sought in India
may survive for decades (Kort, 1972). (Swamp and Sosa-Moss, 1990). In Iraq, labo-
The nematode is also associated with a bac- ratory screening has identified sources of
terium, Corynebacterium michiganense pv. resistance in both wheat and barley (Stephan,
tritici, which causes yellow ear rot. The eco- 1988). Oat, maize and sorghum are con-
nomic loss associated with this combination sidered to be non-hosts (Limber, 1976:
is increased because of the lower price for Paruthi and Gupta, 1987), and while they may
infected grain (Rivoal and Cook, 1993). offer some option for reducing populations
by rotation, the disease is not completely
Economic importance controlled.
Worldwide, wheat, barley and rye are
commonly attacked, but barley is less attacked STEM NEMATODES
in India (Paruthi and Gupta, 1987). In Iraq, Distribution
seed gall is an important pest on wheat with Ditylenchus dipsaci is by far the most
infection ranging from 0.03 to 22.9 percent common and important species of stem
nematode on cereals, being widespread well as several other crops, including bean.
throughout western and central Europe, the corn, onion, tobacco and clover, and a number
United States, Canada. Australia, Brazil, of weed species commonly associated with
Argentina and North and South Africa. the growth of cereals in many countries (Kort.
although it is of greatest economic importance 1972). The oat strain attacks oats, onion. pea.
in temperate zones (Kort. 1972). Economic bean and several weed species but not rye
damage is rarely associated with sandy soils; (Kort, 1972). Wheat is also attacked hy
soils with a clay base are more likely to be D. dipsaci in central and eastern Europe
associated with damage (Kort, 1972). (Rivoal and Cook, 1993).
Another species, D. radicicola, is distri- The species D. radicicola invades root tips
buted throughout the Scandinavian countries, of plants to form local swellings, which are
the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, characteristically spiral-shaped and easily
Germany, Poland, the former Soviet Union, confused with the galled root symptoms
the United States and Canada. This nema- caused by M. naasi.
tode also occurs on many grasses of economic
importance. Economic importance
Economic damage by D. dipsaci depends on
Biology a combination of factors, such as host plant
Ditylenchus dispaci is a migratory endopara- susceptibility, infection level of the soil. soil
site that invades the foliage and the base of type and weather conditions. The longer the
the stem of cereals, where it migrates through soil moisture content in the surface layer of
tissues and feeds on adjacent cells. Reproduc- soils is optimum for nematode activity, the
tion continues inside the plant almost all greater the chance of a heavy attack. This is
year-round but is minimal at low tempera- a problem with cereal crops growing on heavy
tures. When an infected plant dies, nematodes soils in high-rainfall areas (Griffin, 1984).
return td the soil and from there they infect The nematode is economically important on
neighbouring plants. Typical symptoms of rye and oats. but not on wheat and barley
stem nematode attack include basal swellings. (Sikora, 1988). Although few studies have
dwarfing and twisting of stalks and leaves. examined the economic importance of this
shortening of intemodes and an abundance nematode, work on oats in the United
of axillary buds, producing an abnormal Kingdom attributed a 37 percent yield loss
number of tillers to give the plant a bushy to D. dipsaci (Whitehead et al., 1983).
appearance. Heavily infected plants may die Little is known about the economic impor-
at the seedling stage resulting in bare patches tance of D. radicicola; however, under field
in the field, while other attacked plants fail conditions in Scandinavia it caused poor
to produce flower spikes (Kort, 1972). growth of barley and is known locally as krok.
The nematodes are highly motile in the soil S 'Jacob (1962) suggested that biological races
and can cover a distance of 10 cm within two of this species occur.
hours (Kort, 1972), hence their ability to
spread from one plant to another is rapid .. Control
There are a number of biological races or The occurrence of different biological races
strains of D. dipsaci, which are morphologi- or strains of D. dipsaci makes it a difficult
cally indistinguishable but differ in host nematode to control. The only economic and
range. Kort ( 1972) stated that the rye strain highly effective method is the use of host
is more common in Europe and that the oat resistance, which has been summarized in
strain is more common in the United table form by Rivoal and Cook (1993). In the
Kingdom. Rye strains attack rye and oats as United Kingdom, the most successful oat crop
has resistance derived from the landrace perhaps tolerance is the major strategy for
cultivar Grey Winter, which has also proven long-term and environmentally sound control
to be effective in Belgium (Rivoal and Cook, of these pathogens. As stressed in this chapter,
1993). in order to accomplish this, a sufficient
Rotational combinations of non-hosts, understanding of pathogen biology and plant
including barley and wheat, offer some reactions is necessary. To capitalize on this
control method for the rye and oat races of information, it is necessary to combine
D. dipsaci. However, once susceptible oat research efforts, particularly for some of the
crops have been damaged, rotations are more complex nematodes with race and
largely ineffective (Rivoal and Cook, 1993 ). pathotype differences; hence there is a great
need for global collaborative research
OTHER NEMATODES programmes. Furthermore, the adoption of
There are other plant-parasitic nematodes that molecular tools to assist both in pathogen
have been found or are implicated potentially identification and plant breeding will become
to cause yield loss on cereals, although their an integral part of future research develop-
global distribution and economic importance ments and ultimate control of these important
to date has not been clearly defined. These pathogens.
nematodes or nematode combinations can be
found in reviews by Kort ( 1972), Griffin ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(1984), Swarup and Sosa-Moss (1990) and The author wishes to thank Dr R. Rivoal, Dr
Rivoal and Cook (1993 ). K. Evans, Dr R. Cook, Dr A. Delibes de
Castro, Dr K. Davies, Dr E. Lagudah, Dr J.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS Woolston, Dr R. Singh and Dr H.-J. Braun
There are several genera and species of nema- for having reviewed all or part of this chapter.
todes that are of economic importance to
small grain cereals. The current under-
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J Nicol, R Rivoal, S Taylor and M Zaharieva (2003) Global Importance of Cyst (Heterodera spp.) and Lesion
Nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) on Cereals: distribution, yield loss, use of host resistance and integration of
molecular tools. Submitted to Nematology (In Press)
Running title: Cyst and Lesion Nematodes on Cereals: Nicol et al.
3 Global Importance of Cyst (Heterodera spp.) and Lesion Nematodes
4 (Pratylenchus spp.) on Cereals: distribution, yield loss, use of host resistance and
5 integration of molecular tools
Julie NICOL, I Roger RIVOAL, 2 Sharyn TAYLOR 3 and Maria ZAHARIEVA 4
1
9 International Wheat and Maize Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Wheat Program, PO Box 39,
10 Emek, 06511, Ankara, Turkey.
11
12 2
UMR INRA/ENSAR, Biologie des Organismes et des Populations appliquee a la Protection des
13 Plantes (Bi03P), BP 35327, 35653 Le Rheu, France.
14
3
South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), Field Crops Pathology Unit,
16 GPO Box 397 Adelaide, SA, 5001.
17
4
18 CIMMYT, Wheat Program, A.P. 6-641, 06600 Mexico D.F., Mexico.
19
20 CotTesponding author, e-mail: j.nicol@cgiar.org
21
22 Received for publication:

Abstract: The sedentary Cereal Cyst Nematodes (CCN, Heterodera spp.) and the migratory
2 endoparasitic Root Lesion Nematodes (RLN, Pratylenchus spp.) have global distributions and
3 can cause significant yield losses in cereals worldwide. While species within each genus are
4 difficult to distinguish morphologically, techniques based on DNA polymorphism have proved to
5 be valuable tools for species identification. The distribution, taxonomy and crop yield losses
6 caused are discussed and compared for both types of nematodes. Resistance is one of the major
7 control measures to reduce populations of nematodes below damaging thresholds and through
8 extensive screening, several sources of plant resistance for both CCN and RLN have now been
9 identified from alien species, landrace materials and improved cultivars. The introgression of this
10 material into wheat breeding programmes is discussed, particularly with reference to the
11 application of molecular tools. With further understanding of the distribution and importance of
12 both CCN and RLN, the utilization of these resistant sources should reduce losses caused by
13 these nematodes.
14
15 Keywords: - breeding, cereal cyst nematode, Heterodera spp., molecular markers, Pratylenchus
16 spp., wheat, resistance, root lesion nematode, yield loss
17
18
19
20
2
By 2030, world population is expected to increase to 8 billion and world wheat (Triticwn
2 aestivum) production to increase from 584 million tonnes (1995-1999 average) to 860 million
3 tonnes (Marathee and Gomez-MacPherson, 2001 ). The world wheat deficit during these three
4 decades is expected to rise by 2.5 times, particularly in the developing world, where 84% of the
5 population increase is expected and where wheat is a staple. To compensate for the additional
6 demand for wheat, methods must be employed to minimise yield production constraints. Plant
7 parasitic nematodes are recognised as one such constraint, with at least seventeen important
~ species in three major genera (Heterodera, Pratylenchus and Meloidogyne). Their damaging
9 effects are commonly underestimated by farmers, agronomists and pest management consultants,
10 but it is believed that some 10% of world crop production is lost as a result of plant nematode
11 damage (Whitehead, 1998).
12
13 DISTRIBUTION AND YIELD LOSS
14 The cereal cyst nematode complex is a group of twelve valid and several undescribed
15 species that infect cereals and grasses (Wouts et al., 1995; Gabler et al., 2000, Andres et al.,
~ 2001 ). The most economically important species are H. ave nae, H. jilipjevi, and H. latipons
17 (Rivoal and Cook, 1993; Nicol, 2002). Heterodera avenae, the most damaging species on
18 temperate cereals has been reported from Australia, Canada, Israel, South Africa, Japan and most
19 European countries (Nicol, 2002) as well as isolated records in North America (Smiley et al.,
20 1994). As reviewed by Nicol, 2002, Heterodera avenae is also found in India (Rao et al., 2002),
21 Morocco, Tunisia, Pakistan and Libya, Turkey (Rumpenhorst et al., 1996), Algeria (Mokabli et
22 al., 2002), Saudi Arabia (Ibrahim et al., 1999) and Estonia (Krall et al., 1999). Although H.
3
avenae has a global distribution, much of the research has been confined to Europe, Canada,
2 Australia and India (Swarup and Sosa-Moss, 1990).
3 Heterodera latipons, has an essentially Mediterranean distribution (Nicol, 2002) and has
4 been recorded from Syria (Scholz, 2001), Israel, Cyprus, Tunisia, Italy, Libya, Estonia (Krall et
5 al., 1999), Turkey (Rumpenhorst et al., 1996; Nicol et al., 2002) as well as northern Europe.
6 Heterodera filipjevi has been recorded in Russia, Sweden, Spain and Bulgaria (Bekal et al.
7 1997), Turkey, Iran, India and Central Asia (Damadzadeh and Ansaripour, 2001; Rumpenhorst et
8 al., 1996; Sturhan, 1996; Rivoal et al., in press). Confusion concerning the distribution of H.
9 filipjevi has occurred however, as this species was also previously known as the "Gotland" strain
l0 of H. avenae (Ferris et al., 1999; Bekal et al., 1997). Other Heterodera species known to be of
11 importance to cereals have been reviewed by Nicol, 2002 and include H lzordecalis in Sweden,
12 Germany and Britain, and H. zeae in India, Pakistan and Iraq. Heterodera mani, H. bifenestra,
13 H. pakistanensis, H. arenaria, the recently described H. pratensis (Gabler et al., 2000) and an
14 unrelated species of cyst nematode, Punctodera punctata, also infest cereals and grasses and
15 make up the cereal cyst nematode complex (Sikora, 1988).
16 The genus Pratylenchus contains 63 valid species (Handoo and Golden, 1989), with at
17 least eight species infesting small grains (Rivoal and Cook, 1993). Of these, P. thornei, P.
18 neglectus, P. penetrans and P. crenatus are polyphagous and have a worldwide distribution. On
19 cereals, P. thornei is the most studied species, being found in Syria, Yugoslavia, Mexico,
20 Australia, Canada, Israel, Morocco, Turkey, Pakistan, India, Algeria and Italy (Nicol , 2002).
21 Pratylenchus neglectus has been reported in Australia (Taylor et al., 2000; Vanstone et al.,
22 1998), North America (Townshend et al., 1978; Timper and Brodie 1997) and Europe (Lasserre
4
et al., 1994). Pratylenchus penetrans is largely associated with horticultural crops but has been
2 recorded on wheat in Canada (Kimpinski et al., 1989).
3 Damage caused by nematodes may be affected by a number of biotic and abiotic factors.
4 In general, cyst and lesion nematodes have a greater damage potential where plant growth is
5 stressed, i.e., with poor soil nutrition or structure, temperature or water stress (Barker and Noe,
6 1987), or where other pathogen pressure occurs (Taheri et al., 1994). Damage caused by
7 nematodes may also be greater where limited rotation or cultivar options exist (Nicol and Ortiz-
~ Monasterio, in press). The damage threshold of cereal nematodes varies with plant cultivar, soil
9 type, pathotype and ecotype of nematodes and climatic conditions within a geographical area
10 (Rivoal and Cook, 1993).
11 For H avenae, yield losses have been reviewed by (Nicol, 2002) and range from 15-20%
12 on wheat in Pakistan, 40-92% on wheat and 17-77% on barley in Saudi Arabia and 20% on
13 barley and 23-50% on wheat in Australia. In India, H avenae has been associated with severe
14 damage in wheat and barley with the disease known as 'molya'. In the north-western part of
15 India, a yield increase of up to sixteen-fold in wheat and barley has been obtained using
~ nematicide treatments.
17 There is relatively little information on yield loss caused by other cereal cyst nematode
18 species such as H latipons and H filipjevi, which were previously identified as H avenae in the
19 former USSR. Given their increased recognition and incidence these species are now being
20 identified as a constraint to cereal production, particularly in temperate semi-arid regions of the
21 world (Philis, 1988; Ozttirk et al., 1999; Scholz, 2001 ). Heterodera zeae is a major pest of wheat
22 and barley in Pakistan and India (Nicol 2002).
5
Nematodes (Praty/enchus spp.) on Cereals: distribution, yield loss, use of host resistance and integration of
The lesion nematode P. thornei, causes yield losses in wheat from 38-85% in Australia
2 (Thompson and Clewett, 1986; Doyle et al., 1987: Nicol et al., 1999; Taylor et al., 1999), 12-
3 3 7% in Mexico (Nicol, 2002; Nicol and Ortiz-Monasterio, in press) and 70% in Israel (Orion et
4 al., 1984). While P. thornei has mainly been reported from regions with a Mediterranean climate,
5 it is possible similar losses may also occur in other countries. Pratylenchus neglectus and P.
6 penetrans appear to be less widespread and damaging on cereals compared with P. thornei. In
7 southern Australia, losses in wheat caused by P. neglectus ranged from 16-23% (Taylor et al.,
8 1999). Vanstone et al. (1998) showed yield loss in wheat of 56-74% in some sites infested with
9 both P. thornei and P. neglectus. In North America and Germany, P. neglectus has been shown
10 to be a weak pathogen to cereals (Heide 1975; Mojtahedi and Santo, 1992). Pratylenchus
11 penetrans has been reported to cause losses of l 0-19% in wheat in Canada (Kimpinski et al.,
12 1989) indicating that this nematode may be a problem in small grain cereals. Sikora (1988)
13 identified P. negfectus and P. penetrans in addition to P. thornei on wheat and barley in Northern
14 Africa, and all these plus P. zeae in western Asia.
15
16 IDENTIF!CA TION OF CYST AND LESION NEMATODES
17 Identification of plant-parasitic nematodes has traditionally been based on comparative
18 morphology and there are several diagnostic keys for both cyst nematodes (Mulvey, 1972; Wouts
19 et al., 1995) and lesion nematodes (Corbett, 1974; Loof, 1978; Handoo and Golden, 1989).
20 The use of morphometric characteristics to differentiate species can be unreliable and
21 difficult to use and, more recently, techniques based on protein or DNA differences have been
22 implemented. Protein electrophoresis has successfully been used to distinguish Pratylenchus
23 species (Ibrahim et al., 1995, Andres et al., 200 l ), and Heterodera species (Subbotin et al., 1996;
6
Mokabli et al., 2001 ). This method, however, requires a large number of nematodes and is
2 therefore useful only where pure populations can be obtained. The use of PCR-RFLP overcomes
3 this problem as DNA can be amplified from only one nematode if required, and discrimination of
4 both cyst (Andres et al., 2001; Mokabli et al., 2001) and lesion (Orui and Mizukubo 1999)
5 nematode species has been achieved from 1-10 nematodes.
6 Examination of polymorphism through PCR-RFLP and sequencing of ribosomal DNA
7 have provided useful diagnostic tools for species, subspecies segregation and for the study of
"5 phylogenetic relationships with Heterodera species as well as Pratylenchus species (Bekal et al.,
9 1997; Orui and Mizukubo 1999; Subbotin et al., 1999; Subbotin et al., 2000; Rao et al., 2002,
10 Rivoal et al., in press). A relative congruence has been observed between PCR-RFLP and
11 morphometric data using multivariate analysis (PCA) for CCN (Rivoal et al., in press). For
12 routine diagnostics, the use of PCR-RFLP is advantageous as individual nematodes can be used
13 for identification and PCR techniques can be quantitative as well as diagnostic. In Australia,
14 techniques have been developed to identify and quantify several plant pathogens (including H.
15 avenae, P. thornei and P. neglectus) from a single DNA extraction from soil (Curran, 2002),
~ thereby reducing costs associated with collecting and processing multiple samples for each
17 pathogen.
18
19 GENETIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN NEMATODES AND CEREALS: VIRULENCE UPDATE.
20 The only control method for nematodes discussed in this review is plant resistance: i.e.
21 the reduction/inhibition of nematode multiplication within plants (Trudgill et al., 1998). Plant
22 resistance has wide application as it usually requires no additional equipment or cost. Nematode
23 control using plant resistance will depend on the effectiveness and durability of the resistance
7
source and on con-ect identification of the nematode species and/or pathotype(s). In addition, an
2 understanding of nematode threshold densities that result in yield loss and the interaction of these
3 thresholds with biotic and abiotic factors is required (Rivoal and San-, 1987).
4 In order to classify the pathotype variation for H. avenae, an International Test
5 Assortment of barley, oat and wheat was developed by Andersen and Andersen (1982).
6 Heterodera avenae pathotypes have usually been characterised by virulence on barley genotypes,
7 but geographically different populations can also be differentiated by virulence on wheat (Bekal
8 et al., 1998; Cook and Rivoal, 1998; Rivoal et al., 2001). WithinH. avenae, three groups of
9 pathotypes have been distinguished using host reactions of the barley cultivars Drost4, Siri and
10 Morocco with the resistance genes Rhal, Rha2 and Rha3, respectively. Pathotypes belonging to
11 groups 1 and 2 are the most numerous and widely distributed in Europe, North Africa and Asia
12 (Andersen and Andersen, 1982; Al Hazmi et al., 2001; Mokabli et al., 2002). Pathotypes of
13 group 3 (from Australia and Europe) are virulent to both the Rhal and Rha2 genes (Andersen
14 and Andersen, 1982). However, there appears to be mis-identification with some of these H.
15 avenae pathotypes, particularly from Spain and Sweden, where populations previously known as
16 the "Gotland" strain (Bekal et al., 1997) are actually H. filipjevi. A new group of pathotypes in
17 H. avenae virulent to the Rha3 gene, has also been shown to occur in North Africa (Mokabli et
18 al., 2002).
19 Within wheat, differences between H. avenae populations have been observed based on
20 differences in virulence to the resistance gene Cre 1. This gene is highly effective against
21 populations from Europe and North Africa and conversely, ineffective or moderately ineffective
22 to Asiatic or Australian populations (Rivoal et al., 2001; Mokabli et al .. 2002). However, other
8
resistance sources, such as Cre2 and Cre4 from Aegilops and the unidentified resistance from the
2 wheat line AUS4930, offer greater regional usability (Nicol et al., 2001 ).
3 In addition, pathotypes of H. avenae differ in their virulence in oat (Andersen and
4 Andersen, 1982; Al-Hazmi et al., 2001). Mokabli et al. (2002) also demonstrated that
5 Mediterranean populations of H. avenae differed in their virulence on winter or spring cereal
6 cultivars and that an Indian H. filipjevi and two Syrian H. latipons populations differed in
7 virulence to the Crel gene compared with H. avenae. Furthermore, Rivoal et al. (2001) and
e8 Mokabli et al. (2002) have confirmed H. avenae populations differed in their reproductive fitness
9 on the same host.
10 It is essential to determine the virulence reaction of each species and pathotype as since
11 mixed populations can occur frequently (Nicol et al. 2002). Unfortunately, there is no complete
12 International Test Assortment that allows clear differentiation of the current cereal cyst nematode
13 complex. Furthermore, there are few molecular or other diagnostic methods that can provide
14 consistent and reliable pathotype and pathogenicity differentiation.
-
15
16
17
To date, no pathotypes have been reported within species of Pra(vlenchus and sources of
resistance appear effective in different parts of the world (Nicol, unpubl. ).
18 RESISTANCE SOURCES FOR BREEDING PURPOSES
19 A summary of of cereal resistance sources and their genetic control of cyst and lesion
20 nematodes is provided in Table 1. The progress in understanding and locating resistance sources
21 in cereals is more advanced for cyst (H. avenae) than lesion (Pratylenchus spp.) nematodes, in
22 part due to the specific host-parasite relationship that cyst nematodes fom1 with their hosts (Cook
23 and Evans, 1987). In contrast, the relationship of migratory lesion nematodes with their hosts is
9
less specialized and therefore less likely to follow a gene for gene model. Furthermore, H. avenae
2 has a more globally recognized distribution and importance than lesion nematodes, hence more
3 research has been undertaken. The identified sources of resistance to H. avenae have been found
4 predominantly in wild relatives of wheat in the Aegilops genus (Dosba and Rivoal, 1982;
5 Eastwood et al., 1991; Dhaliwal et al., 1993; Delibes et al., 1993; Rivoal and Cook, 1993; Bekal
6 et al., 1998; Jahier et al., 1998, 2001; Romero et al., 1998; Ogbonnaya et al., 2001 a; Zaharieva et
7 al., 2001). Six out of the seven named Cre genes for H. avenae resistance in wheat as well as
8 Rkn2 for resistance to both M. naasi and H. avenae came from four Aegilops species (Table l)
9 and have already been introgressed into hexaploid wheat backgrounds for breeding purposes.
10 Molecular technologies have been applied to identify markers for various CCN plant
11 resistance genes using techniques such as RAPD and RFLP, in both barley (Kretschmer et al.,
12 1997; Barr et al., 1998) and wheat (Eagles et al., 2001; Ogbonnaya et al., 200la, b). Mcintosh et
13 al. (2001) presented information about introgression, substitution and molecular characterisation
14 of these resistance sources in cereals. In some Australian cereal breeding programmes, markers
15 for both wheat and barley are being implemented using marker assisted selection (MAS) to
16 pyramid resistance genes against H. avenae, pathotype Ha13 (Eagles et al., 200 l; Ogbonnaya et
17 al., 2001b). Identification and implementation of markers in this way requires sufficient
18 understanding of the biology of the pathogen and genetic control of the resistance. In the future,
19 it may be possible to transform wheat using resistance genes as a method to produce nematode
20 resistant wheat cul ti vars (Lagudah et al., 1998).
21 For lesion nematodes, development of resistance is less advanced. In Australia,
22 phenotypic identification of resistance, coupled with molecular biology, has been used to
23 investigate the genetic control and location of resistance genes, and the identification of
10
J Nicol, R Rivoal, S Taylor and M Zaharieva (2003) Global bnportance of Cyst (Heterodera spp.) and Lesion
resistance markers to both P. thornei and P. neglectus. As indicated in Table 1, Thompson and
2 Clewett (1986), Nicol ( 1996) and Nicol et al. (1998, 2001) identified wheat lines resistant to P.
3 thornei, and Thompson and Haak ( 1997) identified resistant accessions from Aegilops tauschii,
4 suggesting that this species has potential for gene introgression. Moderate resistance to P.
5 thornei was also identified from Ae. geniculata accessions originating from Italy, Bulgaria,
6 Cyprus and Tunisia (Zaharieva et al., 2002). Of these, the last three were also resistant to several
7 populations or pathotypes of H. avenae (Rivoal et al., 2000; Zaharieva et al., 2002). With P.
If neglectus, recent work identified a marker for the gene Rlnnl in the commercial Australian wheat
9 cul ti var, Excalibur (Williams et al., 2002). No sources of resistance are currently available for
I0 other species of Pratylenchus that attack cereals.
11
12 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
13 Many breeding programmes are not breeding for resistance to nematodes, due to limited
14 technical and financial resources and/or because there is an underestimation of the impact of
15 nematodes on yield. Prioritising nematode problems, followed by screening and breeding for
""" resistance would have considerable impact on grain production in regions where the nematodes
17 can be implicated with yield loss.
18 This review has focused on resistance as a control method to reduce nematode
19 populations below economic thresholds. This method is environmentally friendly, cost effective,
20 sustainable, accessible and achievable with combined research between nematologists and plant
21 breeders. Although not discussed here, other control strategies should also be implemented in
22 addition to host resistance such as crop rotation, agronomic practices and biological control.
11
Nematodes (Praty/enchus spp.) on Cereals: distribution, yield loss, use of host resistance and integration of
A better understanding of the evolution of nematode pathotypes and species is sti II
2 required, however, to assist control measures. Improved identification of species and individuals
3 in mixed or sympatric populations, associated with the molecular characterization of pathotypes
4 or markers linked to the virulence features, will allow more rapid integration of resistance into
5 cereals.
6 A global research approach is required to make the best use of existing findings and the
7 specific expertise of different programmes as it is important to consider the diversity of nematode
8 isolates from different parts of the world and their evolution along with their obligatory crop
9 hosts. Information gathered about phylogeographic relationships in this nematode complex will
10 contribute to an understanding of how cyst and lesion species have evolved in space and time.
11 This information may assist in localising germplasm that contains resistance, in the same way as
12 wild wheat relatives have provided a pool of excellent resistant sources against cyst nematodes.
13 Significant progress has already been made in understanding the effects of nematodes on
14 cereal production and the development of genetic solutions, particularly for cyst nematodes.
15 Traditional scientific research and the use of molecular tools for both nematode and plant
16 genomes, including gene localisation, marker development and MAS, have and will continue to
17 play an important role in advancing research. It is likely that, in the coming decade, genetic
18 transformation may also aid the development of nematode resistant gennplasm.
19
12
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common root rot Bipolaris sorokinana (Sacc.) Shoemaker [teleomorph: Cochliobolus sativus
2 (Ito et Kurib.) Drechs. ex Dastur.]. Ph.D Thesis. UniversityofBonn, Gennany. 159p.
3 SIKORA, R.A. 1988. Plant parasitic nematodes of wheat and barley in temperature and temperate
4 semi-arid regions - a comparative analysis. In: Saxena, M.C, Sikora, R.A. & Srivastava, J.P.
5 (eds). Nematodes Parasitic to Cereals and Legumes in Temperate Semi-arid Regions.
6 !CARDA; Aleppo, Syria, pp. 46-48.
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8 breadwheat ofresistance to cereal root eelworm. Euphytica 23, 497-503.
9 SMILEY, R.W., INGHAM, R.E., UDDIN,W. & COOK, G.H. 1994. Crop Sequences for Managing
10 Cereal Cyst Nematode and Fungal Pathogens of Winter Wheat. Plant Disease 78(12), 1142-
11 1149.
12 STURHAN, D. 1996. Occurrence of Heterodera filipjevi (Madzhidov, 1981) Stelter, 1984 in Iran.
13 Pakistan Journal of Nematology 14, 89-93.
14 SUBBOTIN, S.A., RUMPENHORST, H.J. & STURHAN, D. 1996. Morphological and electrophoretic
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17 SUBBOTIN, S.A., WAEYENBERGE, L., MOLOKANOVA, I.A. & MOENS, M. 1999. Identification of
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19 207.
20 SUBBOTIN, S.A., W AEYENBERGE, L. & MOENS, M. 2000. Identification of cyst forming nematodes
21 of the genus Heterodera (Nematoda:Heteroderidae) based on the ribosomal DNA-RFLP.
22 Nematology 2, 153-164.
22
SWARUP, G. & SOSA Moss, C. 1990. Nematode parasites of cereals. In: Luc, M., Sikora, R.A. &
2 Bridge, J. (eds.). Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Subtropical and Tropical Agriculture. CAB
3 International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 109-136.
4 TAHERI, A., HOLLAMBY, G.J. & VANSTONE, V.A. 1994. Interaction between root lesion nematode,
5 Pratylenchus neglectus (Rensch 1924) Chitwood and Oteifa 1952, and root rotting fungi of
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7 TAYLOR, C., SHEPHERD, K.W. & LANGRIDGE P. 1998. A molecular genetic map on the long arm
of chromosome 6R of rye incorporating the cereal cyst nematode resistance gene, CreR.
9 Theoritecal and Applied Genetics 97, l 00-1012.
10 TAYLOR, S.P., HOLLAWAY, G.J., & HUNT, C.H. 2000. Effect of field crops on population densities
11 of Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei in southeastern Australia; Part 1: P. neglectus.
12 Journal of Nematology 32, 591-599.
13 TAYLOR, S.P., VANSTONE, V.A., WARE, A.H., McKAY, A.C., SZOT, D., & Russ M.H. 1999.
14 Measuring yield loss in cereals caused by root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus neglectus and
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617-622.
17 THOMPSON, J.P. & CLEWETT, T.G. 1986. Research on root-lesion nematode. In Queensland
18 Wheat Research Institute Biennial Report 1982-1984, Qld Dept. Primary Industries, Qld.
19 Govt., Qld., Wheat Research Institute, Toowoomba, Qld., pp. 32-35.
20 THOMPSON, J.P. & HAAK M.I. 1997. Resistance to root-lesion nematode (Pratylenchus thornei) in
21 Aegilops tauschii Coss., the D-genome donor to wheat. Australian Journal of Agricultural
22 Research 48, 553-559.
23
TIMPER, P. & BRODIE, B.B. 1997. First report of Pratylenchus neglectus in New York. Plant
2 Disease 81(2), 228.
3 TOWNSHEND, J.L., POTTER, 1. W. & WILLIS, C.B. 1978. Ranges in distribution of species of
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.5 TRUDGILL, D.L. EVANS, K. & PHILLIPS, M.S. 1998. Potato cyst nematodes: Damaging
6 mechanisms and tolerance in potato. In: Marks, R. J. & Brodie, B.B. (eds.). Potato cyst
7 nematodes: Biology, distribution and control. CAB International, New York, USA, pp. 117-
8 133.
9 VAN SLAGEREN, M.W. 1994. Wild wheats: a monograph of Aegilops L. and Amblyopyrum (Jaub.
10 & Spach) Eig (Poaceae). Agricultural University, Wageningen-ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria,
11 512p.(Check this reference???? Why !CARDA, Aleppo, Syria???? 0
12 VANSTONE, V.A., RATHJEN, A.J., WARE, A.H. & WHEELER, R.D. 1998. Relationship between
13 root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus neglectus and P. thornei) and performance of wheat
14 varieties. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38,181-18 8.
15 WILLIAMS, K.J., TAYLOR, S.P., BOGACKI, P., PALLOTTA, M., BARIANA, H.S. & WALLWORK, H.
16 2002. Mapping of the root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus neglectus) resistance gene Rlnnl in
17 wheat. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 104, 874-879.
18 WHITEHEAD, A.G. 1998. Plant Nematode Control. CAB International. United Kingdom. 384p.
19
20 WOUTS, W.W., SCHOEMAKER, A., STURHAN, D. & BURROWS, P.R. 1995. Heterodera spinicauda
21 sp.n. (Nematoda: Heteroderidae) from mud flats in the Netherlands, with a key to the species
22 of the H avenae group. Journal of Nematology 41, 575-58.
24
ZAHARIEVA, M., MONNEVEUX P., HENRY, M., RIVOAL, R., VALKOUN, J. & NACH!T M.M. 2001.
2 Evaluation of a collection of wild wheat relative Aegilops geniculata Roth. and identification
3 of potential sources for useful traits. Euphytica 119(1-2), 33-38.
4 ZAHARIEVA, M., NICOL, J., ROMERO, H. & RIVOAL, R. 2002. Resistance of Aegilops geniculata
5 Roth to cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae) and root lesion nematode (Pratyfenchus
6 thornei). 4th International Congress of Nematology, 8-13 1h June, Tenerife, Spain. Nematology
7 4, 240.
25
Table 1. Principal sources of genesa used for wheat breeding resistance to Cereal Cyst Nematode
2 (Heterodera avenae) and Root Lesion Nematode (Pratylenchus thornei and P. neglectus).
Species Cultivar or line Genetic information References
Cereal Cyst Nematode
T aestivum Loros, AUS 10894 Crela (formerly Ccn/), on Slootrnaker et al., 1974; Bekal et al.,
chromosome 2BL. 1998.
Festiguay Cre8 (formerly CreF), on Paull et al., 1998, Williams et al, unpul
chromosome 7L?. Recent analysis
suggests 6B.
AUS4930=Iraq 48 Possible identical genetic location Bekal et al., 1998; Nicol et al., 1999,
as Cre/_ Resistance to Pt. 2001; Green, pers. comm.; Lagudah, pe
Comm.
T durum Psathias ? Rivoal et al., 1986.
7654, 7655, Sansome, ?
Khapli
Triticosecale T701-4-6 CreR, on chromosome 6RL. Dundas et al., 2001; Asiedu et al., 1990
Secale cereale RI 73 Family CreR, on chromosome 6RL Taylor et al., 1998.
Ae. tauschii CPI 110813 Cre4. deduced to be on Eastwood et al., 1994; Rivoal et al., 20(
chromosome 2D.
Ae. tauschii AUS18913 Cre3. on chromosome 2DL Eastwood et al., 1994; Rivoal et al., 20(
Ae. peregrina Cre(JS) with (Rkn2) on Barloy et al., 1996; Jahier et al., 1998;
(Ae. variabilis) chromosome 3S; CreX, not yet Rivoal et al., 2001; Barloy, unpubL);
located. Lagudah, pers. comm.
Ae. longissima 18 ? Bekal et al., 1998.

Ae. geniculata 79 ? Bekal et al.. 1998;
MZI, MZ61, MZ77, MZ124 Zaharieva et al., 200 I.
Ae. triuncialis TR-353 Cre7 (formerly CreAet). Romero et al., 1998.
Ae. ventricosa VPM I Cre5 (formerly Cre.X), on Jahier et al. 2001; Ogbonnaya et al..
chromosome 2AS. 200Ib.
11, AP-1, H-93-8 Cre2 (formerly CreX) on genome Delibes et al., 1993, Andres et al., 29
Nv_ Rivoal et al., 200 I.
11, AP-I, H-93-8, H-93-35 Cre6, on chromosome 5Nv. Ogbonnaya et al., 200 I b; Rivoal et al.,
2001.
Root Lesion Nematode
T aestivum GS50a Resistance to Pt . Thompson and Clewett, 1986.
AUS4930=Iraq 48 Resistance to Pt but also portrays Nicol et al. 1998.

resistance to CCN.
Excalibur Resistance to Pn (Rlnnl), on Williams et al., 2002.
chromosome 7AL.
Croc I!Ae. tausch. Resistance to Pt. Unknown where Nicol et al, 2001.
(224)//0pata resistance is derived from.
Ae tauschii CPI 110872 Resistance to Pt and Pn. Thompson, (pers. comm).
Ae. geniculata MZIO, MZ61, MZ96, Moderate resistance to Pt. Several Zaharieva et al., 2002.
MZ144 also portray resistance to CCN.
3 Pt: Pratylenchus thornei, Pn: Pratylenchus neglectus; ? - no published scientific studies conducted; a: characterized
4 single gene; Bold - marker implemented in commercial breeding program - refer to Ogbonnaya et al., 2001 b;
26
1 A egilops classification used according to Van Slageren ( 1994 ); Information for other cereal species can be found in
2 Nicol (2002).
3
4
5
27
13
Genetics of resistance and
parasitis111
Roger Cook and Roger Rivoal
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Cyst forming nematode pests <.1f several major crops are controlled
wholly or partly by the use of resistant cultivars (see chapt<~r 12). These
have been developedfrqr_n mitura_Uy occurring plants in_which particular
cyst nematodes cannot reproduce. Such cultivars are grov-.'Tl, generally
integrated with other methods of controL to prevent or reduce nen1atode
n1ultiplication, exploiting genetis interactions between plant and nemat-
ode. Reviews Gones, Parrott and Perry, 1981; Sidhu and Webster, 1981;
Cook and Evans, 1987;Ttj_antap}:lyllou; 1987; Cook, 199_1;Tnidgill, 1991 )
emphasize that the genetic inheritance of plant -resistance is better under-
stood than that of nematode parasitism. Plants have -many genes
involved in defence responses and the recognition of potential parasites.
Biotrophic, cyst-forming nen1atodes have a corresponding- genetic com-
plement involved in host recognition and parasitism'. None the less,
simply inherited resistan~e, identified by its major impact on nen1atode
reproduction, has been used to breed successful resistant cultivars. Such
· cultivars, often with a single dominant resistant geneT have led to the
emergence of 'resistance-breaking' nematode populations~· Information
about the genetics of nematode Yiru)-ence is mostly assumed from the
gene..:.for-gene hypothesis. In the case of potato cyst nematode Globodera
rcstochiensis Woll. and a dominant resistance gene in potato, it has been
shown that the inheritance of virulence agrees with the predictions of this
hypothesis (Tanssen, Bakker a:ndGorruners, 1991).
The Cvst Nematodes. Edited by S.B. Sharma. Published in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, Londo11.
ISBN-0 -112 75530 0.
Dtfinition of terms 323
In this chapter, we describe pathotype schemes for n1ajor cyst forming
nen1atodes and summarize information on plant resistance genes cmd on
variation in nematode virulence. Improved knowledge of these genetic
interactions is of significance for the breeding and growing of crop
cultivars with durable resistance. ·
13.2 DEFII'-JITION OF TERl\15

Given the overlap and confusion· in usage of terms. within disciplines
(Shaner et al., 1992t we follow Trudgill's (1986) recommendation that
such terms are defined at the start 9fpapers. Briefly, we use par<isitism to
include those features of a nematode which equip it to reproduce upon a
plant; at the infraspecific level this- encompasses the genetic differences
between individuals determining \vhether or not they reproduce on a
particuJ.ar plant genotype: this we refer to as nematode virulence. Our
discussion of plant resistance is restricted to the genetics of traits in
plants which interact with nematode (a)virulence genes. The interactions
between these genetic systems are the basis for the identification of
pathotypes, usually recognized by the virulence phenotype expressed
in experiments with host· plant. differentials. Th~e host differential/
nematode population interactions are the basis for informed control
strategies using resistant plant cultivars. From these interactions we
recognize the pathotype as a group· of individual nematodes with com-
mon gene(s) for (a)virulence and differing from gene or gene combina-
tions found in other groups. :Although this defirii_tion is n()t wholly
satisfactory, it is pragmatic and.useful. We rarely have information on
all genes for virulence, no:r on all-their interactions with plant genes. This
may allow undetected differences between pathotypes. Another word of
caution is needed about this definition. It is essentially· based upon
genotype, but is usually applied to an 'average phenotype' recognized
at a range of levels of resolution~ from regional, agroecological zones,
through. farm fields to individual subsamples or inbred progenies of
single female nematodes_ The three schemes we review in thfo chapter
demonstrate the continuing utility of the pathotype concept and the
value of the virulence phenotype approach. We also consider further
developments which will enhance understanding of the genetics of
plant/nematode interactions.
The consideration of genetics of other aspects of parasitisn1 is prohib-
ited by lack of information, although ir-,terspecific crosses between mor-
phological nematode species have been made (rvfugniery, 1979; Miller,
1983) wltich have the potential to illuminate the genetic basis of host
differences_ Trudgill et al. (1996) have reviewed these aspects for round
cyst nematodes. There are many plant traits which affect the outcome of
the interaction between. plant and nematode; in· some cases, there is
lJ('.'f[t_'.11{.::; t:r n:sszance a.na parasitism
information on the genetics of these traits, but where they are non-
specific we ignore them. Similarly, the non-specific respons~s of plants
which contribute to tolerance of nematode attack are not considered here.
13.3 ASSESSMENT OF VIRULENCE AND RESISTANCE

Both nematode virulence and plant response are assessed in controlled
experiments which describe the outcome of the interaction by comparing
nematode reproduction on particular plants with the well-characterized
:response of a susceptible host. A variety of growing media have been
employed, including soil, agar and liquid media in various containers.
The growing nledia are naturally or.artificially infested with the nemat-
odes as cysts, eggs or hatched invasive juveniles, in numbers controlled
to 1ninintize population density dependent effects on nematode repro-
duction.Newly-formed females are counted as white females or newly-
forrned cysts on roots, in soil or both, depending on the host/nenutode
combination and degree of accuracy requfred. The-objective is to make a
comparison which reflects the potential of a nematode population to
reproduce. on a plant in the prevailing field environment
The plant-nematode phenotype must be classified in relation to known
standard susceptible and. resistant controls. When genes of major effect
are involved in homogeneous plants and nematodes, it may be possible
to classify qualitatively, that is, by presence ·vs absence of fe1nales/ cysts
on susceptible and .resistant plants. Usually, for reasons discussed in this
chapter, it is necessary to compare quantitative differences in the plant--
nematode phenotypes. In suCh .comparisons, resistant/ aviruJent classifi-
cations may be restricted to plants with a small proportion or number of
females compared to the susceptible control; viz. 5% for temperate cereals
and Heterodera avenae WolL (Nielsen, 1972) or 10% for soybean and
Heterodera glycines Ichinohe (Golden et al., 1970). In some cases, it is
recognized that from one to a few cysts may develop on resistant plants
(e.g. cereal cyst nematodes, Andersen and Andersen, 1986). A more
··quantitative classification, using the ratio of initial (Pi) and final (Pf)
populations based on eggs, and classifying resistant plants as those
with Pf:Pi <1, was applied to potato cyst nematodes (Kort et al., 1977),
and a sin1ilar comparison ofPf:Pi, but based on female numbers, has been
applied to sugar beet cyst·nematod.e (Miiller, 1986). Other systems make
direct statistically validated comparisons benveen numbers of females of
different populations, for exan1ple of potato cyst nematodes developing
on test and control cultivars (Arntzen and van Eeuwijk, 1992). None the
less, 1vhere there is continuous variation in the expression of resistance I
a.virulence, then application of arbitrary limits will help to meet problen-ts
of classification. Such ~xpression will also be .subject to environmental
variations. Improved classification~in these circumstances may be
Class~fication (~l patho types 325
achieved by coniparison in each experiment with a nematode population
with well characterized virulence (Trudgill, 1991).
Pathotype identification through molecular technologies remains an
important research objective to replace the use of host plant tests,
which in addition to problems of classification and environmental sensit-
ivity, are also rather time consu1nin.g. Ultimately, molecular approaches
seek to detect genes or gene products associated with virulence geno-
types, or to identify molecular n1arkers linked to these. Current
approaches (Caswell-Chen, Williamson and Westerdahl, 1993) are
described later in this chapter_
13.4 CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOTYPES
13.4.1 Cereal cyst nematodes

The scheme developed by .Andersen and Andersen (1982) from the
original compilations of Nielsen (1972) has been widely used to describe
the pathotypes of a number of morphological species of cereal cyst
nen1atod.es recognized on host differentials of three crops (Table 13.1).
TI1e major division into three pa tho type groups is based upon the reac-
tions of barley cultivars with known resistance genes (Rhnl, Rha2, Rha3).
Each pa.thotype group is divided by reactions of other differentials, lead-
ing to the double integer- codes shown in Table 13.1. Although the
principal divisions were practica} for spring barley breeding in north-
western Europe, there is no intrinsic scientific justification for the pri-
macy given to these differentials. Nomenclature has become a {_iifficulty
with this scheme, since it is a statistically descriptive approach of incom-
pletely understood interactiori.sf and allocation of codes requires agree-
rnent on priority before pu!Jlication.
Ireholm, Cook and Rivoal (1998) proposed a more flexible scheme
based l;lpon the same-differential reactions but using a decanary notation
of differentials (Habgood, 1970) to gjve unambiguous labels to each
pathotype. Because the genetics of the field populations are unknown,
TreholJn, Cook and Rivoal (1998) applied the term 'virulence phenotype'
to nematode populations which m.a:y be homogeneous or heterogeneous
regarding their virulence gene(s). This makes the schenw useful for
describing field populations. It also separates the three principal cereal
species, alloV\ing flexibility of use. Although fundamentally based upon
the assumption that the observed patten1s result from gene-for-gene
interactions it is independent of knowledge of genes ili. plant and
1
nen1atode.
Each differential cultivar is given a specific decanary notation (2° = 1,
2 = 2, 22 = 4 etc) and virulencephenotypes are labelled by the sum of the
1
numbers of susceptible differen6als for each of the cereal species (Table

Table 13.1 Palhotypc groups of cereal cysl nematodes defined by on International Test Assortment of cereal spcx:it>s .1nci cultivars
(revised after Andersen and Andersen, 1982; Rivoal and Cook, :l 993)
Hal grot~p Ha2 lin3 group

group
Diffcn.'1itial"
·'·'
SpfCit!~'
C!Jlff?Mr [R-gcne]i Han rfo21 Ha31 Ha41 Ha51 Ha61 Ha71 Ha12 Ha13 Ha23 Ha33
-- -- - . -- · - - · -- - - --- ------· · - · -
' -----· ----··---...---- ------- -- ·-···---- ··-- . - · - - - - · - ----- --··
Barley
1. Vorde +t + + + + + + +
2. Emir [+ex Emir] + + .. + - .l.
+ -+ + ·i·
:i. OrtoJan lRhall -- -· -·· ···- - t + + +
'1. \\.forocco 1Rha3,+J
Siri [ l\ha2 + ex Her fa 1 -- - + + + ~
--· + + +
KVL191 (Rha2, +J --· ·-- + + +
Bajo Aragon -- - -- - + + +
Hert.a + + - -- - + +
- ...
Martin 403 [2 doml -- - -· - + +
.. (+)
Dalmatis.che (-) + - + + (-) +
La Estanzue ~a .. .. + (-)
Harlan 43 .. .. .. - - .. - ..L.
Oats
l. Nidar f (-+ ) + ·- I
I
-+ ..L
I +
2. Sol II (min0r genes I + -- - - -· + - + + -t +.
.3. Pusa. Hybrid F3Sl (1 dorn] -- - ·-- - - - + -- I
4. A. stcrilis !376 l1 to 3 dorn]

Silva I> 1 gene] (- ) - (-) ·- (--) (-·) (-) +
1GV. H 72-64h -- - -- - - + + +
Wheat
1. C1pn + -t + .. +- t· j +
2. AUS 10894 [co1zl +] ·-. I -- (-)
;j, Loros [conI +] -· ·- (-) -- (-)
4. Psntl1i21s ' f- I
T
'
lskamish K-2-light -1- - ( -- ) + +
---- --------
~ cultivar numbers designa!c key diitcrenth11s used in virulence phenotype S<'.'heme propm.>t"d hy Ircholm ci al., (1998); ·; re~
(R!w1, /~lia2, IVw3) defining :J pathotype groups; dom, domin<int gem~; +additional gene(s') inferred; ! -! .. susceptible.: -, re
on susceptible control);() intemwdiate; .. no obSR.rvation.
328 Genetics of resistance and parasitism
13.2; Ireholr.n., Cook and Rivoal, 1998). This proposal has two advantages:
(1) that, for an agreed set of differentials, the allocation of the pathotype
code requires no arbitration and (2)thatthe virulence phenotype descrip-
tor may be decoded to show the interactions on each differential (Table
13.2). Using four differentials of each cereal species and test results from
the world range of cereal cyst nematodes, Ireholm, Cook and Rivoal
(1998) differentiated 69 populations into seven virulence phenotypes on
barley, ejght on wheat and six on oats: in combination, 30 virulence
phenotypes were described·with.these·12 differentials.
In some regions, population virulence phenotyp~ indicate the exist-
ence of rather purepathotypes·withrespect to particular resistance genes.
This seems especially so with barley genes where either the nematode
population may have been introduced from Europe (e.g. New Zealand,
Australia, Oregon, USA), or where there has been extensive selection
pressure through the rec~nt use .of particular resistance genes (e.g. UK,
Scandinavia). Other populations are distinguished by dlfferent frequen-
cies of additional virulence genes (Person-Dedryver, 1987). The evidence
Table 13.2 Example of the application of the decanaty coding system to cereal
cyst nem.atode virulence phenotypes (after Ireholm et al.; 1998)
Interaction with pathotype"'

Differential Dccanary
Species cultipm· host code Hal 1 Ha41 Ha61 Ha71 Ha12 Ha13 Ha23
Barley
Varde 2° = 1 +l + + + + + +
Emir 21 = 2. + + -r- + + +
Ortola11 22 = 4 + + +
Morocco 23 = 8
Virulence phenotype codcst 3 3 1 3 7 7 7
Oat
Nidar U 2° = 1 + + I
-r- -t- + +
Sol II 21 =2 + + + +
Pusa hybrid 22 =4 +
A. sterilis 23 = 8
Virulence phenotype codes 3 1 3 0 3 7 3
\A/heat
Cap a 2° = 1 + + + + + +
AUS 10894 21 =2 + (-) T
Loros 2 = 4 2 (-) (-) +

Psathias 25 = 8 + + ·+ +
Vimlence phenotype codes (1) 9 (1) (3) 9 9 J.5
... see TABLE 13.1;1+, su.sceptib1e -, resistant 5",{, females on susceptible control;
o, intermediate; ·-, no observation; ! derived from the sum of the codes of scesccptible
differentials
Class~fication '-~f pathotypes 329
suggests that all the different morphological species of cereal cyst nen1a-
todes have populations with different virulence phenotypes. There is no
clear di5tribution pattern/ although those from eastern Europe appear to
be H. filipjeoi (Madzhldov) Stelter (Su.bbotln, Rumpenhorst and Sturhan,
1996; Bekal, Gauthier and Rivoat 1997), and many of these are virulent on
a wide range of differentials. In Sweden, extensive tests showed similar
-virulence phenotypes ainong other morphological species. Outside
Europe populations are virulent on resistance derived from wheat
cultivar Loras. Some populations lack virulence on all oats tested;
this characteristic is widely distributed, being found in populations
from Europe/ including France, Spain and Sweden; West Asia,
North Africa and in India; Chlna and Japan (lreholrn, Cook and Rivoal,
1998).
There is limited evidence for loss of effectiveness of resistance
genes used in widely-grown cultivars. In Scandinavia, some resistance-
breaking populations have been reported on barley gene Rha2, and, in
France, a virulent nematode population was selected in the field when
resistant oat cultivar Panen1a wa.s intensively grown (Lasserre el" al.,
1996). In Sweden, emergence of virulence was due to a morphologi-
cally-distinct species, but the French population virulent on cultivar
Panem.a was H. avenae W oil.
Other species of grass/c:ereal nematodes (Ireholm, 1994; Sturhan and
Rumpenhorst, 1996) could become prominent if cereals with major genes
for resistance to H. avenae were more widely grown. Part of the reason
why more new pathotypeshave not been detected when resistant crops
have been grown is that endemic biological control develops when cer-
eals are intensively cultivated in n1oist temperate soils (Kerry, 1987). Such
control a gents are not pathotype specific and therefore work in. an W1con-
scious application of integrated control, to prevent en1ergence of virul-
ence on a field scale.
13.4.2 Potato cyst nematodes

Pathotypes have been identified in both species of potato cyst nematode,
G. rostochiensis and G; pallida Stone. Schemes describing virulence of
popuJations from Europe and from south Arn.erica (Canto Saenz and de
Scurrah, 1977; Kort et al., 1977) included potato clones with unknown
resistance genes and sorne with quantitatively expressed resistance. This,
with the extensive heterogeneity of some potato cyst nematode popula-
tions, caused problems 1n the application of both schemes. Resistant
interactions were defined as those with multiplication rates of less than
unity, calculated from egg numbers. VvltiJst this is practically important,
it proved to be poorlymeasured in pots. The designation of a cultivar was
affected not only by the genetic jnteractions but was also subject to
environmental influences, leading to some artefactual pathotype desig-
nations (Trudgill, 1985).
1ne two schemes initially identified five and four pathotypes of G.
rostochiensis and three and six of G. pallida in Europe and South America,
respectively (Brodie, Evans and Franco, 1993; Table 13.3). However, the
schemes did not dearly discriminate betv.reen populations. In essence,
populations in the centres. of origin of the two species are more hetero-
geneous in virulence characteristics than those introduced with the
spread of their potato host as a food crop in the rest of the world. Both
Trudgill (1985) and Nijboer and Parlevliet (1990) identified 'vfru.lence
groups' but not pathotypes.
Potato clones \.vith gene H1 are resistant to G. rostochiensis pathotypes
Rol and Ro4, and these have been combined as virulence group RoL
Sirn.ilarly, clones with gene H2 are resistant to Pal but susceptible to other
.Pa populations. Severa] of the other clones, vv-ith quantitative resistance
or several genes of minor effect, subdivided the pathotypes of both
species. Some populations appear to be relatively homozygous for virul-
ence e.g. Rol and Pal, while others are heterogeneous (Mugn.iery et al.,
1989; Arntzen and Yan Eeuwijk, 1992). Neither of these occur as 'pure'
pathotypes in samples from South America. A consensus seems to be that
in EtITope there are three pathotypes of G. rostochiensis, but that popula-
tions of G. pallida cannot be reliably described as pathotypes, although
Pa 1 is distinguishable from Pa2/3 by interactions with resistance gene H2
(Table 13.3).
Selection experiments confirm that it is possible to increase the propor-
tions of virulent individuals jn European populations of G. pallida
(Turner 1 1990). The heterogeneity of potato cyst nematodes in Europe,
both in vinllence and other characteristics, is thought to have originated
from differences in introduced populations together with the effects of
randon1 genetic drift and short-distance gene flow (Bakker et al., 1993).
Population heterogenejty for. virulence n1ay have been maintained by
m1known selection on cultivars heterogeneous for some resistance
factors as even 'susceptible' cultiva.rs are not selectively neutral
(Phillips and Dale, 1982). Other populations of G. pallida for example
1
from. the south Atlantic Falkland Islands, indicate a different origin

fron1 that of European populations (Zaheer et al., 1992). Alternative
characterization based on a concept of gene pool sin1ilarity, distinguishes
populations in a way relevant to the deployment of resistant cultivars in
Europe (Bakker et al., 1993; Gonzalez, Phillips and Trudgill, 1996).
13.4.3 Soybean cyst nematode

Differences in virulence between soybean cyst nematode populations
were first recognized in the USA when resistance breeding began
'.'able 13..3 lnteracbons beKveen potatoes wi_th resistance genes and populations of potato cyst nematodes, summarizing patholype schemes arti
heir modifications by Kort et al., 1977; Canto Saenz and de Scurrah, 1977; Trudg ill, 1985; Pmlevliet, 1990; Brodie et al., 1993; Janssen et al., 1991 a
)hillips1 1994
Polri!o G rostochjensis C. pallida Clobodera speci1;s

;pei.:ics mrJ accessi01i Ploid~1 Rcsi~:tmicc grnes HoJ. Rv3 H.o5 -- - - /Jt12/3 vinilmce groupi'11g
Roi J<o4 f~tJ2 Ru3 Ro5 Pa1 - -. - P112 Pa3 E11ropemr patlwtyp('
RJA R1H R2A f<3A - r LA PlB P2A P3A P4A PSA P6A S Amt>rir.a11 p11fhotypt' !:
-- · - - - - · - - · - - · · · · · -· - - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - .. ---- -------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - · - ---------···- ••• - - - - --· -----~-·----------------·------- ·-- - - - - - - - - - - - --- ----- - - - - - - - - - - · - · - t.
;_ tubero~:um ssp tI1bemsw11 4x (minor) +/-~ .i- ..L

I + + I· + + -I + l· +
; I. ssp. andigcJw CPC 11)7] 4x 1-Il on - - ..L
I· -t + + +
chromos.ome 5
;, k11r!z.iMWll! KrIT 60.2J .19 :?x Kl, K2, A ~nJ 13 ( 1-) {+~ (+) ;· + + '' 1- +
;. v1.·n1ei GLKS S&.1642.4 2x q unnti ta ti Vt' + ·-·- . .L
I + ·- + + + -t-
l. var1ei Vt'' 62 . 3:3J 2x quantitative -· + ..L - - - f- +
,_
•:r; S. mr1!tuti.~;;eclum 2x > 1 + poly genes H2 + -t -'-
+ -- ./-t - -· ..L
I· +
1ybrid P.55/7
). t. ssp. andigma 4x II3 + polygenes ..l
'
(--) {-) ( -· }
~1 P 2BD090 .10 quantitative .. - - -; ~
i
;, vernei hybrid 69.1377/94 2x polygenes -- - -- -· - -
- f'·
). vemei hybrid 65.34D/19 2x polygenes -· -· - -- + +
~. spegauinii 2x F1i = l lJ ·- i
I
+ (
'
; spegazzinii 2x Fb + 2 minor + - +
+ compatible inter'1cti01Y nematode virulent, pote1to ~usccptib[e; -, incompatible interaction: nematode avirulcnt, potato resistant; {),indicates partial or unc~n(
nteraction.: .. , no information (.
{
-,
(
(
332 Genetics (f resistance and parasitism
(Golden et al.f 1970). The term 'race' was used to describe field popula-
tions with different abilities to n~produce on the sources of resistance and
on resistant cultivars (Niblack, 1992). Initially, soybean/nematode inter-
actions were compared with those on the standard susceptible cultivar
Lee: those with fewer than 10% of cysts on cultivar Lee were considered
resistant/avirulent; those with more than 10% as susceptible/virulent.
This arbitrary point, usually expressed as the Female Index (Fl) derived
frmn the fonnula 100*(number of females on test soybean/ number on
cultivar Lee), was expected to predict that resistant cultivars would
conh·o1 the nematode in the field. Carefully controlled experimental
procedures to m.inimize the impact of envirornnental interactions have
contributed to the continued utility of the scheme (Riggs and Schmitt,
1991).
Using the four standard soybean differentials (Pickett, Peking, PI 88788
and PI 90763), Riggs and Schmitt(1988) fully characterized ail 16 possible
races (Table 13.4). In shl.dies of 138 isolates from the United States of
America, China and Indonesia, 12 of the 16 possjbJe races were encoun-
tered. Race numbers were allocated in an historical fashion, without
much logic or structure, so it is only by reference to the full Table that
race nmnbers can be related to phenotypic expressions. It has been
recognized that the term race describes population characterjstics and is
not a genotyp"ic designation. Field populations of H. glycines proved to be
heterogeneous and the differentials not wholly characterized for resist-
ance genes. There is even evidence that the standard susceptible cultivar
Lee has some genes for resistance. The resulting characterizations are
statistical representations of an average virulence phenotype in the sa.m-
ple tested.
The soybean cyst nematode race scheme predicts whether a cultivar
\.Vill control the nematode population within a field in a particular season,
but not what the consequences of selection pressure might be. Because of
the arbitrary nature of the 10°/o rule, anomalies occur; thus, in tests Race 4
is described as virulent on PI 88788 with an .fl of sonwwhat 1nore than
10%. Nevertheless, PI 88788 remains a useful source for practical resist-
ance breeding against R'1ce 4. The schen1e is not suited to selection of
materials for genetic studies of either resistance or virulence genes. It is a
prag1natic schen1e, of proven worth for applied research and advisory
work (Niblack, 1992). Further refinements of pathotype classification
depend on irnproved tmderstanding of the genes involved in the inter-
actions axid in progress in describing genetic variation in both plant and
nern.atodes.
In the USA, most new or potential cu.Jtivars are tested for their reaction
to eight ra.ces (1-<J, 9 and 14); classifications vary because of borderlin.e
values of FI when populations of the nematode are not homogeneous
(Riggs, Rakes and Dombek, 1995).
L
t
[
/
(_
r
t
r
Table 13.4 Races of soybean cyst nematode recognized on four differentials and expressed in relation to a fifth, susceptible soybean
t:
cultivar Lee (after Riggs and Schmitt, l 988; Riggs el." t1l., 1995), coded and arranged according to the principles of virulence phenotype
scheme oflreholm et al. 1998 1
!,~
,_
l,
Differential Decanruy Race"' 3 6 '}.) 9 1 5 11 2 8 10 12 14 7 15 1 4 (

2
culli'uar cod(' Virulence 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 :10 11 12 13 14 15 t
phenotype I
. - - - · - - · - --------·----------- ----·------- --------·-- -----------·--- ·--- ·------ --------- - ------- --- -·--- ·------· --------- --------- --
=1 I
Pickett 21) ~ - + - + - +· + -- + - + +
Peking ·')1
~
-
- - .I-
')
- -~ + ·- - + ..... -· - + + - - + I-
Pl 88788 27 ::;~ 4 - - - - + -+ + + - ·- - - + + + +
PI 90763 21 = s - - - - - -- + + i T + + + +
~Race code from Riggs and Schmitt, 1988; t decanary number and virulence phenotype,!)(.~ Table 13.2; •~ t, susceptible (Female Index> 10~~·~) that of· >-
.!:
susceptible control cuJtivar L~); -, resistant (Female Index< 10'}~ cultivar Lee).
(_
Q
c
c
,__
c
(I
i
-,
>-
c
334 Genetics (?f resistance and parasitism
13.4.4 Sugar beet cyst nematode
Resistance from wild Beta procumbens and B. patellaris, recently intro-
duced into commercial sugar beet cultivars, has allowed sh1dies of the
variation of virulence characteristics of sugar beet cyst nematode Hetern-
dera schachtii Sclunidt (1\1iiller, 1986, 1992). Naturally occurring nematode
populations often had a low frequency of genes for virulence on the B.
procumbens-derived resistance associated with chromosome pro-1. The
proportion of virulent individuals increased when selected by repeated
multiplication on plants with this resistance and the selected pathotype
(129v) "\Vas also virulenton:lines with resistance from chromosome 1 of B.
palellaris and B. webbianti. ·Breeders' lines;·· with different contributions
from these wild species, differentiated the sibling 129-\;irulent and
avirulent pathotype_s and vv·ild type H. schachtii.
13.4.5 Other cyst nematodes

There are not v1rell developed resistance breeding programmes for 0th.er
nematodes and there is no clear den1onstration of the variation in virul-
ence which might occur in unselected populations. None the less, there
are indications of var~ation in resistance to dover cyst nematode, espe-
cially :in host races adapted to different species of Tr~folium. TI1e identifi-
cation of cultivar resistance in rice to H. oryzae (Bridge, Luc and
Plowright, 1990) and in·chickpea to H. ci.ce1-i (Di Vito et al., 1988) and in
wild relatives of pigeonpea to He cajani (Sharma, 1995; Sharma, Rema-
nandan and Jain, 1993) clearly indicate the potential for corresponding
variations in parasitic abill.ties in these cyst nematodes. "Where single
resistance genes of major effect are exposed to heterogeneous nematode
populations, there will be selection for emergence of virulence. The con-
sequences in nematodes like H. tr~folh, which reproduce parthenogeneti-
cally and are multivoltine, are likely to be different from the amphimjctic
· species so far reviewed, and perhaps more like the situation '"rith parthe-
nogenetic root-knot nematodes.
13.5 GF!\.TETJCS OF NEhtLA.. TODE VIRULENCE
13.5.1 Hybridization
Formal de1nonstration of the genetics of virulence requires hybridization
between parent nematodes of different virulence genotypes to
assess phenotypes of the segregat1ng F2 generation. One such classic
gene-for-gene interaction has been proven for potato and G. rostochiensis,
·where a single dominant r~sistance gene Hl is matched by a recessive
virulence gene (Tanssen, Ba_kke:r and Gomm.ers, 1991 ).
14 Jan uu lu=~~ F'. L·
Genetics of nematode virulence 335

Andersen (1965) made crosses between virulent and aviru1ent H.
avenae and concluded th.at ability to reproduce on barley resistance
gene Rha1 was inherited as a dominant character. In contrast, crosses
with French populations showed that genes for virulence on Rhal and
Rha2 were recessive (Person-Dedryver and RivoaL 1979). Other recessive
virulence genes were hypothesized for pathotypes Ha41 and Hall on
barleys with multiple resistance genes (Person-Dedryver, 1984; 1987)_
Tn H_ glycines, F2 segregationfi from crosses with inbred l1ne.s indicated
two unlinked dominant genes for virulence to two soybeans, where
resistance is recessive (Opperman, Doug and Chang, 1994). Given that
soybean nematode resistance genes appear to be inherited recessively,
this is the con-\/erse of Fforis original gene-for-gene hypothesis_ Domin-
ance of virulence may explain the rapid selection responses in field
populations of soybean cyst nematode. Heterod.era glycines has consider-
able tolerance of inbreeding either between sibs or relations from differ-
ent generations (Sipes,. 1992). This permits rapid increase in the frequency
of favourable alleles, and must have led to the loss of most lethal alleles
during evolution. Juvenile diapause ensures persistence of alleles and
compensates for drift in local clusters and changing -environments_ In
Japan, the eggs within a single cyst of soybean cyst nematode were
shown to be different races (Aiba~ Shimizu and Mitsui, -1995). Schouten
(1994) has shown that avin1lence alleles may persist in a population as a
consequence of male nematodes maturing on resistant potato plants.
Given the heterogeneity in-plant and nemafode populations, shown in
the previous section, and that segreg£1tion patterns are based on few
progeny, it is not surprising that there are different interpretations of
the jnheritance of virulence (Anand and Sharma, 1995).
13.5.2 Protein polymorphism

Pathotypes of H. avenae differ in isozyme polymorphisms (Dalmasso,
Pe1·son-Dedryver and Thomas, 1982), and a virulent population selected
by repeatedly growing oat cultivar 'Panerna differed from unselected
populations in esterase allelic frequencies (Lasserre et al., 1996). Opper-
ma:n1 Dong and Chang (1994) showed a. close association of esterase allele
patterns and virulence characteristics in inbred lines of H. glycines. In
contrast, more extensive comparisons of potato cyst nematode patho-
types and populations failed to provide consistent relationships between
particular virulence patterns and enzyme polymorphisn1s (Phillips et al.,
1992). The patterns of heterogeneity result from different introduction
events and associated inbreeding phenomena~ rather than being linked to
(and indicative of) virulence phenotypes. Species, but not pathotypes of
potato cyst nematodes can be identified by monoclonal antibodies
(Schots et al., 1989)-
Such approaches following protein l.solation are Hkely to lead to patho-
type recognition and diagnostics. None the less, their application may be
limited by the polymorphism-for virulence i.n some· nematode popula-
tions, and associated sampling problems (Schouten, 1997)_
Polypeptide analysis by two dimensional electrophoresis has not estab-
lished close relationships-· between protein patterns and virulence of
either H. avenae or H. glycines~ although isolates of cereal cyst nematodes,
now shown to be different species (Sturhan and Rumpenhorst, 1996), can
be distinguished by this increasingly powerful tedmique (Ferris et al.,
1994; Bossis and Rivoal, 1996)~ Extensive analysis of proteins representing
between 15 and 30% ofthe G. rostochiensis genome, identified 39 variant
proteins distinguishing pathotype Rol and Ro5 (Bakker and Bouwnrnn-
Smits, 1988). In contrast, a similar approach to G. pallida did not discri-
minate between pathotypes, and suggested that the genetic distances
v.rithin pathotypes are not necessarily less than those between them
(Bakker, Bouwman-Suits and Gommers, 1992).
13.5.3 DNA polyn1orphism

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) detected in digested
genomic DNA did not distinguish intraspecific differences between Eur-
opean populations of G. rostochiensis (Gonzalez, Phillips and Trudgill,
1995). In contrast, RFLP, revealed by cloned genomic probes in Southern
blots, grouped pathotypes Roland RoS (Bu:rgmeister et al., 1992). RFLP
analyses differentiated two British G. pallida populations of different
virulence (Gonzalez, Phillips and Trudgill, 1995) and gave partial corre-
lations of virulence and ··genetic distance (Schnick, .Rumpenhorst and
Burgernteister, 1990). Heterodera glycines races have been distinguished
by comparison of restriction endonuclease digests of total cellular DNA
(Kalinski and Huettet 1988).
PCR-based techniques amplify random fragments of DNA {RAPD)
and reduce the amount of genomic DNA required for improved discri-
mination. This approach distinguished between potato cyst nematode
pathotypes, although better for G. rostochiensis than for G. pallida (Folk-
ertsn1a et al., 1994). RAPD techniques identified a DNA fragment correl-
ated with selected virulence in G. rostochiensis (Rouppe van der Voort et
al., 1994) and G. pallida (Pastrik, Rumpenhorst and Burgermeister, 1995),
and distinguish between cereal cyst nematode species which also have
different virulence (Lopez-Brana, Romero and Delibes, 1996). Simple
sequence repeat primers selected from Caenorhabditis elegm1s identified
ge~ebc variation in potato cyst nematodes related to geographk origins
of the populations (Blok, Phillips and Harrower, 1997), but did not
demonstrate relationships ·with virulence groups (Blok and Phillips,
1995).
Genetics of plmtt resistance 337
Li et al. (1996) identified one RAPD primer that apparently distin-
guished between isolates of H. glycines frotn northern and southern
Illinois, USA, which also differed in virulence phenotype. RAPD PCR
techniques recognized genetic differences both betWeen and within H.
schachtii populations: ther.e ~a_s_ 1nore__variation in field populations than
in those maintained by inbreeding (Casweli~Chen, Wfllfamson and Wes-
terdahl, 1993).
Continued developn1ent and application of these techniques will pro-
vide exact markers for the virulence detected and characterized by tradi-
tionaJ approaches (Pastrik, Rllmpenhorst and ·Burgermeister, 1995).
Molecular markers n1ay be developed to identify Virulence genelically,
but usually have shown differences between geographic isolates rather
than between races or virulence phenotypes. The extent to which varia-
tion in virulence and other geneti.c features are associated remains to be
demonstrated; although Bakker et aL {1993) concluded that, in the
absence of selection, molecular data reflect virulence as two aspects of
potato cyst nematode gene pool sin1ilarity, having been determ.ined by
the sa1ne events.
13.6 GENETICS OF PLANT RESISTANCE
13.6.1 Cereals
Interrelationships of resistance genes ha.ve been studied most with bar-
ley, wheat and oats in Northern Europe (with pathotypes Hall and
Ha12) and in AustraUa (with Ha13). Single dominant genes in barley,
wheat and oats confer resistance to .son1e populations. Landraces or old
.
cultivars (often mixtures rather than the pure homogeneous cultivars

mostly grown today) have proved good sources of resistance (Rivoal
and Cook, 1993). Resistance has been identified in accessions of barley
and oats indigenous to infested areas in north western Europe,, lridia and
Spain. In wheat, several sources of resistance have been found from
Afghanistan and West Asja, from North Africa and other Mediterranean
regions. In barley and oats,. resistance is known in populations of wild
cereals which n1ay have been the ancestors of cultivated crops. The wild
progenitors of wheat are not known but several species whose genomes
are related to those of cultivated wheats include some resistance genes
(Dosba and Rivoal, 1982).
There is extensive linkage and allelisn1 of :resistance genes. Person-
Dedry·ver a11d Doussinault (1984) investigated a nu1nber of crosses of
European barley cultivars artd proposed several resistance genes with
dominant or con1plententary action; The single dominant gene (Crel) has
been mapped on the long arm of wheat chromosome 2 in Loros and AUS
10894, and linked to RFLP markers (Slootmaker et al., 1974; Willian1s,
Fisher and Langridge, 1994). Breeders' lines incorporating Crel are sus-
ceptible to some Swedish populations to which Loros is resistant, indicat-
ing the presence 1n Loros of additional genes (Ireholm, 1994). Other
sources have been found in the different ·genomes of related Triticum
species and some have been mapped and transferred to cultivated wheat,
T. aestivum (Delibes et al., 1993; Rivoal, Jamer and Hulle, 1993; Eastwood,
Lagudah and Appels, 1994).
Some of the resistance genes are widely effective, including accessian
Morocco with a domirl.ant gene Rha3, at the same locus as Rha2 but
not linked to Rhal; resistant to· 42 of 69 populations, while oat Avena
sterilis 1376 is resistant to 41 populations (Irehohn, Cook and RivoaL
1998). Both barley accession Morocco, oat 1376 and wheat cultivar
Loros are susceptible to populations of H. filipje:vi and other nematode
species.
Different interpretations of the segregation of resistance and the use of
different pathotypes,. notwholly categorized for all their virulence genes,
contribute to classification difficulties. Improved location of resistance
genes through PCR-based assays will improve knowledge of the genes in
the three cereal species. ·
13.6.2 Potatoes
Resistance to G. rostochiensis was introduced to the European crop fron1
accessions of a subspecies of the cultivated potato, Solanum tuberosum ssp.
andigena (Table 133). The single dominant gene (H1) with tetrasomic
inheritance has been demonstrated to be part of a gene•.for-gene interac-
tion with the avirulence gene in pathotype Rol (Parrott, 1981; Janssen,
Bakker and Gommers, 1991). Also found in other accessions, H1 has been
mapped by RFLP techniques to chromosome 5. Another simply jnherited
locus (Grol) from v\rild diploid S. spegazzinii, mapped to chromosome 7
(Barone et al., 1990), confers quantitative resistance to Rol and can be
selected by n1arker assist~d selection (Ballvora et al., 1995). A separate
single donlinant gene, Kl, from the wild species S. kurtzianum, which has
more than one-resistance gene, confers resistance to Ro1 and Ro2, but not
to Ro3, Ro4 and Ro5. The potential genetic interactions in wild species are
illustrated by two independent dominant genes from S. spegazzinii: Fa
confers resistance to Roland Ro4, and Fb, with hvo nlinor genes, to Ro3,
Ro4 and Ro5 (Table 13.3). Gene Fb appears to be loc'1ted on chromoson1e
7 (Gebhardt et al., 1991). Solanum spegazzinii 8218-15 was shown to be
heterozygous at its nematode resistance locus, and two RFLP quantitative
trait loci associated with quantitative resistance to Ro1 were mapped to
chromosom.es 10 and 11 (Kreike et al., 1993). Loci conferring resistance to
Rol occupy a number of chromosomal positions in different Solan.um
species (lacobs et al., 1996).
Genetics of plant resistance 339
Resistance to G. pallida has proved more elusive, due to the heteroge-
neity of populations of this species. Genes H2 and H3 front S. nzulti-
dissectu.m and S. tuberosum ssp. andigena, respectivdy, ·provide s01nE~
resistance. H2 gives resjstance. to Pal, and probably is a major gene
with son1e supplementary genes. H3, probably polygenic, confers full
resistance to European populations of G. pallida but only partial resist-
ance to South American populations, and is susceptible to Rol. Quantitat-
jvely expressed resistance to G. pallida has been introduced fro1n 5. vernei,
and <loes not seen1 to involve major genes. It is effective against two
pathotypes of G. pallida, widespread in South America (Franco and Gon-
zalez, 1990). Janssen, Bakker and Gonuners (1991) reported that genes
Gpa on chromosonle 5 and Gpa3 which is from the san1e accession as H1
but is on chrom.osome 12 were effective against some European G. pallida
populations.
Resistance gene H1 has been .incorporated into nlany cultivars: its
effectiveness has been eroded. by the emergence of G. paffida in UK,
USA and New Zealand but by selection of virulent pathotypes of G.
rostochiensis in the Netherlands (Brodie, Evans and France), 1993), and
after intensive cultivation or\ an experimental farm in New York (Brodier
1996). Resistance to G. pallida is eroded by selection of virulent jndivi-
duals (Turner, 1990; Beniersi MW.der·and Schoutten, 1995). Phillips (1994)
concluded that minor genes associated with major genes are lost during
hybridizations in breeding programmes, so that hybrids are generally
less resistant than the source. A small proportion of genotypes from tuber
bearing Solanum species were resistant to ohe or both nematode species 1
with son1e resistant clones identified in about 40% of the accessions tested
(Rouselle-Bourgeois and Mugniery, 1995).
13.6.3 Soybean
Resistance to cyst 11e1natodes in soybean (Glycines rnax (L.) Ivierrill) is
predo1iu.nantly inherited as a recessive characteristic (Caviness, J.992).
The heterogeneity of resista:llce sources and of nematode populations
has complicated genetic interpretations (Anand and Sharn1a, 1995).
Many parents used in inheritance studies. have undetected resistance
alleles, defying sin1ple interpretations of segregation patterns. Earlier
studies ·with classifications based on the Fen1ale Index (section 13.4.3)
are open to several· interpretations~ Allelism, linkage and epistasis are
conunon (Anand and Sharnla, 1996).
Studies of individual plants with split root systems clarified som.e of
the genetic interactions conditioning responses to races 3 and 5: resist-
ance was determined by different combinations of recessive and don1in-
ant genes of quantitative and qualitative effects (An.and and Sharm.a,
1996). Resh:;tance loci carry multiple alleles and cultivar.s 1nay not have
all the alleles present in the donor: additionally, interactions with unde-
tected alleles from other parents in conlplex breeding progra1nn1es
hirthe.r complicatt:' study of the genetics. Even when near ho1nogeneous
nematode races were used, intennediate reactions were predon1in<int in
wisdected soybean popu.lations (Diers et al., 1996). Soybean Pl 437654 is
-vvidely used as a parent and has good resistance to all races tested
(Anand a.11.d Shanna, 1996). 1n crosses with Peking, PI 88788 and Pl
90763 its resistance to race 3 was controlled by two dominant and two
recessive genes; to race 5 by two recessive and two dominant epistatic
genes; and to race 14 by-one dominant and two recessive genes. In crosses
with other cultivars different interpretations have been given (Faghihi et
al., 1995). Other :introductions have different genes. In the USA, most
current cultivars have resjstance from Peking and/ or PI 88788 but new
virulent races have e1nerged (Table 13.4).
Diversity in. ·field populations leads to breakdown of soybean cyst
nematode resistance as the frequency of virulence alleles is increased
(Anand et al., 1994). This supports the suggestion that there are two
groups of resistance (Luedders; 1983) with cultivars derived fron1 either
PI 88788 or PI 209332 in one group, and those fron1 Peking or PI 90763 in
the second. Cultivars fron1 different groups are suitable for alternation in
rotations to m.axin-Lize the life of each resistance (Young, 1994).
There are other sources of resistance deriving from diverse germplasm,
especially from China. Two of 10 000 lines evaluated were resistant to
four races (1 3, 4 and .5) (Liu et al. 1995). Individ\ial genotypes may have
1 1
resistance to several races: viz Changli and Peking have the saine genes
for resistance to races land 3; Harbin and PI 90763 to races 1, 2 and 3;
Xiaoli to races 1,2,3 and 14; artd Lianmaohi only to race 3 (Liu_ et al., 1994).
Molecular n1arker mapping lwsidentified a number ofco111plex loci in
the soybean genome wherE~ resistance genes are clustered. Although
resistance is expressed quantitatively, it is possible that a qualitative
score combined with molecular linkage nlapping will assist the develop-
ment 0£ high resolution maps (Concibido et al., 1996). Several accessions,
including PI 90763, Pl 88788 and Peking (Table 13.4), have resistance
associated with linkage group G. Other major and minor resistance loci
have been identified which will aid the determination of genetic relation-
ships arnongst the various resistance sources (Vierling et al., 1996). There
are now a nu1nber of RFLP m.arkers which can be used to select for the
resistance factors associated with different linkage groups/ which will
enable the development.of plants with known combin.ations of resistance
genes (vVebb et al., 1995).
PI 437654 resistance to race 3 is derived from the Rhg4 resistance locus
and mapped to linkage group A, although other QTLs associated with PI
4376.54 are linked to groups G and M. Together the Rhg4 and G linkage
gave complete resistance to race 3, with G ,linked factors having the
. '-'·~·~, • •.._,.• ..1. ..../ I _,.. •,_.•..::_ ~-/··~'·_.' I
14 ~1 .::tn uu 11 :u.:: J-. U4
Genetics of plant resistance ;_54_1
greater effect when each was expressHi jndividually (Webb et al., 1995).
The A and G linked QTLs can be used to screen for resistance to race 3
fron1 PI 437654 Other studies with other sources confinn that linkage
group G is highiy correlated with resistance.
RFLP markers linked to one n1.ajor and three minor loci were identified
by screening F2 progeny of the cross \..Yilliams 82 x Hartwig with an
inbred cyst nen1at0Je line (Vierling et al., 1996). In Peking (R), Essex (S)
and the near isogE~nic lines NC 55 and Lee, RFLPs (from LG A and C) and
three RAPD markers (LgA, LgF and LGA) couJd explain 33% of the
variation in SCN response of the F2. progeny. Further segregation m1aly-
sis indicated that a QTL on LG A interacts with others forSCN resistance
(l'vfahalinganl and Skorupska, 1995).
13.6.4 Sugar beet

Genetic resistance fron1 wild beets has been introduced into cultivated
sugar beet. Inhedtance studies on responses of lines with different chro-
1nosomes, or parts of chromosorn.es,_ fronl wild species, to a selected
virulent nernatode pathoty_pe suggests that resistance gene(s) occur on
different chro111osomes, andareprobably ~arge blocks of genetic material.
Lange, M-uller and de Bock, (1993) designated the postulated genes fron1
Beta procumbens as Hslm'o-l and Hs2pro- 7 for genes fron1 chromosomes 1
and 7, and that from B: patellaris chromosome 1 as Hslpat- 1 . Physical
inapping of these and genes Hsrweb-l arid Hs2web- 2 from B. webbiana
was achieved by RAPD, RFLP and sequence tagged site markers (Sale-
ntijn et al., 1994; 1995; Heller et al., 1996). The four genes mapped to the
sarn_e locus, independently of the translocation event, and were incorpor-
ated into the sugar beet chromosome by a non-:allelic hon1ologous recon1-
bination.
These studies indicate that resistance to sugar beet cyst nematode is
governed by a relatively simply inherited system. A major single gene is
carried by du·ornosome 1 of the three ¥Vild species, all from_ the Procum-
bentes section of the genus, and js co1nplem.ented by a second resistance
factor on du·ornosome 7 in both B. procumbens and B. webbiana. There are
additional resistance factors in the wild· species, which result in fewer
cysts on these than on the breeding lines expressing both transferred
major genes (Klinke, Millier and Wricke, 1996).
Yeast artificial chromosonies construLted with DNA repeated
sequences lirtked to HslP1 1t-l or Hslpro-l enable further cloning of the 1
major genes for resistance to H. schachtii (Klein-Lankhorst et al., 1994;

Kleine et al. 1995). Recently, jt is reported that Hs1 pro-l encodes a protein
1
with features sin1Har to those of plant genes for resistance to other

organisms Gones, 1996; Cai et al., 1997). This is the first cloning of a
plant gene for resistance to
an animal pest. Prospects of using it in
other crops (Cai et al., 1997) emphasize the need for a fuller characteriza-
tion of nematode pathotypes.
13.7 OTHER ASPECTS OF PARASITISM

By definition, pathotypes differ in virulence genes interacting with host
resjstance genes. Aspects of these interactions which lead to problen'lS
with classification and recognition of pathotypes have been discussed
above. 'There are other physiological traits associated with parasitisrn,
which affect the reproduction of nematodes. Pathotypes of H. avenae
which lacked the ability to reproduce on oats, had a higher reproductive
fitness on common· hosts thfill two more widely virulent pathotypes
(Rivoal and Persori-Dedryver, 1982). Some pathotypes or populations o.f
G. pallida which reproduced poorly on susceptible hosts co:nsequently
gave poor discrimination benveen resistant clones of potato (Mugniery et
al., 1989). A wild type population of H. schachtii developed n1ore females
on susceptible and partially resista_nt beet plants than did pathotypes
selected for virulence and avirulence on resistant beet (Lange,
Muller and de Bock, 1993). The reasons for such differences in repro-
ductive capacity are not clear and are likely to have inany explanations,
but may be evidence of a balance between virulence and fitness as
postulated between virulence and aggressivity in fungi (VanderPlank,
1968).
13.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Resistance to pests and diseases is frequently inherited in n simple way,
and dom.inance js very common especially with hypersensitive resistance
to biot:rophic pathogf;::ns. - Monogenic recessive resistan.ce is much less
common. Som.e cases of non-allelic gene interaction have been reported.
The number of genes differs in different pathosystems, ranging from one
to many. Multiple genes may be (1) at one locus as a n1ultiple allelic
series; (2) at closely linked loci (complex loci) or (3) at independent loci,
but resistance genes are frequently clustered in linkage groups. Several
genes with m.inor eff1;xts may be necessary for resistance. All these gen-
eral features of pathosystems (Niks, Ellis and Parlevliet, 1993) are recogn-
ized in cyst nenlatode/plant interactions. Classically, gene-for-gene
intE~ractions invoh.re a dom.inant gene in the plant (resistance gene) and
the pathogen (avin1lence gene) iJ.1.teracting to lead to the expression of
general defence responses in the infected plant. Any resistance gene can
express its phenotype only when n1atched by a pathogen locus with the
avirulence allele. Differential interactions are evidence of a gene-for-gene
interaction where pathogens have not been studied genetically (Niks,
Ellis and Par1evliet, 1993).
14 Jan 'GO
-- ·1 --
i :u.) F". t)_::,
Concluding remarks 343
It is de<.1r fr01T1 the crops and cyst nematodes considered in this chapter/
that there is considerable genetic diversity in these plant/ parasite inter-
actions. In a number of cases, research has identified and exploited
simply inherited resistance, providing effective nematode c:ontrol over
considerable areas and for considerable tinle. Models predict that effect-
ive use of such genes c'u1 be expected when these are used in integrated
control approaches with crop rotation and other methods. Control might
be longer lasting where the nen1atode has been introduced a.nd has
restricted variation in jts virulence characteristics. This is clearly illu-
strated by the potato cyst nematode G. rostochiensis in UK and USA
(Brodie, Evans and Franco.. 1993). Nevertheiess 1 where nematodes are
en.dem.ic or where n1ore variation has been introduced and n1aintained,
simply jnherited resistance is less useful. Polygeni<! resistance has been
used with good effect in some cases ev~n though.it leads to classification
of nenlatod.e virulence based on incompletely understood genetic inter-
actions of the gene-for-gene type. None the less, pathotype schernes
which group virulences can be agronomically helpful for v1anagen1ent
of cultivars resistant to pot:.:1to cyst nematode G pallida in South An1erica
and Europe c.u1.d to soybean cyst nematode in USA.
The evidence is that gene-.for-gene interactions are important in deter-
nlining the outconw of plant/nematode interactions although different
genetic systems may be involved. The extent of polymorphisms may be
so great as to prevent a cmnplete categorization of the pathosystem.
Knov: ledge of the genetics of these mteractions will be im.proved by the
application of n1olecular techniques. to characterize both nematodes and
their hosts. Studies on the genetics of interactions between cyst nemat-
odes and plants have contributed to concepts for management of resist-
ance genes in order to incre~e the durability of resista11.t cultivars. Such
studies have also conbjbuted to knowledge of the evolution of cyst
nematodes, resulting from either population genetic phenomena (fotuld-
ing effects, randon1 genetic drift, gene flow) or fron1 adaptive and selec-
tion pressures (Bakker et al., 1993).
There is evidence for a diversity of genetic interactions conditionir1g
vfrulence/resistan.ce interactions. Fra:rik {1994) argued that observed pat-
terns of resistance and susceptibility may be a poor guide to the achtal
level5 of polymorphisms, including the tmderlying biochemistry of inter~
acti.ons in host/parasite recognition. Clearly, these genetic interactions
have evolved in son1e distant wild relatives of the cultivated crops, and
continued-throughout the period of domestication with dram.atic effects
more recently, as selection pressures intensified with developu1ent of
inore honi.ogeneou5 crops.
hi 'Wild, indigenous ecosystems, the con-tplex patten:.s of interactions
pron10te stable polymorphism., operating at population or metapopula-
ti.on levels. This avoids both excessive damage to plants and excessive
344 GenPtics of resistance and parasitism
population changes.( as has been suggested for cereal disease systems
(Brown\ng, 1974). The concept of a dynamic equilibriuni. with low levels
of endemic disease arises from the need of biotrophs to have hosts Q'arosz
and Davelos, 1995). The idea that the gene interactions operate at group
selection level within metapopulationsseems useful, providing not only
a theoretical basis for planned spatial and temporal deployment of resist-
ance genes, but also an explanation for the very great heterogeneity in
cyst nenwtodes and their hosts.
In contrast, in exploiting Simple genetic systems for pest control on
hon1ogeneous field crops, there is greater transience. Soni.e plant char-
acteristics associated'with biotic or general stress resistance or tolerance,
have been lost in crops selected .for nutritional quality and increased
harvest yield: this .further exposes the simplified resistance/virulence
genetic systen1s. Single pathotypes, which result generally from the over-
conting of oligogenic resiswnce; could be considered to be artefacts of
agriculture: the use of ~otnogeneous crops to control heterozygous
pathogens will remain problematic~ although less so with single annual
generation soil organi.Sms tha1i with other pathosystems (Browning,
1974).
So far, the search fc>r markers for resistance has depended 1nainly upon
a stochastic approa·chlooking for linked DNA sequences, with or without
function. Previously plant morphological characters were identified as
rnar.kers linked to ·resi~tance. Both these and any functional DNA
sequence, restrict breedmg progra.mme's to particulai· crosses, whereas
marker-assisted selection based upon non~coding DNA sequences
has the potentiaJ to identify and combine genes jn crosses of better
potential Markers for virulence would be most useful· if they could
r.ecognjze pathotypes in the field before planting decisions were
taken, and could more acrurately detect shifts in time to change manage-
tnent pra.ctices. Such markers may be sought by focusing on gene
products associated with induction of feeding cells, perhaps
through nematode salivary or glandular secretions involved in (in)com-
patibili.ty interactions (Hussey, Davis and Ray, 1994). Their practical
~pplication will continue to be jnhibited by sampling problems (Schou-
ten, 1997).
The experimental use of defined transgenic plants disrupting the
genetic host parasite relationships and the application of more and
more powerful biotechnology techniques should dra1natically in.crease
our potential for understanding nematode population evolution. Studies
of the genetic structure of natural populations under seiection by resist-
ance gi~ne(s) and consequent demographic disturbances (founder effects,
gene flow) a.re not simply scientific challenges but are essential to the
establishment of successful, durable nematode managem.ent strategies
(Caswell zmd Roberts.r 1987: Lasserre et al., J 996).
Rtiferences 345
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Plant Resistance To Parasitic
Nematodes
Edited by
J.L. Starr
Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology
Texas A&M University
USA
A.Cook
Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research
Aberystwyth
UK
and
J. Bridge
CABf Bioscience
Egham
UK
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Plant resistance to parasitic nematodes I edited by J.L. Starr, R. Cook c1nd J. Bridge.
p. cm
Includes bibliographical references (p.).
ISBN 0-85199-4G6-0 (alk. paper)
1. Plants--Disease and pest resistance. 2. Plant nematodes. I. Starr. J. L. (James L.) II.
Cook, R. (Roger J.) III. Bridge, J. (John)
SB750 .P58 2001
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Typeset by AMA DataSet Ltd, UK.

Printed and bound in the UK by Biddies Ltd, Guildford and King's Lynn.
Resistance to Plant-parasitic
Nematodes: History, Current
Use and Future Potential
J.L. Starr\ J. Bridge 2 and R. Cook3
1Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas
A&M University, College.Station, TX 77843-2132, USA;
2 Tropical Plant Nematology Advisor, GABI Bioscience UK
Centre, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK;
31nstitute of Grassland and Environmental Research,
Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3EB, Wales, UK
Resistance of plants to pathogens is often defined as the ability of

the plant to lessen, inhibit or overcome the attack by the pathogen
(Wingard, 1953). Entomologists frequently use a broader definition,
defining resistance as the amount of heritable characteristics of the
plant that influences damage done by insect pests (Painter, 1951), with
non-preference, antibiosis and tolerance as types of resistance. In plant
nematology, the most widely used definition is that it is the ability of a
plant to inhibit the reproduction of a nematode species relative to
reproduction on a plant lacking such resistance (Cook and Evans, 1987;
see Roberts, Chapter 2). Additionally, nematologists frequently sepa-
rate host response to nematode parasitism from the ability of the plant
to support nematode reproduction. Thus, a susceptible plant may be
intolerant with a relatively large degree of growth suppression due to
nematode parasitism or it may be tolerant with limited growth suppres-
sion due to parasitism (Cook and Evans, 1987). Likewise, a resistant
host can be either tolerant or intolerant. There are several reports that
document differences in tolerance of susceptible plant species (Hussey
and Boerma, 1989; Cook et al., 1997).
These differences among disciplines reflect differences in how
resistance is expressed in the plant to pathogens, insects and nema-
todes, the methods used to measure resistance, and the nature of the
interaction of the pest or pathogen with the host. Regardless, resistance
is of importance for protection of yield potential and, in some cases, for
management of pest or pathogen population densities. In nematology,
©CAB International 2002. Plant Resistance to Parasitic Nematodes
(eds J.L. Starr, R. Cook and J. Bridge)
2 J.L. Starr et al.
our emphasis on nematode reproduction reflects the general lack

of discrete symptoms upon which assessment of resistance is often
based when dealing with microbial plant pathogens. Further, nematode
reproduction can be measured with sufficient ease, accuracy and
precision to be a practical alternative to measurement of disease (i.e.
symptoms). Additionally, because plant damage caused by nematodes
is so strongly influenced by initial population densities (Seinhorst,
1965) compared with diseases or insects for which the rate of increase
is of primary importance to the final amount of crop damage, then
the effect of resistance on nematode population densities becomes an
important aspect of the use of resistance in crop management systems.
Numerous recent reviews are available that discuss the arguments
for differing definitions of resistance (Cook and Evans, 1987; Trudgill,
1991), the genetic basis for resistance (Roberts et al., 1998), mecha-
nisms of resistance (Williamson and Hussey, 1996; Williamson, 1998),
breeding for resistance (Young, 1998) and bioengineering resistance
(Opperman and Conkling, 1998; Vrain, 1999). This text deals primarily
with the practical measurement of resistance and tolerance in plants.
Our goal is to stimulate greater interest and use of resistance for
management of plant-parasitic nematodes.
Why Resistance?
There are hundreds of reports that document crop yield suppression
due to parasitism by a variety of nematode species (see Luc et al., 1990;
Evans et al., 1993), yet nematodes are still frequently overlooked as
crop pests, or are considered to be pests of minor significance. Numer-
ous factors contribute to the general lack of appreciation of nematodes
as crop pests, including that nematode parasitism often suppresses
crop yields without other obvious symptoms of dainage. If there is a
general lack of awareness of nematodes as crop pests, then it is not
surprising that there has been relatively little concern (or support)
for development of effective and econon1ical nematode management
systems. Agricultural producers are typically faced with a multitude of
problems. Environmental concerns, especially the lin1ited availability
of water (or less frequently the overabundance of \A.rater), probably top
the list of concerns, followed closely by soil fertility. Weeds and, for
most crops, insects (arthropods) are usually considered by the producer
to be the most important crop pests. In addition to factors that directly
affect crop productivity, the producer must also consider economic
issues related to labour, land and equipment costs, and the market
value of the commodity. Those involved in subsistence agriculture
have additional concerns and have limited access to information that
can help them deal with their problems. Thus, even for those crops for
Resistance to Plant-parasitic Nematodes 3
which nematodes are widely recognized as important constraints to

productivity, it is small wonder that relatively little time, thought,
or effort is devoted to management of nematodes. If resistance to
nematodes was more widely available, crop productivity could be
improved with little effort or direct cost to the producer.
Is resistance inherently better than the other approaches to manage-
ment of nematodes (i.e. use of nematicides, crop rotation or biological
control)? Not really, but neither are any of the other approaches univer-
sally superior to resistance. Traditional nematicides such as the fumi-
gant 1,3-dichloropropene, the carbamates aldicarb and oxamyl, and the
organophosphate fenamiphos, when applied correctly will increase
crop yield if initial nematode population densities exceed damage
thresholds (see Whitehead, 1998). However, there is no long-term sup-
pression of nematode population densities with the use of nematicides.
Additionally, the use of nematicides is frequently cost prohibitive,
especially in subsistence agriculture. Environmental and human health
concerns have resulted in increased restrictions on the use of these
toxic materials such that no effective nematicides are legally available
for many nematode-crop combinations. No new nematicide that has
widespread use has been developed in the past 20 years. It current! y
requires approximately 10 years and tens of millions of US dollars to
develop and bring to market any new pesticide, and the market niche
for any nematicide is limited relative to the market for herbicides or
insecticides. Nematicide sales account for less than 1 % of pesticide
sales in the USA, whereas herbicides and insecticides account for 60
and 21 % , respectively, of total pesticides sales for agriculture (Ware,
1994). It is unlikely that any new nematicide based on currently avail-
able chemistry will be developed in the near future. Thus nematicides
are likely to have a diminishing role in crop protection.
Crop rotations can also decrease the potential for substantial yield
losses due to nematodes (Luc et al., 1990; Whitehead, 1998) and pro-
vide at least short-term suppression of nematode population densities.
The magnitude of these benefits is generally positively correlated with
the number of cropping seasons between the planting of susceptible
crops. But rotation systems are seldom adopted unless there are
additional benefits to the producer beyond nematode management.
Regardless of whether the producer is involved in intensive production
agriculture or subsistence farming, many factors are involved in
deciding which cropping system best meets the needs of that producer.
Overall, profitability and yield stability are the primary concern of
the producer. It is seldom that nematode management is the critical
factor in adopting a specific cropping system. Because many nematode
species are polyphagous with wide host ranges and many fields have
polyspecific communities of plant-parasitic nematodes, development
of cropping systems that meet all of the needs of the producer and
4 J.L. Starr et al.
suppress nematode population densities is a formidable challenge.

None the less, there are numerous examples of effective nematode
management with crop rotation.
Biological control holds some promise for the future (see Evans
et al., 1993), but with current knowledge it is difficult to promote
or establish a microflora or fauna in soils that effectively suppresses
nematode population densities, especially in the relatively short period
of time of a single growing season. Reliable and effective biological
control systems are likely to be limited to specialized situations
(e.g. intensely managed crop systems where the environment can be
manipulated to promote biological activity) for the near future.
Resistance is an effective management tool that improves crop
yield (Table 1.1) in the presence of nematode population densities
that exceed the damage threshold. Because resistance to nematodes is
usually developed by selection of plants with reduced rates of nema-
tode reproduction, nematode population densities are typically lower
following a resistant cultivar than a susceptible cultivar. However, this
is not always the case if the crop has only partial resistance. Niblack
et al. (1986) demonstrated that at moderate to high initial population
densities, population densities of Meloidogyne incognito reach their
maximum levels at about 90 days after planting on a susceptible
soybean culti var (presumably due to extensive damage to the host),
whereas on partially resistant cultivars that were less damaged by
the nematodes, the population densities were still increasing at 120
days after planting. Resistance not only complements crop rotation for
Table 1.1. Selected examples of the effect of resistance to plant-parasitic nematodes on crop
yield in nematode-infested and non-infested fields.
Yield
Crop Nematode species Cultivare Infested Non-infested
Soybeana Heterodera glycines s 2141 kgha- 1 3170 kg ha- 1

R 2908 kg ha- 1 3177 kg ha- 1
Soybeana Heterodera glycines s 2383 kg ha- 1 3810 kg ha- 1
R 3177 kg ha- 1 3541 kg ha- 1
Groundnutb Meloidogyne arenaria s 914 kg ha- 1 4678 kg ha- 1
R 3771 kg ha- 1 5155 kg ha- 1
Tobaccoc M. incognita s 301 g per plot 504 g per plot
R 407 g per plot 477 g per plot
Cottond M. incognita s 530 kg ha-1
R 1100 kg ha- 1
aG.L. Tylka, Iowa State University, USA, personal communication; bStarr et al. (1998); c Barker
et al. (1981 ); dQgallo et al. (1999); es, susceptible cultivar; R, resistant cultivar.
nematode management, but also improves the ease with which effec-
tive rotation systems can be developed. Ogallo et al. (1999) demon-
strated that resistance to root-knot nematodes in cotton increased lint
yields and yield stability in nematode-infested fields compared to
susceptible cultivars (Fig. 1.1). Additionally, they demonstrated that
yield of susceptible lima beans planted in infested fields was greater
following two crops of resistant cotton than after two crops of suscepti-
ble cotton. The yield increase was attributed to suppression of popula-
tion densities of M. incognito by the resistant cotton cultivar. Typically,
the direct cost to the grower for the use of resistance is minimal, thus
resistance fits all agricultural production systems. Finally, resistance is
an ecologically sound approach to nematode management, especially
relative to commonly used nematicides.
Although resistance to plant-parasitic nematodes is usually identi-
fied and characterized based on inhibition of nematode reproduction,
our primary interest in resistance has to be yield. The benefit to subse-
quent susceptible crops from suppression of nematode population
densities must be considered a supplemental benefit. It will be difficult
to convince plant breeders to introgress resistance into cultivars if
the primary benefit will be to another crop through suppression of
nematode population densities. It is doubtful if growers would be
willing to plant a resistant cul ti var if there was no yield benefit to that
• Resistant 0
1200~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Susceptible
1000
I
~ 800
Ol
-
.x.
u
~
>.
600
c
c
.8 400
0
u
200
0
Year 1 Year2 Year3
Year planted
Fig. 1.1. Cotton lint yields for 3 consecutive years for a root-knot resistant
cultivar compared to yields of a susceptible cultivar in a field infested with
Me/oidogyne incognita (from Ogallo et al., 1999).
6 J.L. Starret al.
crop. Thus, when working with host resistance yield must be the top
priority.
Resistance is not a panacea that will solve all nematode manage-
ment problems. No resistance to important nematode species (espe-
cially migratory ectoparasites such as Belonolaimus and Hoplolaimus
spp.) is known for some crops or is present only in wild species or
undeveloped genotypes, such that a major effort will be required to
develop high-yielding crop genotypes with desirable levels of resis-
tance. As with crop rotation and biological control systems, resistance
is typically a highly specific trait and is expected to be effective against
only a single nematode species or even a subspecific race or pathotype.
It may take years of effort by traditional or transgenic methods
to introgress new resistance genes into desirable crop genotypes.
Additionally, after development of a resistant cultivar, that resistance
may not be durable if the target nematode species has a high level of
genetic variability (Young and Hartwig, 1992; Roberts, 1995; Kaloshian
et al., 1996). However, resistance can be made more durable by
pyramiding of multiple resistance genes to reduce the probability
of selection and by development of specific resistance deployment
schemes that reduce the duration of selection pressure for development
of virulent nematode populations.
There are few resistant cultivars relative to the amount of
known resistant genotypes. A bibliography of resistance (Armstrong
and Jensen, 1978) contains 1371 citations dealing with resistance in
119 crop species or genera. In the period 1995-2000, Nematological
Abstracts contained about 300 abstracts annually that dealt with some
aspect of resistance. Young (1998) reported that the Crop Science Soci-
ety of America (CSSA) has registered 143 nematode-resistant cultivars
or germplasm lines for 15 field crops. Additionally, in the texts by Luc
et al. (1990) and Evans et al. (1993), resistant cultivars or the potential
for their development from known resistant germplasm resources were
discussed for nearly every crop. Nearly 90% of all reports involve
Meloidogyne, Globodera or Heterodera species. This preponderance of
effort on these genera reflects their overall importance as agricultural
pests and the relative abundance of resistance to species of these
genera. Our goal is to stimulate and encourage greater effort in the iden-
tification and especially the use of these many sources of resistance.
History of Resistance to Nematodes

Among the first reports of resistance to nematodes was that of Webber
and Orton (1902), who described the resistance of a cowpea variety
'Iron' to root-knot nematodes based on reduced galling in field
plots. Additionally, their report cites reports by Zimmerman (1897)
of observations of resistance to root knot in coffee, and Wilfarth (1900)

on selection of sugar beets with resistance to nematodes. Ware (1936)
reported that Orton made selections in 1905 from the cotton line
'Jackson Limbless' that had good resistance to Fusarium wilt and noted
that it was 'somewhat resistant to root-knot but had little else to recom-
mend it.' Moore (1960) cites Nilsson-Ehle (1920) as being the first to
study heritability of nematode resistance and identified resistance to
Heterodera schachtii (sic) in barley as being due to a single dominant
gene. The lack of knowledge or appreciation of the importance of
proper identification of the nematode population hampered these early
efforts to identify and characterize resistance in host species.
Barrons (1939) was one of the first to study the mechanisms
of resistance to nematodes, working with root-knot nematodes on
cowpea. He distinguished resistance from tolerance and noted
that resistance was not due to inhibition of root penetration. Barrons
speculated that resistance might be due to chemical inhibitors in the
roots and that these inhibitors 'may counteract or neutralize the giant
cell inducing effect of salivary secretions of the nematode.'
A major achievement in resistance to nematodes was the introgres-
sion of the Mi gene for resistance to M. incognito, M. arenaria and
M. javanica from Lycopersicon peruvianum into L. esculentum (Smith,
1944). Even though it was several decades before root-knot resistant
tomato cultivars were widely grown commercially, resistance condi-
tioned by the Mi gene has been a valuable research model and has
added greatly to the understanding of resistance (Williamson, 1998).
With the cloning and determination of DNA sequences of Mi (Milligan
et al., 1998) and the Hs1Pro-t gene for resistance to H. schachtii (Cali
et al., 1997), it is likely the progress in the understanding of at least
these two types of resistance will accelerate.
Resistance to M. incognito in tobacco was first reported in the early
part of the 20th century (Clayton et al., 1958), but resistant tobacco
cultivars were not widely grown until the 1970s. Resistance to the
potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis) was reported in 1954
by Ellenby and to the soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) in
1957 by Ross and Brim. In the case of these two cyst nematodes, resis-
tance was adopted fairly rapidly with resistant varieties derived from
those discoveries being widely grown by the 1970s.
Examples of Current Use of Resistance

Today, resistance is widely and effectively used in some crops. In
North Carolina (USA), 97% of the 84,000 ha tobacco crop is planted to
cultivars resistant to M. incognito (T. Melton, North Carolina State Uni-
versity, USA, personal communication). Despite this high percentage
8 J.L. Starr et al.
use of resistance, more than 70% of the crop is also treated with a
nematicide. This reflects the fact that even after more than 25 years of
use and an effective grower education programme, the producers of this
high value crop are unwilling to put their complete trust in resistance.
Factors that contribute to a lack of faith in resistance include the
presence in some tobacco fields of M. arenaria and M. javanica, against
which the resistance is not effective, and the promotional efforts of
the nematicide industry. Because of the value of the crop, growers are
willing to bear the additional cost of a nematicide for added protection
from possible loss. Although the widespread use of this resistance
resulted in an increased frequency of M. arenaria in North and South
Carolina (Fortnum et al., 1984; Schmitt and Barker, 1988), M. incognito
remains the most frequently encountered species on tobacco and
resistance is still effective in most fields.
Because the Mi gene for resistance to M. incognito, M. javanica
and M. arenaria was linked to some horticulturally undesirable traits,
it was not widely used in commercial tomato production in the
USA until the 1980s. Currently, the majority of the tomatoes grown
commercially in California carry this resistance (Williamson, Univer-
sity of California, Davis, USA, personal communication). Despite their
apparent success in California, only recently have tomatoes with the Mi
gene been widely grown in Florida. This recent use has been the result
of the popularity of the cultivar Sanibell, which carries the Mi gene,
because of its superior horticultural traits and not because of its
resistance to Meloidogyne spp. Indeed, virulence against the Mi gene
can develop in Florida populations of M. incognito after as few as five
plantings of Sanibell (Noling, 2000).
Resistance to Heterodera glycines in soybean and Globodera
pallida and G. rostochiensis in potato are representative of cases where
the effectiveness of resistance is compromised by virulence in the
nematode populations. The race situation with respect to H. glycines
remains unsettled, with 16 races currently recognized (Riggs and
Schmitt, 1988). Numerous high-yielding soybean cultivars have resis-
tance to races 1 and 3 of H. glycines, and a few cultivars have resistance
to races 6 and 14. The cultivar Hartwig has the broadest base of resis-
tance, being resistant to races 1-6, 8 and 14, but has relatively poor
yield potential. Fortunately, of the 16 described races of H. glycines,
eight are rarely encountered. Races 1 and 3 predominate in the north-
ern portion of the USA, whereas races 2-6, 9 and 14 predominate in the
southern USA. In North Carolina, approximately 48% of the 573,000 ha
soybean crop was planted to cyst-resistant cultivars in 1998 (J. Dunphy,
North Carolina State University, USA, personal communication), but
60% of the infestations are races against which resistance is not
effective. The development and use of marker-assisted selection (see
Young and Mudge, Chapter 12) should increase the efficiency of

working with multiple genes for resistance to H. glycines.
Similarly, multiple pathotypes of G. pallida and G. rostochiensis
have been described, but remain somewhat controversial due to
incomplete data on the genetics of resistance in the host and virulence
in the nematodes (Trudgill, 1985). None the less, resistance to G.
rostochiensis has been widely used. Currently in the Netherlands,
about 55% of the ware potatoes (those grown for sale as food) and 99%
of the starch potatoes are resistant to one or more pathotypes of the
cyst nematodes (F. Gommets, Wageningen Agricultural University, The
Netherlands, personal communication). In the UK, approximately 45%
of the potato crop carries the Ro1 resistance and is effective against
most populations of G. rostochiensis in that country (K. Evans, IARC,
Rothamsted, UK, personal communication). However, the frequency of
G. pallida is increasing in the UK and only about 1.5% of the potato
crop carries effective resistance to prevalent races of G. pallida. Resis-
tance to G. rostochiensis effectively controlled potato cyst nematodes
in the UK until the appearance of G. pallida in the late 1970s.
Globodera pallida resistance genes Pa2 and Pa3 from Solanum vernei,
were introduced into cultivars during the 1980s. Despite the problems
with maintaining effective resistance deployment against such variable
pathogens as cyst nematodes, resistance has been useful in alleviating
crop losses. Fortunately, the limited host range of the potato and soy-
bean cyst nematodes has made the use of crop rotations an effective
complement to resistance.
In the early and mid 1990s, three cotton cultivars (Acala NemX,
Stoneville LA887 and Paymaster 1560) with moderate to good levels
of resistance to M. incognito were released. Despite their value in
increasing cotton yields in nematode-infested fields and in reducing
population densities of M. incognito (Ogallo et al., 1997, 1999; Zhou,
1999), these cultivars accounted for less than 1 % of all cotton planted
in the USA in 1999 (Anon., 1999). Cotton remains a case where there is
both a need and opportunity for greater use of resistance.
Recently, resistance to M. arenaria from wild Arachis species has
been introgressed into the cultivated peanut A. hypogaea and the first
resistant cultivar (cv. COAN) was released in 1999 (Simpson and Starr,
2001). Grower education programmes are in progress to demonstrate
the value of the resistance to the growers. Efforts are ongoing to identify
additional nematode-resistance genes present within the available
Arachis spp. germplasm resources and to introgress nematode resis-
tance into cultivars that also have resistance to tomato spotted wilt
virus and Sclerotinia blight. Introgression of additional resistance
genes will increase the durability of the resistance and promote yield
stability.
10 J.L. Starr et al.
Resistance to Nematodes in Tropical Agriculture

Although in theory, the nematode management methods, including use
of resistant cultivars, that can be employed in the tropics and develop-
ing countries differ little from those used in temperate agriculture and
developed countries, in practice there are often important differences.
The facets of tropical agriculture that differ most fundamentally
from the temperate regions and markedly affect the control of plant
nematodes are the crops grown, the farming systems, and the wide
range of different nematodes found. Commercial and plantation crops
are a common feature of tropical agriculture but by far the largest
proportion of cultivated land in most of the tropical countries is farmed
by small-scale farmers (Luc et al., 1990). Tropical farming systems,
especially with small farms, are generally far more complex than those
found in temperate, developed agriculture and there is a greater diver-
sity of cropping practices (Bridge, 1987). This complexity and cropping
diversity is an essential consideration in the introduction of nematode
management methods including resistant crop cultivars.
A much greater diversity of nematode genera and species (and
probably pathotypes) exists in the tropics than in temperate countries.
Nematodes also generally have shorter life cycles and more generations
per crop season at higher temperatures, putting the crops under much
greater pest pressure. Another important feature in tropical agriculture
is that often a number of concomitant species of the same or several
different genera occur together and they may all be major pests of the
crop grown, which is obviously very relevant to the introduction of
resistant cultivars.
The nematodes of economic importance in tropical agriculture
cover a very wide range of genera and many of these do not occur
on temperate crops (Table 1.2); some have a limited geographical
distribution and narrow host range, others have a worldwide tropical
distribution and wide host range.
Nematode-resistant cultivars can be one of the most useful,
economical and effective means of managing nematodes for both large
commercial and for small-scale farmers in the tropics and developing
countries. Their use can be the ideal solution to managing nematode
pests particularly in farming systems with low inputs. However, nema-
tode resistance is not available for many crop-nematode combinations.
The absence of nematode-resistant breeding has been attributed to a
number of reasons including it having a low priority in certain crops
(Cook and Evans, 1987); food crops grown in tropical situations with
a low commercial value generally have a low priority for nematode-
resistant breeding.
Unfortunately, relatively few of the existing resistant cultivars are
accessible to or used by the majority of farmers in the developing
countries. Most available resistant cultivars have been bred for temper-
ate or commercial crops with comparatively few available for food and
other tropical crops in the developing countries. This is particularly
Table 1.2. Selected examples of crops in the tropics with some important plant nematode pests.
Crops Nematode pests
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Meloidogyne spp.

Aubergine (Solanum melongena)
Okra (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
Beans (Vigna, Phaseolus, Meloidogyne spp.
Psophocarpus)
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) Aphelenchoides arachidis, Aphasmatylenchus straturatus,
Belonolaimus longicaudatus
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) Heterodera cajani, Meloidogyne spp.
Sweet potato (lpomoea batatas) Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchulus reniformis
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Meloidogyne spp.
Yams (Oioscorea spp.) Scutellonema bradys, Pratylenchus co ffeae, Meloidogyne
spp.
Taro (Co/ocasia esculenta) Meloidogyne spp., Hirschmanniella miticausa, Pratylenchus
coffeae
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
Turmeric (Curcuma domestica) Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus coffeae
Rice (Oryza saliva) Aphelenchoides besseyi, Ditylenchus angustus,
Hirschmanniella spp., Heterodera sacchari, Meloidogyne
graminicola, Paralongidorus spp., Pratylenchus zeae
Maize (Zea mays) Pratylenchus zeae, Meloidogyne spp.
Coffee (Coffea spp.) Meloidogyne africana, Meloidogyne coffeicola, Meloidogyne
decalineata, Meloidogyne exigua, Meloidogyne incognita,
Pratylenchus coffeae
Tea (Camellia sinensis) Meloidogyne brevicauda, Pratylenchus loosi, Radopholus
similis
Bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) Helicotylenchus multicinctus, Pratylenchus coffeae,
Pratylenchus goodeyi, Radopholus similis
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, Radopholus similis
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus similis
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) Meloidogyne acronea, Meloidogyne incognita,
Rotylenchulus reniformis
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Meloidogyne spp.
Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) Heterodera sacchari, Pratylenchus spp., Meloidogyne spp.
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) Meloidogyne javanica, Pratylenchus brachyurus,
Papaya (Garica papaya) Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchulus reniformis
Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum Meloidogyne hap/a
cinerariaefolium)
12 J. L. Starr et al.
disappointing as resistance is most useful for low value crops which

cannot support the cost of expensive pest management inputs
(Fassuliotis, 1979). Even when resistant cultivars are available to farm-
ers in the tropics many other factors have to be taken into account
before their introduction. There is the obvious marked contrast in what
can be achieved by the big commercial producer compared to the small
farmer. The resistant cultivars are not always acceptable to small-scale
farmers for a number of reasons: (i) nematode-resistant cul ti vars may be
far more susceptible to local endemic but previously innocuous pests
and diseases; (ii) they may have unacceptably high input requirements;
(iii) their quality may be poor in relation to local food preferences
and the required cooking characteristics; (iv) their growing period and
harvesting time may not accord with the region; or (v) their appearance
and marketability may not be acceptable relative to locally grown
cultivars. On the other hand, the lack of uptake can also simply be
because the farmers, extension officers or advisors are unaware of the
existence or value of nematode-resistant cultivars (Bridge, 1996). None
of these difficulties are insurmountable and resistant cultivars remain
a very important potential component of a solution to many nematode
problems of tropical agriculture especially for the low-input, small-
scale farmers when used in combination with cultural techniques and
traditionally grown crops.
Tolerance, where a plant suffers little injury even when heavily
infected in natural conditions, can be of considerable value to nema-
tode management (Cook and Evans, 1987) and this applies especially to
resource-poor small-scale farmers. Tolerance appears to have arisen in
traditional agriculture by farmer selection over many generations
in fields infested with the nematodes. In different tropical countries
many locally grown cultivars appear to have reverted to wild-type
characteristics, such as the small-fruited tomatoes in West Africa, and
these, for example, often show a high degree of tolerance to root-knot
nematodes (Bridge, 1996).
Where there is genetic diversity in crops, normal selection by farm-
ers for good growing traits will also select for tolerance or resistance to
nematodes even though the farmers have no perception of nematodes
as pests. Constant pressure from nematodes and other pests will ensure
that the tolerance or resistance that arises will be automatically
selected as the farmer selects for more recognizable and desirable
characteristics such as higher yields and improved taste (Page and
Bridge, 1993). An example is in Papua New Guinea where Meloidogyne
is an important pest of sweet potato, particularly when the crop is
grown continuously, but is not perceived to be a problem by the
farmers. However, it is very likely that some subsistence farmers have
managed to control M. incognita on sweet potato by rotations and by
the careful selection of sweet potato cultivars which are resistant or
tolerant to the nematode. Some farmers were found to grow particular

cultivars of sweet potato only after bush fallow and save others for
use in a continuous cropping situation (Bridge and Page, 1982). It is
possible for the farmers to make this selection because sweet potato
clones resistant or highly resistant to M. incognito have been found
more frequently in Papua New Guinea and neighbouring islands than
in any other country (Shiga and Takemata, 1981). Therefore, where the
root-knot nematode problem was more acute in areas of greatest land
pressure the recommended solution was the active selection of
nematode tolerance or resistance from the many different locally grown
cultivars (Bridge and Page, 1982, 1984).
Resistance to tropical nematodes does exist in a number of crops
including vegetables, food legumes, maize, tobacco, sugarcane, sweet
potato, soybean, grape, citrus, cotton and lucerne. Meloidogyne species
are the major nematode pests of tropical vegetables and some resistance
to the widely occurring species of root knot has been found in green
peppers, aubergine (eggplant), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and tomato.
Tomato has the most cultivars with resistance to Meloidogyne and it is
these cultivars that are, or can be, most used by farmers in the tropics.
However, no vegetable cultivar has resistance to all the main species of
the genus, normally only to one species, and resistance-breaking races
have been found in M. incognito, M. javanica and M. arenaria. Because
of these different root-knot species and races occurring naturally in
tropical soils, it is recommended that any possible new introductions
are tested first in the local soils (Roberts et al., 1986: Netscher and
Sikora, 1990).
Tobacco is also seriously damaged by M. incognito but many
cultivars have resistance to a number of races and can be grown in any
part of the world which has a problem with these races (Shepherd
and Barker, 1990). The benefits derived by growers using resistant
tobacco 'NC 95' when it was introduced are described as spectacular
(Fassuliotis, 1979). The main nematode pest of citrus is Tylenchulus
semipenetrans, which now occurs worldwide in the tropics and
subtropics having been spread on infected seedlings. Control of
T. semipenetrans populations relies largely on the use of resistant
rootstocks with the resistance being derived from Poncirus trifoliata
(Cook and Evans, 1987; Duncan and Cohn, 1990; see Verdejo-Lucas and
Kaplan, Chapter 9).
On food crops in the tropics some of the nematodes can pose
serious threats to the farmers and can often be the most difficult
to control, especially in low-input agriculture. In these situations,
resistant cultivars can in many cases be the answer, although these
crops are not normally a priority for the breeder. Possible exceptions
that have interested breeders are found in rice. New genotypes
with resistance to Ditylenchus angustus, the cause of ufra disease on
deepwater and lowland rice (Rahman, 1994), have been identified and
could prove very important to rice farmers in southeast Asia where
the nematode occurs. Studies have also identified the African rice,
Oryza glaberrima, to be resistant to pest species of Meloidogyne and
Heterodera. A recent breakthrough in breeding has been the inter-
specific hybridization between 0. glaberrima and 0. sativa. These
interspecific hybrids have excellent agronomical traits and have
greatly improved the possibility of selection of nematode resistance in
improved varieties. Plowright et al. (1999) demonstrated resistance
in interspecific progeny to Heterodera sacchari and Meloidogyne
graminicola but not to Pratylenchus zeae. Their conclusions were that
nematode resistance in rice cultivars with valuable agronomic traits
represented by these 0. glaberrima-0. sativa interspecific hybrids can
be of enormous value to the sustainable management and preventative
control of some of the major nematode pests in rice and represents
a highly practical means of nematode management in smallholder,
subsistence agriculture.
In commercial bananas, resistance to nematodes has so far proved
elusive (see De Waele and Elsen, Chapter 8). There is, as yet, no widely
grown clone of a commercial dessert banana resistant to the major
nematodes despite years of searching (Gowen and Queneherve, 1990),
nor is there such a clone of food banana or plantain (Ortiz, 2000). One
commercial hybrid, 'FHIA-01 ', appeared to have partial resistance to
Radopholus similis but even this has now been disproved (Stoffelen
et al., 2000). Relatively few real attempts have been made at incorporat-
ing resistance in Musa against the major nematodes because of the
difficulties of working on such a genetically complex plant and the cost
of developing a breeding programme (Pinochet, 1992). In commercial
dessert bananas, there are a limited number of land-races with an
extremely narrow genetic base and, as a result, the system is highly vul-
nerable to pests and diseases (Ortiz et al., 1995). This is not necessarily
the case for the all-important bananas and plantains grown as food
crops by small-scale and subsistence farmers in West, Central and East
Africa, which require processing before consumption as a carbohydrate
food or beverage. These crops have a much greater diversity and the
possibilities of finding resistant clones are considerably enhanced
(Bridge, 2000). Also the chances of breeding for nematode resistance
in hybrids acceptable to farmers and consumers are greater, partly
because cultivar type is not restricted by the pressure and the high
quality demands of the export trade (Gowen, 1994; Urtiz et al., 1995). In
West and Central Africa, 116 plantain cultivars have been identified
(Swennen, 1990). Karamura and Karamura (1904) have listed 145
cultivars of the cooking type East African Highland bananas (AAA-EA)
of the Lujugira-Mutika subgroup and 88 beer cultivars of the
same subgroup from Uganda. In comparison to the commercial
bananas, this provides an enormous resource for selecting or

breeding new cultivars resistant to R. similis, Pratylenchus goodeyi
or P. coffeae.
In spite of all the difficulties, the possibilities of finding resistance
in bananas and plantains holds out one of the best means of controlling
the nematodes for small-scale farmers in Africa. However, experiences
in other parts of the tropical world have shown that where resistance in
bananas exists it is not a universal resistance against all nematodes;
those showing resistance to R. similis can be highly susceptible to
P. coffeae (Pinochet and Rowe, 1978; Stoffelen et al., 2000). Both of
these nematodes can occur together in tropical soils, which adds to
difficulties of selecting for resistance. More positively, it is considered
that there are now good prospects for developing banana and plantain
cultivars with resistance to nematodes that would probably have char-
acteristics outside the narrow requirements of the commercial banana
export trade but would be suitable for non-export and subsistence
farmers in the tropics (Gowen, 1994). Also the prospects of genetically
engineered nematode-resistant banana cultivars are now within reach
(De Waele et al., 1994). Unfortunately the research on this latter aspect
will almost certainly focus on commercial, export crops with a possible
trickle-down to the crops of the small-scale farmer in Africa and
elsewhere at some future time.
The active selection of tolerance in bananas to nematodes or its
recognition has generally received little attention. It could play a very
important part in nematode management with small-scale farmers as
variability in levels of nematode root populations in Musa are possibly
associated with degrees of tolerance to the nematodes (Sarah, 1988;
Gowen, 1993, 1994; Price, 1994). Tolerance, not resistance, to R. similis
and other nematodes is also rated as one of the ideotype requirements
for a commercially acceptable banana hybrid by the breeders (Ortiz
et al., 1995).
In tropical agriculture, particularly with small-scale farmers.
tolerance and resistance can play a key role in the reduction of crop
yield losses caused by nematodes. The introduction or selection of new
cultivars resistant to the range of nematode pests present is desirable
if all local or regional factors are considered. Introduction of such
cultivars should not be at the expense of the traditional resistant
cultivars or the traditional farmer selection processes that have
produced them.
The Future
Host resistance is a management tactic that has much potential and
needs to be more effectively utilized. Many of the problems associated
16 J L. Starr et al.
with resistance can be overcome or minimized with additional

research, breeding effort and effective grower education programmes.
Much of the available germplasm resources remains to be charac-
terized for resistance to nematodes and additional germplasm remains
to be collected for many crop species. The screening of a large germ-
plasm collection is tedious. Holbrook et al. (1999) advocate the use of
core collections for more effectively screening germplasm. Even after
resistance phenotypes have been identified, further research will be
needed to determine the number of genes for resistance that have been
identified. For example, Robinson and Percival (1997) recently identi-
fied accessions of Gossypium hirsutum from the Yucatan peninsula of
Mexico with M. incognito resistance phenotypically similar to that of
Clevewilt 6 and Wild Mexico Jack Jones, which are the sources of much
resistance currently in use. The question remains, do these accessions
represent unique resistance genes or are they identical to genes already
in use? As DNA-based markers linked to resistance loci become more
readily available, they can be used to determine if the resistance pheno-
types are due to unique genes more rapidly than with traditional
genetic analysis.
Research has only begun to explore the possibilities for engineered
resistance and as yet no crop cultivar with engineered resistance to a
nematode is available for growers. Fenoll et al. (1997) list numerous
possibilities for engineered resistance, including anti-nematode genes,
antifeedants and plantibodies. Many researchers are confident that
such sources of resistance will become valuable additions to our
arsenal in the near future. It is expected that engineered resistance will
help overcome fertility barriers that limit use of some native sources of
resistance and will provide sources of resistance to nematodes for
which no resistance is currently known. A major question, and goal,
will be whether engineered resistance can be more durable than
many currently available resistance genes, especially with respect to
Globodera and Heterodera spp. Based on present knowledge, however,
we must assume that engineered resistance may be no different from
native resistance with respect to durability. Indeed, technologies are
available that will allow either engineered resistance genes or cloned
natural genes to be more readily transferred into a wider range of crop
cultivars or even species. This would very much increase the selection
pressure for virulence within nematode populations and the need for
development of soundly based strategies for management of nematode
resistance genes.
Regardless of the source of resistance, it will be little more than a
research tool if we do not form effective linkages with plant breeders to
move the resistance into appropriate crop genotypes with the highest
yield potentials and other important agronomic and horticultural
characteristics. It is the nematologists' responsibility to convince pub-

lic and private sector plant breeders that introgression of resistance
to nematodes into the elite crop germplasm lines or cultivars will be
beneficial. We need to work with them to identify appropriate sources
of resistance and in the development of effective screening systems that
will permit timely introgression of that resistance. During this effort,
we must recognize and accept that resistance will not be the top prior-
ity of the breeder, rather they will argue that improving yield potential
must receive the top priority. One often-used argument against it is
that resistance frequently comes at the expense of yield. Yet there are
no data that prove that yield must be sacrificed to achieve resistance.
As has been recently demonstrated with cotton (Ogallo et al., 1999),
groundnut (peanut) (Church et al., 2000) and soybean (see Table 1.1),
the linkage between lower yield potential and resistance can be broken
and resistant genotypes with yield potentials equal to those of the best
yielding susceptible genotypes are possible. Similarly, the use of the
Mi gene in tomato was initially limited by linkages to undesirable
horticultural traits (Williamson, 1998) but this negative linkage has
been broken and tomato cultivars carrying the Mi gene are now widely
grown commercially in California. Modern breeding technologies,
notably marker-assisted selection (see Young and Mudge, Chapter 12)
should be used to select for resistance and to minimize linkage drag of
undesirable characteristics.
Lastly, once high-yielding cultivars with improved levels of
resistance to nematodes are developed, it is necessary that effective
grower (and crop consultant) education programmes be implemented.
Resistance may lack durability due to variability in the nematode
population, or some yield loss may be incurred at high initial nematode
population densities if only partial resistance is available. Thus, it is
essential that the resistance be deployed in a responsible manner to
enhance durability or along with other nematode management tactics
to achieve optimal benefits with respect to yield. \Ne must work in
cooperation with extension specialists from a variety of disciplines to
develop effective education programmes.
The identification, development, and deployment of resistance
requires a long-term and extensive effort. In one of the few studies of
the economic benefits of resistance, Brady and Duffy (1982) docu-
mented that US$1 million to develop one cultivar with resistance to
H. glycines resulted in benefits of US$400 million. Host resistance
will not be the solution to all problems caused by plant-parasitic
nematodes, but resistance could and should play a bigger role in many
nematode management systems. The era of nematicides is ending and
we must develop alternative management systems. The use of host
resistance must be one of these alternatives.
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Nematodes
Edited by
J.L. Starr
USA
A.Cook
Aberystwyth
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and
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GABI Bioscience
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Plant resistance to parasitic nematodes I edited by J.L. Starr, R. Cool-. c1nd ). Bridge.
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1. Plants--Disease and pest resistance. 2. Plant nematodes. I. Starr. j L. (James L.) II.
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Resistance to Plant-parasitic
Nematodes: History, Current
Use and Future Potential
J.L. Starr1, J. Bridge2 and R. Cook3
1Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas
A&M University, College.Station, TX 77843-2132, USA;
2 Tropical Plant Nematology Advisor, GABI Bioscience UK
Centre, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK;
31nstitute of Grassland and Environmental Research,
Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3EB, Wales, UK
Resistance of plants to pathogens is often defined as the ability of

the plant to lessen, inhibit or overcome the attack by the pathogen
(Wingard, 1953). Entomologists frequently use a broader definition,
defining resistance as the amount of heritable characteristics of the
plant that influences damage done by insect pests (Painter, 1951), with
non-preference, antibiosis and tolerance as types of resistance. In plant
nematology, the most widely used definition is that it is the ability of a
plant to inhibit the reproduction of a nematode species relative to
reproduction on a plant lacking such resistance (Cook and Evans, 198 7;
see Roberts, Chapter 2). Additionally, nematologists frequently sepa-
rate host response to nematode parasitism from the ability of the plant
to support nematode reproduction. Thus, a susceptible plant may be
intolerant with a relatively large degree of growth suppression due to
nematode parasitism or it may be tolerant with limited growth suppres-
sion due to parasitism (Cook and Evans, 1987). Likewise, a resistant
host can be either tolerant or intolerant. There are several reports that
document differences in tolerance of susceptible plant species (Hussey
and Boerma, 1989; Cook et al., 1997).
These differences among disciplines reflect differences in how
resistance is expressed in the plant to pathogens, insects and nema-
todes, the methods used to measure resistance, and the nature of the
interaction of the pest or pathogen with the host. Regardless, resistance
is of importance for protection of yield potential and, in some cases, for
management of pest or pathogen population densities. In nematology,
(eds J.L. Starr, R. Cook and J. Bridge)
our emphasis on nematode reproduction reflects the general lack

of discrete symptoms upon which assessment of resistance is often
based when dealing with microbial plant pathogens. Further, nematode
reproduction can be measured with sufficient ease, accuracy and
precision to be a practical alternative to measurement of disease (i.e.
symptoms). Additionally, because plant damage caused by nematodes
is so strongly influenced by initial population densities (Seinhorst,
1965) compared with diseases or insects for which the rate of increase
is of primary importance to the final amount of crop damage, then
the effect of resistance on nematode population densities becomes an
important aspect of the use of resistance in crop management systems.
Numerous recent reviews are available that discuss the arguments
for differing definitions of resistance (Cook and Evans, 1987; Trudgill,
1991), the genetic basis for resistance (Roberts et al., 1998), mecha-
nisms of resistance (Williamson and Hussey, 1996; Williamson, 1998),
breeding for resistance (Young, 1998) and bioengineering resistance
(Opperman and Conkling, 1998; Vrain, 1999). This text deals primarily
with the practical measurement of resistance and tolerance in plants.
Our goal is to stimulate greater interest and use of resistance for
management of plant-parasitic nematodes.
Why Resistance?
There are hundreds of reports that document crop yield suppression
due to parasitism by a variety of nematode species (see Luc et al., 1990;
Evans et al., 1993), yet nematodes are still frequently overlooked as
crop pests, or are considered to be pests of minor significance. Numer-
ous factors contribute to the general lack of appreciation of nematodes
as crop pests, including that nematode parasitism often suppresses
crop yields without other obvious symptoms of damage. If there is a
general lack of awareness of nematodes as crop pests, then it is not
surprising that there has been relatively little concern (or support)
for development of effective and economical nematode management
systems. Agricultural producers are typically faced with a multitude of
problems. Environmental concerns, especially the li1nited availability
of water (or less frequently the overabundance of water), probably top
the list of concerns, followed closely by soil fertility. Weeds and, for
most crops, insects (arthropods) are usually considered by the producer
to be the most important crop pests. In addition to factors that directly
affect crop productivity, the producer must also consider economic
issues related to labour, land and equipment costs, and the market
value of the commodity. Those involved in subsistence agriculture
have additional concerns and have limited access to information that
can help them deal with their problems. Thus, even for those crops for
which nematodes are widely recognized as important constraints to

productivity, it is small wonder that relatively little time, thought,
or effort is devoted to management of nematodes. If resistance to
nematodes was more widely available, crop productivity could be
improved with little effort or direct cost to the producer.
Is resistance inherently better than the other approaches to manage-
ment of nematodes (i.e. use of nematicides, crop rotation or biological
control)? Not really, but neither are any of the other approaches univer-
sally superior to resistance. Traditional nematicides such as the fumi-
gant 1,3-dichloropropene, the carbamates aldicarb and oxamyl, and the
organophosphate fenamiphos, when applied correctly will increase
crop yield if initial nematode population densities exceed damage
thresholds (see Whitehead, 1998). However, there is no long-term sup-
pression of nematode population densities with the use of nematicides.
Additionally, the use of nematicides is frequently cost prohibitive,
especially in subsistence agriculture. Environmental and human health
concerns have resulted in increased restrictions on the use of these
toxic materials such that no effective nematicides are legally available
for many nematode-crop combinations. No new nematicide that has
widespread use has been developed in the past 20 years. It currently
requires approximately 10 years and tens of millions of US dollars to
develop and bring to market any new pesticide, and the market niche
for any nematicide is limited relative to the market for herbicides or
insecticides. Nematicide sales account for less than 1 % of pesticide
sales in the USA, whereas herbicides and insecticides account for 60
and 21 % , respectively, of total pesticides sales for agriculture (Ware,
1994). It is unlikely that any new nematicide based on currently avail-
able chemistry will be developed in the near future. Thus nematicides
are likely to have a diminishing role in crop protection.
Crop rotations can also decrease the potential for substantial yield
losses due to nematodes (Luc et al., 1990; Whitehead, 1998) and pro-
vide at least short-term suppression of nematode population densities.
The magnitude of these benefits is generally positively correlated with
the number of cropping seasons between the planting of susceptible
crops. But rotation systems are seldom adopted unless there are
additional benefits to the producer beyond nematode management.
Regardless of whether the producer is involved in intensive production
agriculture or subsistence farming, many factors are involved in
deciding which cropping system best meets the needs of that producer.
Overall, profitability and yield stability are the primary concern of
the producer. It is seldom that nematode management is the critical
factor in adopting a specific cropping system. Because many nematode
species are polyphagous with wide host ranges and many fields have
polyspecific communities of plant-parasitic nematodes, development
of cropping systems that meet all of the needs of the producer and
4 J.L. Starr et al.
suppress nematode population densities is a formidable challenge.

None the less, there are numerous examples of effective nematode
management with crop rotation.
Biological control holds some promise for the future (see Evans
et al., 1993), but with current knowledge it is difficult to promote
or establish a microflora or fauna in soils that effectively suppresses
nematode population densities, especially in the relatively short period
of time of a single growing season. Reliable and effective biological
control systems are likely to be limited to specialized situations
(e.g. intensely managed crop systems where the environment can be
manipulated to promote biological activity) for the near future.
Resistance is an effective management tool that improves crop
yield (Table 1.1) in the presence of nematode population densities
that exceed the damage threshold. Because resistance to nematodes is
usually developed by selection of plants with reduced rates of nema-
tode reproduction, nematode population densities are typically lower
following a resistant cultivar than a susceptible cultivar. However, this
is not always the case if the crop has only partial resistance. Niblack
et al. (1986) demonstrated that at moderate to high initial population
densities, population densities of Meloidogyne incognita reach their
maximum levels at about 90 days after planting on a susceptible
soybean cultivar (presumably due to extensive damage to the host),
whereas on partially resistant cultivars that were less damaged by
the nematodes, the population densities were still increasing at 120
days after planting. Resistance not only complements crop rotation for
Table 1.1. Selected examples of the effect of resistance to plant-parasitic nematodes on crop
yield in nematode-infested and non-infested fields.
Yield
Crop Nematode species Cultivare Infested Non-infested

R 2908 kg ha- 1 3177 kg ha- 1
R 3177 kg ha- 1 3541 kg ha- 1
Groundnutb Meloidogyne arenaria s 914 kg ha- 1 4678 kg ha- 1
R 3771 kg ha-1 5155 kg ha- 1
Tobaccoc M. incognita s 301 g per plot 504 g per plot
R 407 g per plot 477 g per plot
Cottond M. incognita s 530 kg ha-1
R 1100 kg ha- 1
aG.L. Tylka, Iowa State University, USA, personal communication; bStarr et al. (1998); c Barker
et al. (1981 ); dQgallo et al. (1999); es, susceptible cultivar; R, resistant cultivar.
nematode management, but also improves the ease with which effec-
tive rotation systems can be developed. Ogallo et al. (1999) demon-
strated that resistance to root-knot nematodes in cotton increased lint
yields and yield stability in nematode-infested fields compared to
susceptible cultivars (Fig. 1.1). Additionally, they demonstrated that
yield of susceptible lima beans planted in infested fields was greater
following two crops of resistant cotton than after two crops of suscepti-
ble cotton. The yield increase was attributed to suppression of popula-
tion densities of M. incognita by the resistant cotton cultivar. Typically,
the direct cost to the grower for the use of resistance is minimal, thus
resistance fits all agricultural production systems. Finally, resistance is
an ecologically sound approach to nematode management, especially
relative to commonly used nematicides.
Although resistance to plant-parasitic nematodes is usually identi-
fied and characterized based on inhibition of nematode reproduction,
our primary interest in resistance has to be yield. The benefit to subse-
quent susceptible crops from suppression of nematode population
densities must be considered a supplemental benefit. It will be difficult
to convince plant breeders to introgress resistance into cultivars if
the primary benefit will be to another crop through suppression of
nematode population densities. It is doubtful if growers would be
willing to plant a resistant cultivar if there was no yield benefit to that
• Resistant D
1200~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Susceptible
1000
1? 800
Ol
-
~
""O
-~ 600
>-
c
c
.8 400
0
0
200
0
Year1 Year2 Year3
Year planted
Fig. 1.1. Cotton lint yields for 3 consecutive years for a root-knot resistant
cultivar compared to yields of a susceptible cultivar in a field infested with
Meloidogyne incognita (from Ogallo et al., 1999).
crop. Thus, when working with host resistance yield must be the top
priority.
Resistance is not a panacea that will solve all nematode manage-
ment problems. No resistance to important nematode species (espe-
cially migratory ectoparasites such as Belonolaimus and Hoplolaimus
spp.) is known for some crops or is present only in wild species or
undeveloped genotypes, such that a major effort will be required to
develop high-yielding crop genotypes with desirable levels of resis-
tance. As with crop rotation and biological control systems, resistance
is typically a highly specific trait and is expected to be effective against
only a single nematode species or even a subspecific race or pathotype.
It may take years of effort by traditional or transgenic methods
to introgress new resistance genes into desirable crop genotypes.
Additionally, after development of a resistant cultivar, that resistance
may not be durable if the target nematode species has a high level of
genetic variability (Young and Hartwig, 1992; Roberts, 1995; Kaloshian
et al., 1996). However, resistance can be made more durable by
pyramiding of multiple resistance genes to reduce the probability
of selection and by development of specific resistance deployment
schemes that reduce the duration of selection pressure for development
of virulent nematode populations.
There are few resistant cultivars relative to the amount of
known resistant genotypes. A bibliography of resistance (Armstrong
and Jensen, 1978) contains 1371 citations dealing with resistance in
119 crop species or genera. In the period 1995-2000, Nematological
Abstracts contained about 300 abstracts annually that dealt with some
aspect of resistance. Young (1998) reported that the Crop Science Soci-
ety of America (CSSA) has registered 143 nematode-resistant cultivars
or germplasm lines for 15 field crops. Additionally, in the texts by Luc
et al. (1990) and Evans et al. (1993), resistant cultivars or the potential
for their development from known resistant germplasm resources were
discussed for nearly every crop. Nearly 90% of all reports involve
Meloidogyne, Globodera or Heterodera species. This preponderance of
effort on these genera reflects their overall importance as agricultural
pests and the relative abundance of resistance to species of these
genera. Our goal is to stimulate and encourage greater effort in the iden-
tification and especially the use of these many sources of resistance.
History of Resistance to Nematodes

Among the first reports of resistance to nematodes was that of Webber
and Orton (1902), who described the resistance of a cowpea variety
'Iron' to root-knot nematodes based on reduced galling in field
plots. Additionally, their report cites reports by Zimmerman (1897)
of observations of resistance to root knot in coffee, and Wilfarth (1900)

on selection of sugar beets with resistance to nematodes. Ware (1936)
reported that Orton made selections in 1905 from the cotton line
'Jackson Limbless' that had good resistance to Fusarium wilt and noted
that it was 'somewhat resistant to root-knot but had little else to recom-
mend it.' Moore (1960) cites Nilsson-Ehle (1920) as being the first to
study heritability of nematode resistance and identified resistance to
Heterodera schachtii (sic) in barley as being due to a single dominant
gene. The lack of knowledge or appreciation of the importance of
proper identification of the nematode population hampered these early
efforts to identify and characterize resistance in host species.
Barrons (1939) was one of the first to study the mechanisms
of resistance to nematodes, working with root-knot nematodes on
cowpea. He distinguished resistance from tolerance and noted
that resistance was not due to inhibition of root penetration. Barrons
speculated that resistance might be due to chemical inhibitors in the
roots and that these inhibitors 'may counteract or neutralize the giant
cell inducing effect of salivary secretions of the nematode.'
A major achievement in resistance to nematodes was the introgres-
sion of the Mi gene for resistance to M. incognita, M. arenaria and
M. javanica from Lycopersicon peruvianum into L. esculentum (Smith,
1944). Even though it was several decades before root-knot resistant
tomato cultivars were widely grown commercially, resistance condi-
tioned by the Mi gene has been a valuable research model and has
added greatly to the understanding of resistance (Williamson, 1998).
With the cloning and determination of DNA sequences of Mi (Milligan
et al., 1998) and the Hs1Pro- 1 gene for resistance to H. schachtii (Cali
et al., 1997), it is likely the progress in the understanding of at least
these two types of resistance will accelerate.
Resistance to M. incognito in tobacco was first reported in the early
part of the 20th century (Clayton et al., 1958), but resistant tobacco
cultivars were not widely grown until the 1970s. Resistance to the
potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis) was reported in 1954
by Ellenby and to the soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) in
1957 by Ross and Brim. In the case of these two cyst nematodes, resis-
tance was adopted fairly rapidly with resistant varieties derived from
those discoveries being widely grown by the 1970s.
Examples of Current Use of Resistance

Today, resistance is widely and effectively used in some crops. In
North Carolina (USA), 97% of the 84,000 ha tobacco crop is planted to
cultivars resistant to M. incognito (T. Melton, North Carolina State Uni-
versity, USA, personal communication). Despite this high percentage
8 J.L. Starr et al.
use of resistance, more than 70% of the crop is also treated with a
nematicide. This reflects the fact that even after more than 25 years of
use and an effective grower education programme, the producers of this
high value crop are unwilling to put their complete trust in resistance.
Factors that contribute to a lack of faith in resistance include the
presence in some tobacco fields of M. arenaria and M. javanica, against
which the resistance is not effective, and the promotional efforts of
the nematicide industry. Because of the value of the crop, growers are
willing to bear the additional cost of a nematicide for added protection
from possible loss. Although the widespread use of this resistance
resulted in an increased frequency of M. arenaria in North and South
Carolina (Fortnum et al., 1984; Schmitt and Barker, 1988), M. incognito
remains the most frequently encountered species on tobacco and
resistance is still effective in most fields.
Because the Mi gene for resistance to M. incognito, M. javanica
and M. arenaria was linked to some horticulturally undesirable traits,
it was not widely used in commercial tomato production in the
USA until the 1980s. Currently, the majority of the tomatoes grown
commercially in California carry this resistance (Williamson, Univer-
sity of California, Davis, USA, personal communication). Despite their
apparent success in California, only recently have tomatoes with the Mi
gene been widely grown in Florida. This recent use has been the result
of the popularity of the cultivar Sanibell, which carries the Mi gene,
because of its superior horticultural traits and not because of its
resistance to Meloidogyne spp. Indeed, virulence against the Mi gene
can develop in Florida populations of M. incognito after as few as five
plantings of Sanibell (Noling, 2000).
Resistance to Heterodera glycines in soybean and Globodera
pallida and G. rostochiensis in potato are representative of cases where
the effectiveness of resistance is compromised by virulence in the
nematode populations. The race situation with respect to H. glycines
remains unsettled, with 16 races currently recognized (Riggs and
Schmitt, 1988). Numerous high-yielding soybean cultivars have resis-
tance to races 1 and 3 of H. glycines, and a few cultivars have resistance
to races 6 and 14. The cultivar Hartwig has the broadest base of resis-
tance, being resistant to races 1-6, 8 and 14, but has relatively poor
yield potential. Fortunately, of the 16 described races of H. glycines,
eight are rarely encountered. Races 1 and 3 predominate in the north-
ern portion of the USA, whereas races 2-6, 9 and 14 predominate in the
southern USA. In North Carolina, approximately 48% of the 573,000 ha
soybean crop was planted to cyst-resistant cultivars in 1998 (J. Dunphy,
North Carolina State University, USA, personal communication), but
60% of the infestations are races against which resistance is not
effective. The development and use of marker-assisted selection (see
Young and Mudge, Chapter 12) should increase the efficiency of

working with multiple genes for resistance to H. glycines.
Similarly, multiple pathotypes of G. pallida and G. rostochiensis
have been described, but remain somewhat controversial due to
incomplete data on the genetics of resistance in the host and virulence
in the nematodes (Trudgill, 1985). None the less, resistance to G.
rostochiensis has been widely used. Currently in the Netherlands,
about 55% of the ware potatoes (those grown for sale as food) and 99%
of the starch potatoes are resistant to one or more pathotypes of the
cyst nematodes (F. Gommets, Wageningen Agricultural University, The
Netherlands, personal communication). In the UK, approximately 45%
of the potato crop carries the Ro1 resistance and is effective against
most populations of G. rostochiensis in that country (K. Evans, IARC,
Rothamsted, UK, personal communication). However, the frequency of
G. pallida is increasing in the UK and only about 1.5% of the potato
crop carries effective resistance to prevalent races of G. pallida. Resis-
tance to G. rostochiensis effectively controlled potato cyst nematodes
in the UK until the appearance of G. pallid a in the late 1970s.
Globodera pallida resistance genes Pa2 and Pa3 from Solanum vernei,
were introduced into cultivars during the 1980s. Despite the problems
with maintaining effective resistance deployment against such variable
pathogens as cyst nematodes, resistance has been useful in alleviating
crop losses. Fortunately, the limited host range of the potato and soy-
bean cyst nematodes has made the use of crop rotations an effective
complement to resistance.
In the early and mid 1990s, three cotton cultivars (Acala NemX,
Stoneville LA887 and Paymaster 1560) with moderate to good levels
of resistance to M. incognito were released. Despite their value in
increasing cotton yields in nematode-infested fields and in reducing
population densities of M. incognito (Ogallo et al., 1997, 1999; Zhou,
1999), these cultivars accounted for less than 1 % of all cotton planted
in the USA in 1999 (Anon., 1999). Cotton remains a case where there is
both a need and opportunity for greater use of resistance.
Recently, resistance to M. arenario from wild Arochis species has
been introgressed into the cultivated peanut A. hypogaea and the first
resistant cultivar (cv. COAN) was released in 1999 (Simpson and Starr,
2001). Grower education programmes are in progress to demonstrate
the value of the resistance to the growers. Efforts are ongoing to identify
additional nematode-resistance genes present within the available
Arachis spp. germplasm resources and to introgress nematode resis-
tance into cultivars that also have resistance to tomato spotted wilt
virus and Sclerotinia blight. Introgression of additional resistance
genes will increase the durability of the resistance and promote yield
stability.
Resistance to Nematodes in Tropical Agriculture

Although in theory, the nematode management methods, including use
of resistant cultivars, that can be employed in the tropics and develop-
ing countries differ little from those used in temperate agriculture and
developed countries, in practice there are often important differences.
The facets of tropical agriculture that differ most fundamentally
from the temperate regions and markedly affect the control of plant
nematodes are the crops grown, the farming systems, and the wide
range of different nematodes found. Commercial and plantation crops
are a common feature of tropical agriculture but by far the largest
proportion of cultivated land in most of the tropical countries is farmed
by small-scale farmers (Luc et al., 1990). Tropical farming systems,
especially with small farms, are generally far more complex than those
found in temperate, developed agriculture and there is a greater diver-
sity of cropping practices (Bridge, 1987). This complexity and cropping
diversity is an essential consideration in the introduction of nematode
management methods including resistant crop cultivars.
A much greater diversity of nematode genera and species (and
probably pathotypes) exists in the tropics than in temperate countries.
Nematodes also generally have shorter life cycles and more generations
per crop season at higher temperatures, putting the crops under much
greater pest pressure. Another important feature in tropical agriculture
is that often a number of concomitant species of the same or several
different genera occur together and they may all be major pests of the
crop grown, which is obviously very relevant to the introduction of
resistant cultivars.
The nematodes of economic importance in tropical agriculture
cover a very wide range of genera and many of these do not occur
on temperate crops (Table 1.2); some have a limited geographical
distribution and narrow host range, others have a worldwide tropical
distribution and wide host range.
Nematode-resistant cultivars can be one of the most useful,
economical and effective means of managing nematodes for both large
commercial and for small-scale farmers in the tropics and developing
countries. Their use can be the ideal solution to managing nematode
pests particularly in farming systems with low inputs. However, nema-
tode resistance is not available for many crop-nematode combinations.
The absence of nematode-resistant breeding has been attributed to a
number of reasons including it having a low priority in certain crops
(Cook and Evans, 1987); food crops grown in tropical situations with
a low commercial value generally have a low priority for nematode-
resistant breeding.
Unfortunately, relatively few of the existing resistant cultivars are
accessible to or used by the majority of farmers in the developing
countries. Most available resistant cultivars have been bred for temper-
ate or commercial crops with comparatively few available for food and
other tropical crops in the developing countries. This is particularly
Table 1.2. Selected examples of crops in the tropics with some important plant nematode pests.
Crops Nematode pests
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Meloidogyne spp.

Aubergine (Solanum melongena)
Okra (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
Beans (Vigna, Phaseolus, Meloidogyne spp.
Psophocarpus)
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) Aphelenchoides arachidis, Aphasmatylenchus straturatus,
Belonolaimus longicaudatus
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) Heterodera cajani, Meloidogyne spp.
Sweet potato (lpomoea batatas) Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchu/us reniformis
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Meloidogyne spp.
Yams (Oioscorea spp.) Scutellonema bradys, Pratylenchus coffeae, Meloidogyne
spp.
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) Meloidogyne spp., Hirschmanniella miticausa, Pratylenchus
coffeae
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
Turmeric (Curcuma domestica) Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus coffeae
Rice (Oryza sativa) Aphelenchoides besseyi, Ditylenchus angustus,
Hirschmanniella spp., Heterodera sacchari, Meloidogyne
graminicola, Paralongidorus spp., Pratylenchus zeae
Maize (Zea mays) Pratylenchus zeae, Meloidogyne spp.
Coffee (Coffea spp.) Meloidogyne africana, Meloidogyne coffeico/a, Meloidogyne
decalineata, Me/oidogyne exigua, Meloidogyne incognita,
Pratylenchus coffeae
Tea (Camellia sinensis) Me/oidogyne brevicauda, Pratylenchus /oosi, Radopholus
similis
Bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) He/icotylenchus multicinctus, Pratylenchus coffeae,
Pratylenchus goodeyi, Radopholus similis
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, Radopholus similis
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus similis
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) Me/oidogyne acronea, Meloidogyne incognita,
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Me/oidogyne spp.
Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) Heterodera sacchari, Pratylenchus spp., Meloidogyne spp.
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) Meloidogyne javanica, Pratylenchus brachyurus,
Papaya (Garica papaya) Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchulus reniformis
Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum Meloidogyne hap/a
cinerariaefolium)
disappointing as resistance is most useful for low value crops which

cannot support the cost of expensive pest management inputs
(Fassuliotis, 1979). Even when resistant cultivars are available to farm-
ers in the tropics many other factors have to be taken into account
before their introduction. There is the obvious marked contrast in what
can be achieved by the big commercial producer compared to the small
farmer. The resistant cultivars are not always acceptable to small-scale
farmers for a number of reasons: (i) nematode-resistant cul ti vars may be
far more susceptible to local endemic but previously innocuous pests
and diseases; (ii) they may have unacceptably high input requirements;
(iii) their quality may be poor in relation to local food preferences
and the required cooking characteristics; (iv) their growing period and
harvesting time may not accord with the region; or (v) their appearance
and marketability may not be acceptable relative to locally grown
cultivars. On the other hand, the lack of uptake can also simply be
because the farmers, extension officers or advisors are unaware of the
existence or value of nematode-resistant cultivars (Bridge, 1996). None
of these difficulties are insurmountable and resistant cultivars remain
a very important potential component of a solution to many nematode
problems of tropical agriculture especially for the low-input, small-
scale farmers when used in combination with cultural techniques and
traditionally grown crops.
Tolerance, where a plant suffers little injury even when heavily
infected in natural conditions, can be of considerable value to nema-
tode management (Cook and Evans, 1987) and this applies especially to
resource-poor small-scale farmers. Tolerance appears to have arisen in
traditional agriculture by farmer selection over many generations
in fields infested with the nematodes. In different tropical countries
many locally grown cultivars appear to have reverted to wild-type
characteristics, such as the small-fruited tomatoes in West Africa, and
these, for example, often show a high degree of tolerance to root-knot
nematodes (Bridge, 1996).
Where there is genetic diversity in crops, normal selection by farm-
ers for good growing traits will also select for tolerance or resistance to
nematodes even though the farmers have no perception of nematodes
as pests. Constant pressure from nematodes and other pests will ensure
that the tolerance or resistance that arises will be automatically
selected as the farmer selects for more recognizable and desirable
characteristics such as higher yields and improved taste (Page and
Bridge, 1993). An example is in Papua New Guinea where Meloidogyne
is an important pest of sweet potato, particularly when the crop is
grown continuously, but is not perceived to be a problem by the
farmers. However, it is very likely that some subsistence farmers have
managed to control M. incognita on sweet potato by rotations and by
the careful selection of sweet potato cultivars which are resistant or
tolerant to the nematode. Some farmers were found to grow particular

cultivars of sweet potato only after bush fallow and save others for
use in a continuous cropping situation (Bridge and Page, 1982). It is
possible for the farmers to make this selection because sweet potato
clones resistant or highly resistant to M. incognito have been found
more frequently in Papua New Guinea and neighbouring islands than
in any other country (Shiga and Takemata, 1981). Therefore, where the
root-knot nematode problem was more acute in areas of greatest land
pressure the recommended solution was the active selection of
nematode tolerance or resistance from the many different locally grown
cultivars (Bridge and Page, 1982, 1984).
Resistance to tropical nematodes does exist in a number of crops
including vegetables, food legumes, maize, tobacco, sugarcane, sweet
potato, soybean, grape, citrus, cotton and lucerne. Meloidogyne species
are the major nematode pests of tropical vegetables and some resistance
to the widely occurring species of root knot has been found in green
peppers, aubergine (eggplant), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and tomato.
Tomato has the most cultivars with resistance to Meloidogyne and it is
these cultivars that are, or can be, most used by farmers in the tropics.
However, no vegetable cultivar has resistance to all the main species of
the genus, normally only to one species, and resistance-breaking races
have been found in M. incognito, M. javanica and M. arenaria. Because
of these different root-knot species and races occurring naturally in
tropical soils, it is recommended that any possible new introductions
are tested first in the local soils (Roberts et al., 1986; Netscher and
Sikora, 1990).
Tobacco is also seriously damaged by M. incognito but many
cultivars have resistance to a number of races and can be grown in any
part of the world which has a problem with these races (Shepherd
and Barker, 1990). The benefits derived by growers using resistant
tobacco 'NC 95' when it was introduced are described as spectacular
(Fassuliotis, 1979). The main nematode pest of citrus is Tylenchulus
semipenetrans, which now occurs worldwide in the tropics and
subtropics having been spread on infected seedlings. Control of
T. semipenetrans populations relies largely on the use of resistant
rootstocks with the resistance being derived from Poncirus trifoliata
(Cook and Evans, 1987; Duncan and Cohn, 1990; see Verdejo-Lucas and
Kaplan, Chapter 9).
On food crops in the tropics some of the nematodes can pose
serious threats to the farmers and can often be the most difficult
to control, especially in low-input agriculture. In these situations,
resistant cultivars can in many cases be the answer, although these
crops are not normally a priority for the breeder. Possible exceptions
that have interested breeders are found in rice. New genotypes
with resistance to Ditylenchus angustus, the cause of ufra disease on
deepwater and lowland rice (Rahman, 1994), have been identified and
could prove very important to rice farmers in southeast Asia where
the nematode occurs. Studies have also identified the African rice,
Oryza glaberrima, to be resistant to pest species of Meloidogyne and
Heterodera. A recent breakthrough in breeding has been the inter-
specific hybridization between 0. glaberrima and 0. sativa. These
interspecific hybrids have excellent agronomical traits and have
greatly improved the possibility of selection of nematode resistance in
improved varieties. Plowright et al. (1999) demonstrated resistance
in interspecific progeny to Heterodera sacchari and Meloidogyne
graminicola but not to Pratylenchus zeae. Their conclusions were that
nematode resistance in rice cultivars with valuable agronomic traits
represented by these 0. glaberrima-0. sativa interspecific hybrids can
be of enormous value to the sustainable management and preventative
control of some of the major nematode pests in rice and represents
a highly practical means of nematode management in smallholder,
subsistence agriculture.
In commercial bananas, resistance to nematodes has so far proved
elusive (see De Waele and Elsen, Chapter 8). There is, as yet, no widely
grown clone of a commercial dessert banana resistant to the major
nematodes despite years of searching (Gowen and Queneherve, 1990),
nor is there such a clone of food banana or plantain (Ortiz, 2000). One
commercial hybrid, 'FHIA-01 ', appeared to have partial resistance to
Radopholus similis but even this has now been disproved (Stoffelen
et al., 2000). Relatively few real attempts have been made at incorporat-
ing resistance in Musa against the major nematodes because of the
difficulties of working on such a genetically complex plant and the cost
of developing a breeding programme (Pinochet, 1992). In commercial
dessert bananas, there are a limited number of land-races with an
extremely narrow genetic base and, as a result, the system is highly vul-
nerable to pests and diseases (Ortiz et al., 1995). This is not necessarily
the case for the all-important bananas and plantains grown as food
crops by small-scale and subsistence farmers in West, Central and East
Africa, which require processing before consumption as a carbohydrate
food or beverage. These crops have a much greater diversity and the
possibilities of finding resistant clones are considerably enhanced
(Bridge, 2000). Also the chances of breeding for nematode resistance
in hybrids acceptable to farmers and consumers are greater, partly
because cultivar type is not restricted by the pressure and the high
quality demands of the export trade (Gowen, 1994; Urtiz et al., 1995). In
West and Central Africa, 116 plantain cultivars have been identified
(Swennen, 1990). Karamura and Karamura (1904) have listed 145
cultivars of the cooking type East African Highland bananas (AAA-EA)
of the Lujugira-Mutika subgroup and 88 beer cultivars of the
same subgroup from Uganda. In comparison to the commercial
bananas, this provides an enormous resource for selecting or

breeding new cultivars resistant to R. similis, Pratylenchus goodeyi
or P. coffeae.
In spite of all the difficulties, the possibilities of finding resistance
in bananas and plantains holds out one of the best means of controlling
the nematodes for small-scale farmers in Africa. However, experiences
in other parts of the tropical world have shown that where resistance in
bananas exists it is not a universal resistance against all nematodes;
those showing resistance to R. similis can be highly susceptible to
P. coffeae (Pinochet and Rowe, 1978; Stoffelen et al., 2000). Both of
these nematodes can occur together in tropical soils, which adds to
difficulties of selecting for resistance. More positively, it is considered
that there are now good prospects for developing banana and plantain
cultivars with resistance to nematodes that would probably have char-
acteristics outside the narrow requirements of the commercial banana
export trade but would be suitable for non-export and subsistence
farmers in the tropics (Gowen, 1994). Also the prospects of genetically
engineered nematode-resistant banana cultivars are now within reach
(De Waele et al., 1994). Unfortunately the research on this latter aspect
will almost certainly focus on commercial, export crops with a possible
trickle-down to the crops of the small-scale farmer in Africa and
elsewhere at some future time.
The active selection of tolerance in bananas to nematodes or its
recognition has generally received little attention. It could play a very
important part in nematode management with small-scale farmers as
variability in levels of nematode root populations in Musa are possibly
associated with degrees of tolerance to the nematodes (Sarah. 1988;
Gowen, 1993, 1994; Price, 1994). Tolerance, not resistance, to R. similis
and other nematodes is also rated as one of the ideotype requirements
for a commercially acceptable banana hybrid by the breeders (Ortiz
et al., 1995).
In tropical agriculture, particularly with small-scale farmers,
tolerance and resistance can play a key role in the reduction of crop
yield losses caused by nematodes. The introduction or selection of new
cultivars resistant to the range of nematode pests present is desirable
if all local or regional factors are considered. Introduction of such
cultivars should not be at the expense of the traditional resistant
cultivars or the traditional farmer selection processes that have
produced them.
The Future
Host resistance is a management tactic that has much potential and

needs to be more effectively utilized. Many of the problems associated
with resistance can be overcome or minimized with additional

research, breeding effort and effective grower education programmes.
Much of the available germplasm resources remains to be charac-
terized for resistance to nematodes and additional germplasm remains
to be collected for many crop species. The screening of a large germ-
plasm collection is tedious. Holbrook et al. (1999) advocate the use of
core collections for more effectively screening germplasm. Even after
resistance phenotypes have been identified, further research will be
needed to determine the number of genes for resistance that have been
identified. For example, Robinson and Percival (1997) recently identi-
fied accessions of Gossypium hirsutum from the Yucatan peninsula of
Mexico with M. incognito resistance phenotypically similar to that of
Clevewilt 6 and Wild Mexico Jack Jones, which are the sources of much
resistance currently in use. The question remains, do these accessions
represent unique resistance genes or are they identical to genes already
in use? As DNA-based markers linked to resistance loci become more
readily available, they can be used to determine if the resistance pheno-
types are due to unique genes more rapidly than with traditional
genetic analysis.
Research has only begun to explore the possibilities for engineered
resistance and as yet no crop cultivar with engineered resistance to a
nematode is available for growers. Ferrall et al. (1997) list numerous
possibilities for engineered resistance, including anti-nematode genes,
antifeedants and plantibodies. Many researchers are confident that
such sources of resistance will become valuable additions to our
arsenal in the near future. It is expected that engineered resistance will
help overcome fertility barriers that limit use of some native sources of
resistance and will provide sources of resistance to nematodes for
which no resistance is currently known. A major question, and goal,
will be whether engineered resistance can be more durable than
many currently available resistance genes, especially with respect to
Globodera and Heterodera spp. Based on present knowledge, however,
we must assume that engineered resistance may be no different from
native resistance with respect to durability. Indeed, technologies are
available that will allow either engineered resistance genes or cloned
natural genes to be more readily transferred into a wider range of crop
cultivars or even species. This would very much increase the selection
pressure for virulence within nematode populations and the need for
development of soundly based strategies for management of nematode
resistance genes.
Regardless of the source of resistance, it will be little more than a
research tool if we do not form effective linkages with plant breeders to
move the resistance into appropriate crop genotypes with the highest
yield potentials and other important agronomic and horticultural
characteristics. It is the nematologists' responsibility to convince pub-

lic and private sector plant breeders that introgression of resistance
to nematodes into the elite crop germplasm lines or cultivars will be
beneficial. We need to work with them to identify appropriate sources
of resistance and in the development of effective screening systems that
will permit timely introgression of that resistance. During this effort,
we must recognize and accept that resistance will not be the top prior-
ity of the breeder, rather they will argue that improving yield potential
must receive the top priority. One often-used argument against it is
that resistance frequently comes at the expense of yield. Yet there are
no data that prove that yield must be sacrificed to achieve resistance.
As has been recently demonstrated with cotton (Ogallo et al., 1999),
groundnut (peanut) (Church et al., 2000) and soybean (see Table 1.1),
the linkage between lower yield potential and resistance can be broken
and resistant genotypes with yield potentials equal to those of the best
yielding susceptible genotypes are possible. Similarly, the use of the
Mi gene in tomato was initially limited by linkages to undesirable
horticultural traits (Williamson, 1998) but this negative linkage has
been broken and tomato cultivars carrying the Mi gene are now widely
grown commercially in California. Modern breeding technologies,
notably marker-assisted selection (see Young and Mudge, Chapter 12)
should be used to select for resistance and to minimize linkage drag of
undesirable characteristics.
Lastly, once high-yielding cultivars with improved levels of
resistance to nematodes are developed, it is necessary that effective
grower (and crop consultant) education programmes be implemented.
Resistance may lack durability due to variability in the nematode
population, or some yield loss may be incurred at high initial nematode
population densities if only partial resistance is available. Thus, it is
essential that the resistance be deployed in a responsible manner to
enhance durability or along with other nematode management tactics
to achieve optimal benefits with respect to yield. \/Ve must work in
cooperation with extension specialists from a variety of disciplines to
develop effective education programmes.
The identification, development, and deployment of resistance
requires a long-term and extensive effort. In one of the few studies of
the economic benefits of resistance, Brady and Duffy (1982) docu-
mented that US$1 million to develop one cultivar with resistance to
H. glycines resulted in benefits of US$400 million. Host resistance
will not be the solution to all problems caused by plant-parasitic
nematodes, but resistance could and should play a bigger role in many
nematode management systems. The era of nematicides is ending and
we must develop alternative management systems. The use of host
resistance must be one of these alternatives.
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Nematodes
Edited by
J.L. Starr
USA
A.Cook
Aberystwyth
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and
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Plant resistance to parasitic nematodes I edited by J.L. Starr, R. Cook c111d J. Bridge.
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1. Plants--Disease and pest resistance. 2. Plant nematodes. L Starr, J. L. (James L.) II.
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Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King's Lynn.
Concepts and Consequences
of Resistance
P.A. Roberts
Department of Nemato/ogy, University of California,
Riverside, CA 92521, USA
This publication is designed to guide agricultural scientists in the use

of screening procedures needed to identify and quantify nematode
resistance and phenotypes in breeding materials. The adoption of
sound screening procedures in breeding is necessary for advancement
and release of improved crop cultivars and rootstocks for nematode
management programmes. The following chapters outline the various
components of resistance and tolerance screening for major phyto-
parasitic nematode genera and species. Protocols are described for
maintenance and preparation of inoculum; plant inoculation and soil
infestation; evaluation of nematode reproduction and host response;
and various glasshouse, microplot, and field screening and testing
procedures. Reference is also made to the genetics of resistance where
known and to variations in pathogenicity and virulence that are often
encountered among populations of the same nematode species.
Several considerations are important in determining the objectives
of breeding for nematode resistance and tolerance traits, and in
choosing a selection and screening plan to achieve those objectives.
The breeder must identify resistance and tolerance traits as a starting
point, either directly through screening or from the previous screening
work of others. The value of the traits for crop improvement must be
defined as much as possible to gauge whether a significant added bene-
fit will justify the considerable investment in breeding. The potential
value added to the crop from a resistant or tolerant cultivar or rootstock
is determined by several factors. The target nematode pathogens must
be defined on the basis of their distribution in crop production areas,
(eds J.L. Starr, R. Cook and J. Bridge) 23
24 P.A. Roberts
the amount of yield loss they cause and the availability of viable safe
alternative control tactics, i.e. a definition of market potential. The
expression of the resistance or tolerance must be known preferably
under field conditions, to determine the extent to which nematode
multiplication is suppressed and crop yield loss is prevented. The
nematode variability for response to the resistance or tolerance must be
assessed at the species and population levels. Thus, the breadth of
utility must be defined and the likelihood that resistance-breaking
virulent nematode infestations exist or will develop should be consid-
ered. Furthermore, any unique attributes of the resistance or tolerance,
such as expression at high soil temperatures, should be considered.
The breeder will be aided greatly by knowledge of the inheritance of
the resistance and tolerance trait and will be concerned about ability to
introgress and advance the traits without linkages to undesirable traits.
A few selected examples are provided to illustrate the principles that
underpin a successful breeding effort for nematode resistance and
tolerance.
Terminology
Definitions of important terms used here are provided to clarify
meaning, particularly because certain terms applied to nematology
are not quite the same as their meanings in classical plant pathology.
These terms have been defined and described by several authorities in
reviews, and the reader is referred to those references for additional
descriptions (Roberts, 1982; Cook and Evans. 1987; Cook, 1991;
Trudgill, 1991; Shaner et al., 1992; Davis et al., 2000).
A figurative explanation of common terms is given in Fig. 2.1. Most
plants are immune or non-host to most nematodes. They do not allow
nematode attack, often blocking initial root invasion and thereby pre-
venting nematode development and reproduction, nor are they dam-
aged by nematodes. For example, root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne
spp.) completely avoided roots of Royal Blenheim apricot; thus, the
tree is immune to root-knot infection.
Resistance is used to describe the ability of a plant to suppress
development or reproduction of the nematode. It can range from low to
moderate (partial or intermediate) resistance, to high resistance. A
completely or highly resistant plant allows no nematode reproduction,
or only trace amounts. Partially or moderately resistant plants allow
some intermediate amounts of reproduction. Susceptibility is used as
the opposite of resistance; t.hus a susceptible plant allows normal nem-
atode development to take place, and the expression of any associated
disease. The nematode population axis in Fig. 2.1 depicts these major
categories. The term resistance is also used to describe the capacity to
Concepts and Consequences of Resistance 25
Host growth
~ ~
~ _.r;:=:a ~
~ _.r;:=:a ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
~ _.r;:=:a
~
Nematode ~
population ~
increase
Tolerant Intolerant
Terminology: Susceptible Non-host Resistant
host host
Fig. 2.1. Diagrammatic representation of terms describing plant growth

response to nematodes and nematode reproduction on plants (from McKenry
and Roberts, 1985).
suppress the disease, especially root-knot (Sasser et al., 1984), and for
plant disease in general.
Tolerance and its opposite, intolerance, are used to describe the
ability of the plant to withstand nematode infection; intolerant plants
are injured and grow less well or even die when infected. Resistant
plants are generally more tolerant than similar plants lacking resis-
tance, and the majority of susceptible plants are injured to some extent
by most nematodes. However, resistance and tolerance are not always
coupled and have been shown to be under separate genetic control
in some plant-nematode interactions (Evans and Haydock, 1990;
Trudgill, 1991). The concept of tolerance to nematodes is sometimes
used in a broader sense to describe general plant responses to infec-
tions (Barker, 1993). A helpful discussion of concepts of tolerance is
given by Wallace (1987).
Resistance as it relates to the mode of inheritance can be monogenic
(single gene), oligogenic (a few genes) or polygenic (many genes).
Resistance genes can be further defined according to the amount of
the phenotypic effect they express, being either major genes (large
effects) or minor genes (small effects) for phenotypic expression. Other
descriptions of resistance follow Vanderplank's (1978) classification of
vertical resistance (race-specific or qualitative, differentiating intra-
specific variants - races, pathotypes or biotypes - of the pathogen)
and horizontal resistance (race-non-specific or quantitative, effective
against all variants of the pathogen). Vertical resistance is usually
26 P.A. Roberts
controlled by one to as many as three genes and is identified with the

gene-for-gene type of plant-pathogen interaction. Horizontal resistance
is usually polygenically inherited as several minor genes, often with
additive effects that confer a quantitative level of resistance. In general,
quantitative resistance tends to be more durable or less circumvented
due to selection pressure operating on the nematode parasite popu-
lation. Preinfectional and postinfectional resistance reactions are
referred to, respectively, as those that occur independent of infection
(e.g. an impenetrable root surface) and those that occur in response to
nematode infection within the root (e.g. failure to form and maintain a
feeding site) (Roberts et al., 1998).
In the nematode, genes for virulence are present that match resis-
tance genes in the host plant. Virulence is defined according to the abil-
ity of a nematode or other pathogen to reproduce on a host plant that
possesses one or more resistance genes. Virulent nematodes are able to
reproduce, whereas avirulent nematodes are unable to reproduce in the
presence of specific resistance gene(s). An important aspect of viru-
lence is that populations of nematodes comprise a mixture of virulent
and avirulent individuals. The frequency of each can range from one
to zero. The frequency of virulent individuals will determine the poten-
tial for selection of virulence in the presence of resistant host plants.
In plant pathology, the genes encoding this trait are typically called
avirulence or A vr genes. Nematologists sometimes refer to avirulence
genes as genes for parasitism or parasitism genes. A recent in-depth
review (Davis et al., 2000) of nematode genes related to parasitism and
virulence has helped to better define appropriate use of these terms.
Different terms have been used to categorize the types or forms of
physiological variation based on host response ti1at are encountered
within a nematode species. Terms used to categorize these differences
are somewhat confusing because of a largely indiscriminate use of them
for different nematode groups: race or host-race has been used for
categorizing variations within soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera
glycines); pathotype has been used for potato cyst nematodes (Globo-
dera pallida and G. rostochiensis) and for the cereal cyst nematode
(Heterodera avenae); and biotype for variations within the stem and
bulb nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci). A common, but not universal,
interpretation of these terms has been that races of nematode species
are separated by differential reactions on hosts of widely different
plant species (e.g. races of root-knot differentiated on pepper, tobacco,
cotton, groundnut and tomato), whereas pathotypes are differentiated
by genes for resistance in different cultivars and breeding lines of the
same or related plant species (e.g. Globodera spp. on potato).
Triantaphyllou (1987) offered the term biotype as a biological unit
consisting of 'a group of genetically closely related individuals sharing
a common biological feature or phenotypic trait,' in relation to parasitic
ability on given differential hosts. Field populations may consist

of individuals of different biotypes, and combinations of biotypes
comprising field populations could be designated as races. Thus, a field
population could represent a race with one, two, three or more biotypes
and with different proportions of each. An individual nematode may be
assigned to more than one biotype, depending on the array of genes for
a virulence that it possesses in relation to the genetic constitution of the
host differentials used to classify the biotypes (Triantaphyllou, 1987).
Roberts (1995) adapted elements of this biotype concept to provide
a comprehensive framework for categorizing variants within species
of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) defined by reaction to
resistance genes in different host plants, and some application of
this scheme has been made (Van der Beek et al., 1999).
Benefits of Resistance
Host plant resistance has been prioritized over chemical, biological,
cultural, and regulatory control components as a major goal for pest
management (Barker et al., 1994). Several advantages and benefits can
be achieved by breeding crop plants resistant to injurious parasitic
nematodes for production on infested land. Resistant crops provide an
effective and economical method for managing nematodes in both
high- and low-value cropping systems. Assuming the resistance is
coupled with tolerance to nematode infection, the resistant crop is
'self-protected' and should yield well on infested land. Furthermore,
resistant crops in annual cropping systems can reduce or suppress
nematode population densities in soils to levels that are non-damaging
to subsequent crops, thereby enabling shorter and more manageable
rotations. Additional important benefits of resistant crops are their
environmental compatibility, that they do not require specialized
applications, and apart from preference based on agronomic or
horticultural desirability, usually they do not require an additional
cost input or deficit. An exception to this is the higher seed cost of,
for example, resistant hybrid tomato cultivars compared with that of
susceptible open pollinated cultivars. In developing countries and in
low-cash crop systems, plant resistance is probably the only viable
long-term solution to nematode problems. Resistance and tolerance
are also amenable to integration with other management tactics, an
important consideration for promoting resistance durability and when
resistance or tolerance is not expressed at high levels (Roberts, 1993).
Several reviews address the current availability and/ or use of
resistant cultivars and rootstocks for nematode management (Sasser
and Kirby, 1979; Sidhu and Webster, 1981; Roberts, 1982; Cook and
Evans, 1987; Trudgill, 1991; Roberts, 1992; Roberts et al., 1998; Young,
28 P.A. Roberts
1998). Considerable success has been achieved in several programmes

for identifying and evaluating resistance sources, incorporating them
into commercially acceptable crop selections, and implementing them
in management programmes. However, relative to the very large poten-
tial of genetic resources of nematode resistance or tolerance, only a few
crop and nematode combinations utilizing plant resistance or tolerance
have been developed to the point of commercial acceptance and
success. Technical advances in marker-assisted breeding (see Young
and Mudge, Chapter 12), resistance gene cloning and plant transforma-
tions, and in bioengineering novel types of resistance to nematodes
will undoubtedly expedite development of nematode resistant crops
(Milligan et al., 1998; Opperman and Conkling, 1998; Boiteux et al.,
2000). New technologies will enable more efficient genetic transfer
across conventionally difficult biological barriers, thereby broadening
the prospects for major contributions to world food and fibre produc-
tion through crop resistance and tolerance to nematodes.
Plant resistance has been found and developed mainly to the highly
specialized parasitic nematodes such as Globodera, Heterodera, Meloi-
dogyne, Rotylenchulus, Tylenchulus and Ditylenchus; these nematodes
(except Ditylenchus) have a sedentary endoparasitic relationship with
their host. Resistance may be effective against nematode species of
different genera, against more than one species from the same genus,
against a single species, or against certain within-species variants
(Roberts, 1992). Resistance to less-specialized parasitic groups such as
the migratory endoparasitic genera Aphelenchoides and Pratylenchus
has been developed in only a few cases, and also to a few ectoparasitic
nematodes, for example, to Xiphinema in grapevines (Meredith
et al., 1982; Harris, 1983). This pattern of resistance reflects the
co-evolutionary forces between host and parasite; the more highly spe-
cialized relationships having resulted in specific genes for resistance
and parasitism as genetic advantage was sought (Roberts, 1982; Stone,
1985). The root-browsing ectoparasitic nematodes, with less specific
feeding requirements, apparently have not been a strong selection force
for resistance in plant hosts in most interactions, although general
tolerance traits could be useful in breeding programmes.
Nematode resistance traits in plants have come from wild plant
species or their derived breeding lines. This important source of resis-
tance genes continues to hold considerable potential for identification
of additional genes. For example, focused efforts to identify additional
root-knot nematode resistance genes in tomato beyond the original Mi
gene have revealed the presence of at least eight additional genes in the
tomato relative Lycopersicon peruvianum L., and more are likely to be
characterized (Roberts et al., 1998; Veremis et al., 1999). However, they
present a challenge in breeding work because of problems of incompat-
ibility, particularly among the more divergent taxa or genotypes, and
the association of resistance with various undesirable traits. Embryo

rescue and somatic hybridization techniques may facilitate otherwise
difficult gene transfers, as will plant transformation with cloned
resistance genes (Milligan et al., 1998). Mutants induced by irradiation
may express increased levels of resistance to nematodes, e.g. in potato,
although their stability must be assessed (Tellhelm and Stelter, 1984).
Plant regeneration from organs, tissues and cells can facilitate selection
of somaclonal variants with desirable resistance traits arising from
single nuclear changes. These tissue-culture induced genetic variations
and their potential as sources of resistance to diseases and nematodes
were reviewed by Litz (1986). However, this approach has not proved
to be successful so far. Recently, the potential for bioengineering novel
forms of resistance based on molecular approaches has gained consid-
erable attention and holds much promise, particularly as technologies
advance to enable a more streamlined approach, and some progress
has been made in developing novel root-knot nematode resistance
(Opperman and Conkling, 1998).
Most programmes for breeding cultivars and rootstocks resistant
to nematodes have utilized simply inherited major gene resistance.
Generally, this type of resistance is easier to identify and to incorporate
in short backcrossing or pedigree programmes using conventional
breeding techniques, compared to the polygenically controlled
quantitative resistance traits that require extensive intercrossings and
recrossing selections in a recurrent selection programme. Also, most
breeders backcross the desired resistance to commercial lines and
do not use the numbered or older genotypes in their programmes.
Breeding for tolerance may be similarly confounrl.ed because of a
polygenic background in most cases. These issues have been discussed
in several reviews (Simmonds, 1985; Young, 1998). The successes
and problems associated with breeding potatoes for resistance to the
potato cyst nematodes using monogenic (i.e. Solanum tuberosum ssp.
andigena) and polygenic (i.e. S. tuberosum ssp. andigena and S. vernei)
resistance sources exemplify this issue (Phillips and Trudgill, 1983;
Jones, 1985). The trend toward breeding with potentially non-durable
resistance sources is perhaps not likely to change through new
opportunities to transform heterologous susceptible crops with cloned
resistance genes such as Mi for root-knot resistance, because single
major gene resistance provides the most direct route to developing
resistant genotypes by these methods.
Tolerance and Yield

The impact of resistance and tolerance traits on crop yield is summa-
rized in Fig. 2.2. The general relationship of relative yield to initial
30 P.A. Roberts
RT
-0
Qi
·:;.,
Q)
~
> 0.5
lU
Qi
a:
SI
0'--~~~~~~--~~~ ...........~~---'
0 2 3 4
Initial nematode density
log (x+ 1)
Fig. 2.2. Hypothetical damage functions (relationship between yield and

initial nematode density) for crop cultivars possessing different nematode
resistance and tolerance traits. RT= resistant, tolerant; RI =resistant, intolerant;
ST= susceptible, tolerant; SI =susceptible, intolerant (from Roberts, 1982).
nematode density described by Seinhorst (1965) is commonly called

the nematode damage function. For susceptible, intolerant crops,
this relationship is linear except at very low or very high population
densities. Both the position and the slope of the curve will be governed
by the relative tolerance of the particular cultivar. The incorporation
of resistance and tolerance will tend to: (i) shift the curve to the
right, indicating a higher initial population density required to cause
detectable yield reduction, and (ii) reduce the slope, because less
damage per nematode results in better yields when exposed to high
population densities. Knowledge of these damage function curves
is desirable for successful nematode management planning based on
nematode sampling and assay procedures (Duncan and Noling, 1998).
It is often difficult to select tolerance to nematodes because its
accurate assessment requires comparative plant growth measurements
on candidate plants challenged with nematode infestations under field
conditions. A comparison in the later stages of the programme of the
candidate breeding material with standard cultivar or rootstock, such
as the currently preferred genotype, in both the presence and absence
of nematodes is helpful. This protocol is time consuming and labour
intensive relative to the quite rapid resistance evaluation procedures
using assays of nematode reproduction in glasshouse or laboratory
screenings or where molecular or isozyme markers for resistance can be

used (Williamson et al., 1994). Some attempts have been made to corre-
late readily assayed markers with tolerance; for example, calcium ion
concentration in potato tissues was found to be correlated with toler-
ance to potato cyst nematodes but was not considered a wholly reliable
marker (Evans and Franco, 1979). Recent advances in the molecular
analysis of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) hold promise for application to
nematode tolerance selection (see Young and Mudge, Chapter 12). The
incorporation of tolerance to nematodes into crop plants is most desir-
able and may be crucial for sustaining yield in crops where resistance is
unavailable. Acala-type cotton cultivars bred on M. incognita-infested
land have incorporated some level of tolerance to root-knot nematodes
although they are still susceptible. These cultivars have enabled the
growing of cotton on low to moderate infestations without the need for
preplant fumigations (Roberts and Goodell, 1997). Tolerance combined
with resistance is more desirable than tolerance alone because the
large, healthy root systems of tolerant, susceptible plants allow nema-
tode populations to increase. This population increase then creates
problems for subsequent susceptible or intolerant crops. However, in
well-managed cropping systems where strategies to control nematodes
are integrated or combined, tolerant crops can be very important.
Resistance and Nematode Populations

In annual cropping systems, where one to several crops per year may be
grown on the same field, nematode problems can be managed by
including crops with different levels of resistance and (or) tolerance,
either singly or in combination. Susceptible crops allow large increases
in nematode populations from even low initial densities, although the
rate of population increase declines at higher initial densities. This
relationship reflects the density-dependent effect of increased competi-
tion for feeding sites and food reserves at high initial densities, and
is compounded on intolerant plants by the presence of smaller root
systems due to nematode injury (Ferris, 1985; McSorley, 1998). Due to
these interacting factors, quite different initial densities of nematodes
can produce the same final population density. The impact of tolerance
on nematode multiplication rates is a trend toward greater population
increase at higher initial densities because of the larger, healthier root
systems of tolerant plants.
The effect of resistance on nematode multiplication is determined
by the extent to which the resistance trait restricts the ability of the
nematode to reproduce on the plant. As described under terminology,
resistance may have minor, moderate or large effects, and these
expression levels will largely determine the multiplication rate. The
32 P.A. Roberts
relationships between initial and final M. incognito population

densities from field experiments in the San Joaquin Valley, California
are shown in Fig. 2.3 for resistant 'NemX' cotton and susceptible
'Maxxa' cotton (Ogallo et al., 1999). Some reproduction occurred on
the resistant genotype, and at very low initial nematode population
densities, a multiplication rate (or reproductive factor, defined as final
density, Pr, over initial density, Pi, or Pr/Pi ratio) of> 1 was found. How-
ever, the trend was that the multiplication rates for M. incognito were
significantly lower on the resistant compared to on the susceptible
genotype. This difference occurred over a wide range of initial popula-
tion densities, from those at or near the detectable level to those well in
excess of the damage threshold. The Mi gene in tomato is another
good example of highly expressed resistance that prevents all but
trace amounts of root-knot nematode reproduction, resulting in final
population densities consistently much lower than initial densities
(Pr/Pi ratio< 1) (Roberts and May, 1986).
Several factors can influence these seasonal population dynamics
of nematodes on resistant plants. The level of resistance gene expres-
sion may be modified in the plant according to genetic constitution,
environmental effects and virulence status of the nematode population.
In quantitative, polygenic resistance, the numbers of genes and their
additive effects will determine the level of resistance expression (Jones,
1985). Some major resistance genes have been shown to be incom-
pletely dominant under certain conditions. For example, the resistance
in common bean to root-knot nematode conferred by gene Me2
..-... 30
0..
-..,__
0..
..._ 25
0
u
$
c:
20
0
:.=
0
:::I
"O
15
0..._
a.
..._
(lJ 10
(lJ
"O
0
cu 5
E
(lJ
•
z 0
50 100 150 200
Nematode P; (J2 500 g- 1 soil)
Fig. 2.3. Varying initial densities (Pi) of M. incognita and nematode reproduction
factors (P1/Pi) on plots planted to resistant NemX (•)and susceptible Maxxa (T)
cotton in rotations. The curves represent a logarithmic function (from Ogallo
et al., 1999).
(Omwega and Roberts, 1992) was found to be completely dominant at

26°C but showed an allelic dosage response of incomplete dominance
at 28°C (Fig. 2.4). The parent plants homozygous for Me2 were
completely resistant at 28°C, whereas the F 1 plants heterozygous for
Me2 expressed an intermediate level of resistance. The resistance to
root-knot nematodes identified recently in carrot also has a tendency
toward incomplete dominance in the heterozygous condition (Simon
et al., 2000) although heterozygous resistance is still quite effective in
preventing significant galling and forking of the carrot tap-root. Even
the Mi gene in tomato, long recognized as a completely dominant
resistance gene able to suppress root-knot nematode reproduction, has
been shown to have some gene dosage response in the presence of
nematode isolates that express moderate levels of virulence to Mi
(Tzortzakakis et al., 1998). The implications of incomplete gene
expression are important in breeding programmes where the choice
of producing hybrid versus fixed resistant cultivars must be made.
Temperature effects on resistance gene expression may not only
influence expression of incomplete dominance but, at high soil
temperatures, several nematode resistance genes show a loss of
expression, rendering plants susceptible and allowing high nematode
180
160
140
c
co
a_ 120
,,_
<D
o_
en 100
<D
en
en
co 80
E
Ol
w
Ol
60
40 -
20 -
165426
0
25 28 32 36 38
Days postinoculation
Fig. 2.4. Egg mass production of M. incognita on common bean genotypes

Kentucky Wonder (KW), 165426 and their F 1 , showing incomplete dominance at
28°C of gene Me2 that is in the homozygous recessive, susceptible, homozygous
dominant, resistant and heterozygous condition in the three genotypes,
respectively (from Omwega and Roberts, 1992).
34 P.A. Roberts
multiplication rates (Roberts et al., 1998). A further complication is the

greater number of nematode generations that are completed under
warm growing conditions. The Mi gene in tomato is a classic example
of resistance gene sensitivity to temperature, with almost complete
loss of expression at or above 28-30°C. Breeding programmes will
benefit from knowing the limitations of the resistance in response to
temperature for the traits being used. In the case of tomato resistance
to root-knot nematodes, temperature sensitivity of Mi stimulated the
search for additional root-knot resistance genes. Several additional
genes for resistance identified in L. peruvianum have been found to be
heat-stable, with resistance expressed at temperatures ~ 34 °C (Roberts
et al., 1998; Veremis and Roberts, 2000). Thus, an important breeding
objective in tomato is to develop cultivars \Vith heat-stable root-knot
nematode resistance for use in production areas that encounter
high seasonal temperatures, such as Florida. USA, and the southern
Mediterranean countries.
A major benefit can be gained for the protection of subsequent
crops in a rotation by growing resistant cash or cover crops that
suppress nematode multiplication. In Californian fields heavily
infested with root-knot nematodes, highly resistant tomatoes with Mi
typically are followed by susceptible cotton. lima bean or other crops
without measurable yield loss, thereby m·oiding the need to protect the
second crop with nematicides. A highly resistant crop can provide at
least two years of nematode control benefit. The benefits in rotation
derived from growing resistant cv. NemX cotton are illustrated in
Fig. 2.5. The suppression of the M. incognita multiplication rate
on NemX, shown in Fig. 2.3, translates into significant protection for
a following crop of susceptible lima bean (Fig. 2.5) or susceptible
cotton (not shown) (Ogallo et al., 1999). In Fig. 2.5a, the reduction
in nematode population density achim·ed following resistant NemX
is contrasted with the much higher residual populations following
susceptible cv. Maxxa. The effects of growing these resistant and
susceptible cotton cultivars for one or t\\·o years is also illustrated. In
Fig. 2.5b, the yield of susceptible lima bean grown on these cotton plots
demonstrates the protection from nematode damage gained by 1 or 2
years of preceding resistant cotton.
There is increased interest in the de,·elopment and application of
non-cash crops in production systems to reduce nematode infestation
levels. Among these are cover crops and trap crops, used for the pur-
pose of reducing nematode population densities in soil before planting
the primary cash crop. The challenges of using these approaches in the
framework of the overall farming operation and its market constraints
must be considered (Noe, 1998). Hm,vever. the principle of using cover
150
0
rn
I
O'>
0
0 100
11)
C\l
2
a:.- 50
R1R2 81R2 R182 8182
I
<II
600
..c
O'l
~
~
"U
Q) 400
·:;..
-0
0
..c
Cf)
200
R1R2 81R2 R182 8182

Previous cotton crops
Fig. 2.5. (a) Initial (preplant) population densities (Pi) of M. incognita and
(b) total shoot yields of lima bean planted in 1996 after resistant NemX (R) and
(or) susceptible Maxxa (S) cotton were planted in 1994 (1) and 1995 (2) (from
Ogallo et al., 1999).
or trap crops is simple. In either case, nematodes are challenged with a

resistant planting that stimulates them to become active and invade
roots, but they are unable to reproduce. Plant breeding to develop
improved trap and cover crops is a worthwhile goal in light of the
increasing demand to find alternatives to traditional chemical control
tactics. In our programme, efforts are being directed toward developing
cowpea cover crop cultivars with broad-based root-knot nematode
resistance, combined with multiple pest and disease resistance, heat
tolerance, and plant architecture and biomass production that will
benefit soil health and vegetation management.
Unlike the previously mentioned examples of resistance, in which
the individual plants of the crop are similarly resistant, some crops
36 P.A. Roberts
such as lucerne (alfalfa) are out-crossing, insect-pollinated crops with

a high degree of heterozygosity. Thus, in cultivars selected for stem
nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci) and root-knot nematode (M. hapla,
M. incognito) resistance, plant populations are mixtures of susceptible
and resistant plants, with proportions of resistant plants ranging from
20% up to 98% (Lundin, 1969; Peaden et al., 1976; Cook and Evans,
1987). In these heterogeneous populations, the improvement of stand
and yield through resistance is mainly a result of creating a higher
proportion of undamaged plants that survive longer, and this requires
a different breeding approach. The impact of mixed resistant and
susceptible stand on nematode population dynamics will reflect the
proportion of resistant plants in the stand.
In perennial vine, tree fruit and nut crops (e.g. citrus, grapes,
Prunus spp., ·walnut), successful development of cultivars and root-
stocks with resistance and tolerance to several nematode groups has
been achieved (Cook and Evans, 1987; Nyczepir and Becker, 1998). For
these crops improved yield and longevity are the primary objectives of
incorporating nematode resistance and tolerance, and the majority of
forms of resistance in these crops also confer the required tolerance to
infection to meet these objectives (Nyczepir and Becker, 1998).
Resistance Durability and Nematode Virulence

The reliance on single major gene resistance in plant breeding has been
remarkably successful, despite concerns about its durability because of
the potential for selecting virulent nematode popll lations. The develop-
ment of resistance-breaking nematode populations has occurred in
some instances (Roberts et al., 1998), and this will continue to be a
challenge as agriculture relies increasingly on host plant resistance
for nematode management. A few brief examples follow to illustrate
some of the challenges created by introducing resistant cultivars and
rootstocks.
Problems may be encountered at the genus and species levels
because specific resistance may change the relative impact of
nematodes in a polyspecific community. For example, fruit tree
cultivars or rootstocks resistant to Meloidogyne spp. that protect
the crop from root-knot are susceptible to species from different
genera (Pratylenchus, Xiphinema, Helicotylenchus and Criconemella)
(Nyczepir and Becker, 1998). The reduction of root-knot in the
rhizosphere soil may favour one or more of the other parasitic nema-
todes that could develop to damaging population levels. Resistance
to only one of two or more closely related injurious nematode species
that coexist in field populations may result in a competitive advantage
to the species that is not restrained by the resistance. For example,
growing potatoes possessing gene H1 for resistance to one potato

cyst nematode species, Globodera rostochiensis, but not to a second
species, G. pallida, has selected G. pallida populations, resulting in an
increase in the incidence of G. pallida injury to potato (Cook and
Evans, 1987).
Selection may occur of intraspecific variant nematode forms
(races, pathotypes, biotypes) already present in field populations
or through mutation, recombination or other genetic processes. The
pattern emerging from long-term use of resistance and experimentation
is that some nematode populations already are heterogeneous for
virulence factors and resistance-breaking types can be selected quite
quickly on resistant plants, whereas other populations lack virulent
individuals and selection does not occur (Roberts et al., 1998). That
virulent individuals already exist in relatively high frequencies in field
populations, even in those without exposure to resistant plantings,
implies that the advantages of maintaining the virulence condition
outweigh any costs to fitness. Individuals may have an array of genes
for virulence in different combinations and in different sources of
resistance, such as with H. glycines and soybean cultivars (Riggs
and Schmitt, 1988). Reports of Mi-gene virulent populations of
Meloidogyne spp. in tomato production areas (Kaloshian et al.,
1996; Tzortzakakis et al., 1998) have stimulated the identification of
additional genes able to resist these virulent biotypes, and efforts are
underway to transfer these new genes into tomato cultivars (Roberts
et al., 1998). A similar situation exists in cowpea breeding for dry bean
production, where recent efforts have focused on breeding cultivars
with a broad-based form of root-knot resistance using two genes (Ehlers
et al., 2000).
Summary
In summary, breeding for resistance and tolerance to plant-parasitic
nematodes has important, demonstrated potential for managing nema-
tode pest problems throughout the world. The scheme presented in
Fig. 2.6 attempts to capture the primary components and information
requirements for breeding crops with nematode resistance and toler-
ance as discussed here. Considerations indicated in the scheme are
based on the need to have appropriate methods for the evaluation of
resistance and tolerance to nematodes in plants. There is no question
that a considerable plant genetic resource of useful traits is available for
breeding programmes, together with the potential for designing novel
forms of resistance through bioengineering. This publication is aimed
at stimulating successful nematode resistance and tolerance breeding
programmes to tap these resources.
40 P.A. Roberts
Meloidogyne spp. in common bean Roberts, P.A., Matthews, W.C. and

and the genetic basis of its sensi- Veremis, J.C. (1998) Genetic mecha-
tivity to temperature. Theoretical and nisms of host plant resistance to nem-
Applied Genetics 83, 720-726. atodes. In: Barker, K.R., Pederson,
Opperman, C.H. and Conkling, M.A. G.A. and Windham, G.L. (eds) Plant-
(1998) Bioengineering resistance to Nematode Interactions. American
plant-parasitic nematodes. In: Barker, Society of Agronomy, Madison.
K.R., Pederson, G.A. and Windham, Wisconsin, pp. 209-238.
G.L. (eds) Plant-Nematode Inter- Sasser, J.N. and Kirby, M.F. (1979) Crop
actions. American Society of Cultivars Resistant to Root-knot
Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, Nematodes, Meloidogyne Species,
pp.239-250 with Information on Seed Sources.
Peaden, R.N., Hunt, O.J., Fulkner, L.R., North Carolina State University,
Griffin, G.D., Jensen, H.J. and Stan- Raleigh, North Carolina.
ford, E.H. (1976) Registration of a Sasser, J.N., Carter, C.C. and Hartman,
multiple-pest resistant alfalfa germ- K.M. (1984) Standardization of Host
plasm. Crop Science 16, 125-126. Suitability Studies and Reporting of
Phillips, M.S. and Trudgill, D.L. (1983) Resistance to Root-knot Nematodes.
Variations in the ability of Globodera North Carolina State University,
pallida to produce females on potato Raleigh, and United States Agency for
clones bred from Solanum vernei or International Development.
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Riggs, R.D. and Schmitt, D.P. (1988) damage to plants. Nematologica 11,
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availability, development, and use of genetics of plant-nematode parasitic
host plant resistance to nematodes. systems. Th:: Botanical Review 47,
Journal of Nematology 24, 213-227. 387-419.
Roberts, P.A. (1993) The future of Simmonds. N.W. (1985) A plant breeder's
nematology: integration of new and perspective of durable resistance. FAO
improved management strategies. Plant Protection Buffetin 33. 13-17.
Journal of Nematology 25, 383-394. Simon, P.W., Matthev,rs, W.C. and Roberts,
Roberts, P.A. (1995) Conceptual and P.A. (2000) Evidence for a simply
practical aspects of variability in inherited dominant resistance to
root-knot nem<1todes related to host Meloidogyne juvonicu 111 carrot.
plant resistance. Annual Review of Theoretical and Applied Genetics
Phytopathology 33, 199-221. 100, 735-742.
Roberts, P.A. and Goodell. P.B. (1997) Stone, A.R. (1985) Cu-evolution of potato
Nematodes. In: Integrated Pest cyst nematodes and their hosts:
Management for Cotton in the implications for pathotypes and
Western Region of the United States, resistance. OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 15,
2nd edn. University of California 131-137.
Publ. No. 3305, pp. 91-96. Tellhelm, E. and Stelter, H. (1984)
Roberts, P.A. and May, D.M. (1986) Mutability of the character nematode
Meloidogyne incognito resistance resistance in potato. Archiv fur Zuch-
characteristics in tomato genotypes tungsforsch ung 14. 423-426.
Veech, J.A. and Dickson, D.W. (eds) Meloidogyne in Maranan races of

Vistas on Nematology. Society of Lycopersicon peruvianum complex.
Nematologists, Hyattsville, Maryland, Euphytica 111, 9-16.
pp. 354-363. Veremis, J.C., van Heusden, A.W. and
Trudgill, D.L. (1991) Resistance to and Roberts, P.A. (1999) Mapping a novel
tolerance of plant parasitic nema- heat-stable resistance to Meloidogyne
todes in plants. Annual Review of in Lycopersicon peruvianum. Theor-
Phytopathology 29, 167-192. etical and Applied Genetics 98,
Tzortzakakis, E.A., Trudgill, D.L. and Phil- 274-280.
lips, M. (1998) Evidence for a dosage Wallace, H.R. (1987) A perception
effect of Mi gene on partially virulent of tolerance. Nematologica 33,
isolates of Meloidogyne javanica. 419-432.
Journal of Nematology 30, 76-80. Williamson, V.M., Ho, J.Y., Wu, F.F.,
Van der Beek, J.C., Maas, P.W.T., Janssen, Miller, N. and Kaloshian, I. (1994) A
G.J.W., Zijlstra, C. and van Silfhout, PCR-based marker tightly linked to
C.H. (1999) A pathotype system to the nematode resistance gene, Mi,
describe intraspecific variation in in tomato. Theoretical and Applied
pathogenicity of Meloidogyne chit- Genetics 87, 757-763.
wood. Journal of Nematology 31(4), Young, L.D. (1998) Breeding for nematode
386-392. resistance and tolerance. In: Barker,
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Diversity of heat-stable resistance to pp. 187-207.
EPPO Bull. 12 (4): 463-475 (1982)
Population Dynamics and Control of Heterodera avenae

A Review with some Original Results 1
by S. ANDERSSON
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Plant and Forest Protection,
Box 44, 230 53 Alnarp (Sweden)
Control of Heterodera avenae should largely aim to keep densities below tolerance
limits at sowing-time (in spring oats < I egg/ g soil, in susceptible barley < 3 eggs/ g
soil ; spring wheat is only slightly less sensitive than oats, autumn-sown cereals are
more tolerant than spring-sown ones). To obtain this, knowledge of population
dynamics is important. Essential items in population dynamics are the host properties
of different plants (characterized by two factors which do not always covary :
maximum rate of multiplication and equilibrium density of the nematode), population
decline of the nematode under fallow and non-hosts and the external factors
influencing these characteristics. For cereals the following host efficiency order is
found: winter oats (best), spring oats, spring wheat, spring barley, winter wheat. rye.
Winter barley may be close to spring barley, and maize is a bad host. Grasses are
generally less good hosts than cereals and usually cause high and moderate densities of
H. avenae to decline. However. especially in first-year leys. rather high equilibrium
densities may sometimes be maintained. Host properties of plants vary between sites
and years and also relations between hosts may change. Populations decline under
fallow, non-hosts and resistant cereals, usually in the order of 70-85 % annually. H.
avenae populations are favoured by lighter soils and heavier soils with a proper
structure and also by good plant nutrient conditions. Soil moisture in interaction with
temperature influences population dynamics in a complex way. in which natural
enemies of the nematodes may also be involved, not least certain fungi. In many fields
these may keep nematode populations at harmless levels. Traditional control measures
like proper crop roW,tions can only be used to a limited extent. The most promising
approach for controlling H. avenae is an appropriate use of resistant cultivars, of
which barley cultivars are also tolerant, while oat cultivars are usually very sensitive.
Biological control has hitherto not been used actively. Chemical control is profitable in
Australia but not under European conditions. Farmers should check the need for
control through soil sample investigations or by other means.
What is Sufficient Control ?

The aim of all control measures against Heterodera avenae Wollenweber is to
minimize crop losses due to the parasite. Ideally, the tolerance limit (Seinhorst, 1965) of a
certain crop should not be exceeded when the crop is to be grown. This goal cannot always
be reached as the control measures may be incomplete or costly. In practical farming it
might, for instance, be more profitable to accept some losses due to H. avenae than to alter
the crop rotation or to grow a resistant cereal cul ti var with agronomic properties inferior to
those of a susceptible one. There is thus an economic threshold which may sometimes
exceed the tolerance limit considerably. Nevertheless, the tolerance limit may be a good
reference level when control measures are judged.
Determination of tolerance limits is no easy matter. Recent field experiments in
Sweden as well as results presented by Williams & Beane ( l 980b) suggest that those
proposed by Andersen (1961 ), I egg/ g soil in oats and 3 eggs/ g soil in (susceptible) barley,
are probably close to the true values. These figures should be compared with the range of
sensitivity for populations from north-west and middle Europe: oats (worst affected),
spring wheat, spring barley, spring rye and maize, while autumn-sown cereals are less
affected (Kort, 1972). In any event, the figures mentioned give an idea of the population
densities at sowing time which should not be appreciably exceeded if control measures
(except for nematicide treatments at or after sowing time) are to be effective.
1) Paper presented at the EPPO Colloquium on Cereal Cyst Nematodes. Rennes (France). 23-26 June. 1981.
463
Population Dynamics - an Instrument for Control
It follows from the above that control measures againsl H uvc11w: are largely based
on knowledge of the population dynamics of the nematode. Population dynamics and
control are thus linked closely together. Principle items to discuss are the host status of
different plants (maximum rate of multiplication and equilibrium density of the nematode
according to Seinhorst (l 967a, b), the population decline rate under fallow and non-hosts.
and the abiotic and biotic factors influencing these characterislics
Population Changes under Susceptible Hosts
Cereals
The results of several pieces of work on the efficiency of cereals as hosts of H.
avenae are summarized by Gair (1965). The following order is found : winter oats (best).
spring oats, spring barley, spring wheat, winter wheat, rye. The host properties of winter
barley are considered to fall between those of winter oats and winter wheat (Valloton,
1980). Maize is in general regarded as an inefficient host (Gair, 1965) but cysts may develop
on this crop (Behringer et al .. 197 5 ; Valloton, 1980). There may be different opinions on
the above-mentioned order. In Swedish experiments (Andersson, unpubl.) spring wheat
has generally been a better host than spring barley. There are also divergent populations of
_H. avenae which may affect the sequence. Oat is a poor host of pathotype Fr I in southern
France (Rivoal, 1977). In Norway and in the Netherlands also, populations occur which
seem to prefer barley to oats (St0en, 1971 ).
The term« host efficiency» (Gair, 1965) is used to cover both the ability of a plant
to permit the building up of populations (characterized by maximum rate of multiplication
of the nematode) as well as the ability to maintain populations (characterized by the
equilibrium density of the nematode). These abilities do not, however, al ways coincide. In
a Swedish experiment (Andersson, 1982) with oats, barley, spring wheat and winter
wheat, the latter crop, although giving the lowest rate of multiplication, was able to allow a
higher equilibrium density of H. avenae than any of the other cereals (this is, however.
usually not the rule). It is thus important to have the whole population increase curve in
mind. The fact that hosts permitting low maximum rates of multiplication may on some
occasions maintain high densities of H. avenae may be of still greater importance when
grasses are involved (below).
What are common multiplication rates and equilibrium densities of H avenae in
cereals ? In our field experiments with four replicates the average multiplication rate in
oats at initial densities of about 1 egg/g soil is generally well below l 0 times, and only
rarely has about 20 times multiplication been found However, in single plots higher
multiplication rates have been recorded.
Concerning equilibrium densities, Andersen ( 1980) claims that the «ceiling level >>
in barley varies between two and 40 eggs/g soil under Danish conditions. The results of
soil sample investigations from 354 fields in the province of Halland in Sweden in the years
197 3-197 4 are shown in table 1, column 2, before resistant cereal cul ti vars were used. In
the great majority of cases, the samples were taken after oats 01 barley had been grown and
the values probably largely reflect the variation of equilibrium densities in different fields,
or at least they give an idea of the range of densities which may occur in a north-west
European area with serious H. avenae problems.
The shape of the population increase curve does not only vary strongly between
fields. Its characteristics may also change drastically from one year to another in the same
field. Also the relations between different cereals as to their host properties may be
different in different years. Our field experiments showed that in some years spring barley
464
Table 1. Neterodera avenae densities in 1797 soil samples from the province of Halland. Sweden. in autumn 1973-
1980. Growing resistant barley started in 1975 and covered about 65 % of the barley area in 1980.
1973-1974 1975-1976 1977-1978 1979-1980

Eggs/g
soil % of % of % o1 % of
354 samples 620 samples 625 samples 198 samples
<1 44.6 44.7 65.3 73.2

1.1-3 11.9 12.9 14.7 11. 1
3.1-10 14.7 18.2 13.4 6.1
10.1-30 16.7 16.6 5.3 8.1
30.1-100 10.4 6.9 1.3 1.5
>100 1.7 0.7 0 0
was a better host of H. avenae than oats in some places. A similar result is reported by
Valloton (1980). Andersen (1962) also points out that, although oats are generally the
better host, one should not pay too .much attention to whether the precrop is oats or
barley ; this question is of essential importance only when, for example, comparing
resistant barley with susceptible oats.
There are also considerable differences between susceptible cultivars of different

cereals as to their host properties. Pertinent figures on this topic are given by Lucke (I 969a)
and Spaull & Hague ( 1978). The latter authors suggest that differences between cultivars
might be greater than those between cereal species.
Grasses
The literature on population dynamics of H. avenae in grasses contains conflicting
results. Already Nilsson-Ehle (1903) observed that grasses could maintain densities of H.
avenae that were damaging to subsequent cereals. Bovien ( J 9 5 3) found new cysts of H.
avenae on several grasses tested. Festuca pratensis Huds., lolium perenne L. and l.
. multiflorum Lam. were the best hosts, far better than Phleum pratense L. Still, he
considered that grass leys were generally good precrops to oats although the grass species
grown might have some influence. Andersen ( 196 J) presented similar results for the four
grasses mentioned. The number of new cysts found on the three first mentioned species
was, on average, 10-17 % of that on an oat cul ti var. Neubert ( 1972) found no new cysts on
l. perenne and agreed with Kort ( J 964) that some grasses were only hosts of certain
pathotypes of the nematode.
Most reports, such as those by Duggan (1958), Hesling (1958), Stone (1960), Gair
( 1968) and Andersen & Andersen (1970), seem to suggest that there would be a yearly
decline of H. avenae under grasses of the order of 50-60 % and only slightly lower than
that in fallow or under non-gramineous crops. However, the first mentioned author
presents some results where increases of H. avenae populations occurred in some grasses
in some years.
These conflicting results are probably partly due to how the investigations were
performed. Some of them were made in pure grass crops although several of the grasses
under practical conditions are usually sown under a cereal cover crop. \Ve used suscep~ible
. and resistant oats as a cover crop in a 4-year outdoor microplot experiment (table 2). As
can be seen, all tested grasses maintained higher densities of H. avenae than a resistant
barley cultivar and fallow, and the three grasses mentioned above proved to be remarkably
good hosts in this experiment.
465
Table 2. Eggs/g soil of Heterodera avenae in autumn in different crops in a microplot experiment 1975-1978.
Susceptible oats (S) and resistant oats (R) were used as cover crops in 1975 for the grasses in series a-g
and i-k. but were grown in pure cultures in series hand 1-o. Initial density in spring 1975 • 13 eggs/g soil
1975 1976 1977 1978

Crops
1976-78 Precrop 1975 Precrop 1975 Precrop 1975
oats (S) oats (R) oats (S) oats (R) oats (S) oats (R) oats (SJ oats (R)
a Festuca pratensis cv. Sv

Sena 14.7 6.6 22.3 6.4 19.0 5.6 87 3.8
b F. pratensis cv. Mimer 15.7 12.4 16.9 7.0 13.5 4.2 9.9 4.5
c F. rubra cv. Rubin 13.7 7.7 11.7 3.1 10.7 2.4 6.5 2.4
d Phleum pratense cv. Om-
nia 16.2 10.2 21.6 2.8 18.9 0.4 5.8 0.4
e P. pratense cv. Kampe II 16.0 7.1 21.2 1. 1 6.9 0.7 4.0 0.4
f Lolium perenne cv. Viris 16.8 14.0 16.8 6.8 18 9 6.4 8.7 5.9
g L. multiflorum cv. Imperial 15.3 10.0 14.3 11.6 - - - -
h L. multiflorum var. wes-
tetwOldicum cv. Tewera 20.6 9.3 10.4 1.7 5.8 2.6 5.1 1.1
i Dactylis glomerata L. cv.
Tardus II 24.8 10.5 20.8 2.8 14. 7 1.8 9.3 1.0
j Poa pratensis L. cv. Primo 16.8 8.4 14.7 3.1 9.3 1.2 6.9 0.8
k Agropyron repens Beauv. 15.5 9.2 16.4 3.0 12.0 1.6 5.9 1.4
I Barley(S) cv. Wing 15.2 9.1 12.3 6.2 12.4 9.6 42.4 45.3
m Barley(R)cv.Ansgar 19.2 10.7 5.3 1.4 1.7 0.2 0.5 0.06
n Spring rape 18.4 8.6 13.4 1.0 4.9 0.4 05 0.3
0 Fallow 15.6 11.2 11.8 0.8 2.9 0.4 0.9 0.04
Table 3. Population densities of Heterodera avenae in springs in field trials with sowing a ley (Festuca pratensis.
Phleum pratense, Trifolium pratense l.), under isogenic nematode susceptible (S) and resistant (R) barley
cultivars. and in continuous barley cultivation. Yields in subsequent cereals (from Andersson. 1975. 1978)
1972 1973 1974 1975
Eggs/ Eggs/ Eggs/ Eggs/ Yield

Crop Crop Crop Crop
g soil g soil g soil g soil kg/ha
Trial at Wv<torp
17.0 barley (S) with
sowing a ley 25.2 1st year ley 26.2 2nd year ley 6.8 oats 3290
24.8 barley (R) with
17.2 barley(S) 38.9 barley(S) 27.8 barley(S) 16.0 barley(S) 3190
18.2 barley(R) 3.4 barley(R) 0.9 barley(R) 1.5 barley(R) 3640
Trial at Hass/As
• 70,2 barley (S) with
52.8 barley (R) with
52.4 barfey(S) 21.3 barley(S) 25.0 barley(S) 16.8 barley(S) 2930
49.2 barley(R) 1.8 barley(R) 0.2 barley(R) 0.03 barley(R) 3400
Grasses (F. pratensis and P. pratense) behaved similarly in some of our field
experiments (table J). They were very poor hosts during the year they were sown,
probably because the root system was small, and particularly in comparison with that of
the cereal crop when the egg hatching occurred. In first-year Iey, high H. avenae densities
466
were maintained in the series with grasses sown under a susceptible barley cover crop
while they remained on a low level when the cover crop was a resistant barley. There was
a decline of nematode densities in the second-year ley bu·t in two cases they were still high
enough to cause damage to subsequent oats. Moreover, the results from a continuation of
these experiments (Andersson, unpubl.) suggest that the factors promoting population
decline under continuous susceptible cereal culture may be of little importance in gr;iss
leys. Thus, in conclusion, although grasses are not very good hosts, they may, in different
ways, be of importance for maintaining H. avenae populations.
Population Decline under Fallow, Non-hosts and Resistant Cereal Cultivars
Several early estimates on the decline of H. avenafl under fallow or non-hosts, like
those by Duggan (1958) and Hesling (1958), suggest rather low rates, usually in the order
of 50-60 % annually. However, in most cases egg counts were made in single-year
experiments at sowing time and after harvest, the decline in autumn and early spring thus
being ignored. The hatch in this period may be quite important (Kerry & Jenkinson, 1976).
Gair ( 1968) found far higher, although somewhat inaccurate, decline rates in 3-year
experiments. High rates of hatching have also been found in France for pathotype Fr4
which seems to be similar to the ordinary types of H. avenae of north-west and middl_e
Europe, while pathotype Fr I, which may be a type prevalent in areas with a
Mediterranean climate, seems to have a lower yearly decline (Rivoal, 1979). However,
rather high rates of decline, 56-75 % , have been found in Australia (Meagher & Rooney,
1966). Still higher decline rates were found in our long-term field experiments (see below).
The decline of H. avenae under resistant cereafs might depend on host-root exudate
stimulation of the egg hatching of the nematode. Winslow ( 19 5 5) and Hes ling ( 195 7) found
no such stimulation at temperatures of 20-25°C, but Williams & Beane ( 1972) showed that
it existed at lower temperatures, with differences between cereal cultivars. However, in
later experiments by Williams & Beane ( 1979), the differences between spontaneous and
host-induced cumulative hatch were rather small after a 35-week period. Thus, there are
reasons to expect that the yearly decline under an effective resistant cereal cultivar would
be only slightly greater than that under fallow or a non-host crop.
Figures of population declines of H. avenae under resistant cereals are produced
from extensive seri~s of field experiments in Denmark and Sweden. Andersen & Andersen
( 1970) found a decline rate under resistant barley of, on average, 61 % from 81 Danish
single-year experiments (where the population density determinations evidently were
made at sowing-time and after harvest). It should be added that there were, on average,
population increases on susceptible barley in these experiments. In sixteen 2-year
experiments where the population density determinations were made with yearly
intervals, the decline under resistant barley was, on average, 71 % during the first year and
7 3 % during the second.
The results from Swedish long-term field experiments covering both resistant
cereals as well as non-hosts are summarized in table 4. The average decline in resistant
barley and the non-host oil seed crops was about the same, 81-82 % yearly, whereas it was
lower in oats. However, variation was great. In the table only the values with final H.
ave11ae densities of approximately I egg/ g soil or higher are included. It should be added
that at lower and less accurately densities there was a tendency of a still lower yearly
decline in oats than that implied by the table, suggesting that the resistance in this crop is
not as complete as that in barley. This supports the differences between barley and oats
according to table 4.
Additional results from other countries on declines of H. avenae under resistant
cereals. like those by Cotten ( 1970), Graham & Stone ( 197 5) and Williams & Beane ( l 980a),
467
Table 4. Multiplication of Heterodera avenae populations under resistant barley, resistant oats and oil seed crops in
Swedish field experiments 1972-80.
Multiplication of
No. of H. avenae
Crop
experiments
x Coeff. of var. ( % )
Resistant barley 27 0.18 50.0

Resistant oats 13 0.33 48.5
Oil seed crops 27 0.19 57.9
do not disagree with the Scandinavian results. In conclusion therefore, it is justified to state
that the yearly decline of H. avenae in north-west Europe and in similar conditions under
fallow, non-hosts and resistant cereal cultivars, seems to be considerably greater than was
realised earlier, mostly in the order of 70-85 % .
External Factors Affecting Populations of Heterodera avenae
Abiotic Factors
Wallace (1958) showed that soils with pore spaces in the range 30-100 µm were the
most suitable for the movement of Heterodera juveniles. Hakansson & Videgard ( 1965)
composed three experimental soils of different pore spaces and found that more H. avenae
cysts were produced in a soil where most pores were just in that range, 30-100 µm, than in
two soils where the majority of pores were larger or smaller. These results agree with a
general experience that H. avenae is more frequent in lighter soils than in heavier ones.
which is also shown quite unambiguously by Kort (1972) and Steudel & Rumpenhorst
(1978). However, it is well known that high densities may also occur in some clay soils.
Evidently, in cases with fine-textured soil the hatched juveniles are dependent on a
proper soil structure (Fidler & Bevan, 1963 ; Meagher, 1968) which may vary from one
year to another. In this connection seedbed preparation may play a role. Nilsson-Ehle
(1903) observed in a field where one half had a more intense preparation, and consequently
a looser seedbed than the other half, that more cysts were produced and there was far
greater damage to oats in the first case.
Soil moisture in interaction with temperature is a factor strongly affecting

emergence and invasion in the roots of H. avenae juveniles. ft is also commonly known
that rainy conditions at sowing time will promote attacks (Gair, 1965 ; Kort, 1972). This
often leads to high final densities of the nematode (Steudel & Rumpenhorst, 1978) but not
necessarily, since soil moisture, pore size and fungal parasites may affect the nematodes in
a complex manner in some soils (see below).
Good plant nutrient conditions generally lead to higher final densities of H. avenae
than less favourable ones (Hesling, 1959). It is supposed that this is caused by the larger
root system permitting more cysts to develop (Gair, 1965). In most cases also larger
supplies of nitrogen at sowing-time seem to increase H. avenae multiplication rates (Gair et
al., 1969). Divergent results are given by Juhl (I 975) who found higher post-harvest
densities of H. avenae after a supply of 50 kg N/ha at sowing-time than after lower or
higher supplies. ·
468
Biotic Faclors
It has been observed in different countries that a decline of H. avenae populations
to very low levels may be achieved in some soil by growing cereal crops continuously
(Gustafsson, 1955 ; Gair el al .. 1969 ; Jakobsen, 1974; Ohnesorge et al., 1974). Williams
( 1969) found that the factors inhibiting nematode multiplication were removed by
drenching soil with formalin. Kerry (197 5) found several fungal pathogens of H. avenae in
soils from fields infested with this nematode, the most important being an Entomoph-
1hora-like fungus, later named Nematophthora gynophila Kerry & Crump, and Verticilliwn
chlamydosporium Goddard. The former mainly destroys females and the latter is foremost
an egg parasite. It has been convincingly demonstrated that the activity of these two fungi
is a major factor limiting multiplication of H. avenae in England (Kerry & Crump, 1977 ;
Kerry el al .. 1980).
N. gv11ophila attacks several Heterodera species but not Globodera (Kerry & Crump,
1977). V. chlamydosporium is less specific and is also found in eggs from other soil animals
(Kerry el al., 1980). A 2-year break from cereals did not result in H. avenae multiplication
in subsequent cereal crops (Gair el al .. 1969), so fungi are evidently able to survive for at
least 2 years in the absence of Heterodera females (Kerry et al., 1980). However, in
laboratory experiments Crump & Kerry 0 977) found that infective spores of N. gynophila
that developed on attacked females were more important than resting spores from the
previous year in determining the population of females that became infected.
The parasitic activity of the fungi is dependent on soil moisture. So although wet
conditions favour nematode invasion (see above), Kerry et al. (1980) found lower
multiplication rates of H. avenae after heavy experimental watering than after light, due to
fungal parasitism. Experiments by Graham ( 1980) seem to indicate that fungi parasitic to
H. avenae may be less dependent on spring rainfall in silty clay loam soils than in sandy
soils. Kerry et al. ( 1980) suggest that this fact may account for the greater incidence of H.
ave11ae in light, free-draining soils.
Although fungi parasitic to the nematode evidently are the main external biotic
factor limiting H. avenae populations, competing root pathogens may be of importance in
some instances. Cook ( 1969) found that heavy field attacks by Gaeumannomyces graminis
(Sacc.) Arx. & Olivier in spring barley were always associated with low densities of H.
al'enae and he also proved that this relationship existed in pot experiments.
Long-term Trends in Heterodera avenae Populations
For a number of plant pests. not forgetting the insects, periods with low population
levels and negligible damage to plants are known to alternate with periods with high
population levels and heavy crop damage. The changes largely seem to reflect the dynamic
balance between the pathogen and its parasites and predators.
Jakobsen ( 1978) showed that there were considerable changes in damage by H.
avenae in Denmark during the period 1935-1975. Such changes might, however, be
related to alterations in cultural and cropping practices. A postwar increase of H. avenae
damage in ~ngland was, for instance, related to converting large areas of permanent
grassland into arable land (Gair. 1965). A marked decrease of H. avenae damage in
Denmark since 1965 is thought to be partly due to decreases in oat growing (Jakobsen,
1978). In Sweden, decreases of H. avenae population levels since 1975 are certainly largely
due to the increasing use of resistant cereal cultivars.
It is felt that explanations of H. avenae changes; as given above, do not always
represent all causes. A study of the interrelation between the nematode and its fungal
parasites and the weather conditions in long-term experiments might be rewarding.
469
Control
Crop Rotation and Other Cultural Practices
Pioneer workers on H. avenae. like Nilsson-Ehle (1903), considered that the best
way of controlling the parasite was with a good crop rotation, and suggestions on changes
to rotations with less cereal crops are still frequently given by extension services.
If one knew and could quantify all factors that influence population dynamics,
proper crop rotations could be calculated. This is, however, by no means the case. For this
reason different crop rotations have been tested pragmatically in many countries to find the
best in a particular region.
Some experiments have tried to grasp how large a share of non-hosts a crop
rotation should contain in order to avoid injury by H. avenae. ln Australia. fallow
alternating with spring wheat in a 2-year « crop rotation » did not decrease populations
enough to avoid damage (Meagher & Rooney, 1966). Andersson ( 1976) found that H.
avenae densities did not appreciably exceed tolerance limits if non-hosts were grown two
years out of three. Schonrok-Fischer & Sachse (1980) did not obtain damaging densities of
the nematode until the share of cereals of the crop rotation was 60-80 % . However, as
discussed above, in some soils and sites monocultures of cereals might also be an effective
way of keeping H. avenae densities at harmless levels. There is thus no universal solution.
Moreover, in an intensive agriculture, a certain crop rotation is a well balanced synthesis of
several biological, technical and economic considerations. This generally restricts the
possibilities for changing crop rotations in favour of H. avenae control without
encountering major drawbacks from other points of view.
Changing the sowing time in spring in order to decrease H. avenae attacks does not
seem to be useful under European conditions (Fidler & Bevan, 1963 ; Lucke I 969b).
Cautious soil preparation in spring in order to avoid a deep and loose seedbed suitable for
nematode activity may be profitable (Nilsson-Ehle, 1903). Rolling the soil after sowing.
however, only gave a negligible decrease in attacks (Lucke, I 969b). It must be concluded
that the possibilities of controlling H. avenae are limited also with other cultural measures
than crop rotation.
Resistant Cultivars
Cereal cultivars resistant to H. avenae represent the most promising approach m

the control of this nematode. In Denmark, about 25 % of the certified barley seed was
from resistant cultivars in 1981 (S. Andersen, pers. comm.>. In the province of Halland in
Sweden even more than 65 % of the barley was resistant in 1980. This is most probably
the major reason for drastically decreasing H. avenae densities in that area during recent
years (table I). However, at present most countries only have a limited supply of high
yielding, high quality cultivars of this kind and probably also in the future there will in all
countries be susceptible cultivars available that may be competitive in different respects.
An important question to discuss is therefore how resistant cultivars should be used to
ensure an optimal economic gain.
Resistant barley has been found to be very tolerant to H. avenae attacks (Cotten.
1970; Andersson, 1975; Graham &Stone, 1975). Still more valuable is probably its effect
on the nematode density, that is as a precrop of oats. This was pointed out already by
Nilsson-Ehle (1920). Resistant oats are often as sensitive as susceptible oats. It is therefore
emphasized that resistant oats like susceptible oats should only be grown at low H. avenae
densities, which usually means in rotations where resistant barley is also used (Andersson.
470
1976 ; Williams & Beane, I 980a). A principle for resistance breeding should primarily be to
include resistance in the most tolerant cereals, not least in winter wheat (Andersson, 1974).
The favourable precrop properties of resistant cereals as cover crops for in-sown
leys in preventing high H. avenae populations from being maintained in the leys should
also be stressed (see above - Population changes under susceptible hosts - grasses).
Another item of great interest is whether frequent use of barley (or other cereal)
cultivars resistant to H. avenae might promote the appearance of new pathotypes of the
parasite which could upset the resistance. Andersen (1977, 1980) considers that there is an
obvious risk that « resistance breakers » may take over. These may be either already
present at very low densities or mutants. This could be delayed if there are sufficient
densities of the ordinary, and as he considers, more viable pathotypes to outrival the
« resistance breakers ». For this reason he recommends alternating between resistant and
susceptible cultivars or to use resistant cultivars only when they are needed, or even to use
mixtures of resistant and susceptible cultivars (if mixtures of cultivars can be recommended
for other reasons). This standpoint is opposed by Lundin (1978) who pleads for regular
changes between barley cultivars with different sources of resistance, supplemented with
resistant oats and as soon as possible also resistant wheat. Such a polygenic resistant block
would be difficult to break through.
Biological Methods
Fungi, especially those discussed above, N. gynophila and V. chlamydosporium, are

at present considered to be the most promising organisms for a biological control of H.
avenae. As they seem to be present in a large number of sites (Kerry, 197 5), it should be an
important task to stimulate their activities. However, it is difficult to change soil conditions.
It is likely that control measures of this kind will fit best into an integrated control
programme. Kerry & Crump ( 1977) point out that, as cyst nematodes other than H. avenae
are also attacked by the same fungi, there might be possibilities to increase the rate of
fungal parasitism by shortening crop rotations.
Chemical Methods
Over the years, numerous field experiments have been made on chemical control of
H. avenae. In several instances the aim of the experiments has been to estimate losses due
to the nematode or to study other effects.
Conventional applications of ordinary soil sterilants like methyl bromide,
chloropicrin. D-D ( 1.2-dichloropropane), EDB (ethylene dibromide), DBCP ( 1,2-dibromo-
J-chloropropane), dazomet and others have resulted in yields close to normal but the
control has often not been satisfactory (Lucke, l 969b; Brown er al .. 1970 ; Williams &
Salt. 1970). In all cases it has been concluded that treatments would be uneconomic in
practical use.
Low volume in-row application of soil sterilapts such as EDB at seeding is a new
concept in chemical coi1trol of H. avenae. This method has been worked out in Australia
\vhere it is no\,. used in practical agriculture (Brown. 1980 ; Gurner er al.. 1980). The use
in Australia is favoured by the climatic conditions and the cultural practices (wide row-
spacing).
Among the systemic nematicides aldicarb gave good control and normal yields
under Australian conditions (Brown, 197 J) but less good control in European experiments
(Steudel & Rumpenhorst. 1978). It was found in the Australian experiments that drill row
application of aldicarb <Temik I 0 G) might be justified from an economic point of view.
471
Later work (Brown et al .. 1982) showed that other systemic nematicides applied in the
furrow at seeding of spring wheat also provided a certain amount of control, and one of
them, terbufos, is used commercially. This is also the case with oxamyl .used as a seed-
dressing (R.H. Brown, pers. comm.>. However, one should be aware that H. al'enae
problems in Australia are much worse than in Europe, which makes treatments with
systemic nematicides profitable, although the control of the parasite is not fully satisfactory
and the potential yield (at no H. avenae infestation) is not reached.
Soil Sample Investigations - a Background for Control Measures

As with most other pathogens there is no control method which solves the H.
avenae problems everywhere and definitely. Therefore there is a recurrent need to check
the situation in specific regions, farms and fields. Ultimately the individual farmer will
have to decide whether control measures are needed and if so, to make a choice between
methods or combinations of methods. As a background the investigation of soil samples
from individual fields is invaluable, and farmers are highly recommended to have soil
samples analyzed (Andersen, l 977).
Usually determinations of the density of H. avenae (eggs per g soil) is the preferred
way to estimate the need for control, but under certain conditions a plant assay like that of
Simon (1980) may also be useful. Lundin (1978) recommends that pathotype tests should
also be done so that different sources of resistance in cereals might be used. If meaningful
quantifications of the fungal pathogens of H. avenae could be made, these would also
contribute to making the best economic control possible in the future.
The original results given in this paper emerge from investigations supported by the
Swedish Council for Forestry and Agricultural Research.
Dynamique des populations d' Heterodera avenae et possibilites de lutte :

examen de la situation et resultats originaux
L'un des principaux objectifs de la Jutte contre Hererodera avenaeconsiste a maintenir la densite des
populations au-dessous des seuils de tolerance au moment des semis (avoine de printemps < I a;uf/
g de terre, orge sensible < 3 a;ufs/ g ; le ble de printemps est a peine mo ins sensible que rorge :
quant aux cereales semees en automne, elles sont plus tolerantes que celles de printemps). Une telle
approche repose sur la connaissance de la dynamique des populations. Celle-ci est, dans une large
mesure, determinee: I) par la qualite des differentes plantes en tant qu"h6tes (essentiellement
determinee par deux facteurs qui ne sont pas necessairement en covariance : taux maximal de
multiplication et seuil d'equilibre du nematode), 2) par le declin du nornbre de nematodes pendant la
jachere et par Ia presence de plantes non hotes, 3) par Jes facteurs externes exen;ant leur innuence
sur ces differents elements. Pour Jes cereales, la qualite d'h6te s'exprime de la fac;:on suivante : avoine
d'hiver Oa meilleure), avoine de printemps, ble de printemps, orge de printemps, ble d'hiver et seigle.
L'orge d'hiver est apparemment proche de l'orge de printemps, alors que le ma1s constitue un
mauvais hote. Les graminees pour herba~e sont generalement de moins bons hotes que Jes cereales
et entrainent souvent le declin de populations e!evees ou moderees d'H. avenae. Cependant, au cours
de la premiere annee de leur constitution, ces graminees peuvenl a !'occasion maintenir des
populations a des niveaux d'equilibre plutot e!eves. La qualite d'h6te des plantes varie suivant le site
et Jes annees, et partant, aussi la relation entre les differents hates. On peut admetlre que le declin des
populations est de 70 a- 85 % du rant une annee sous jachere, ou en presence de plantes non hates. et
enfin de cereales resi~tantes. Les populations d'H. avenae sont favorisees par les sols legers el les sols
lourds comportant une structure adequate, de meme que par des conditions nulrilionnelles
favorables a Ia plante: L'humidite du sol en interaction avec la temperature innuence la dynamique
des populations d'une fa<;on complexe ou peuvent intervenir aussi des ennemis nalurels, notamment
des champignons. Dans bien des champs cet effet peut maintenir les populations a des niveaux
suffisamment bas pour eviter des degats. Le recours aux methodes de lune Lraditionnelles. telles que
472
l'assolement, ne peut se faire que d'une fac;on limitee et le meilleur moyen consiste a utiliser des
cultivars resistants. Pour l'orge, ii existe des cultivars resistants et tolerants, alors que Jes cultivars de
l'avoine sont en majorite tres sensibles. La Jutte biologique n'a pas encore ete pratiquee
systematiquement et ii apparait que la Iutte chimique est profitable en Australie, mais pas dans !es
conditions de J'Europe. Les exploitants devraient statuer sur la necessite d'une intervention en
preJevant des echantillons de SOI OU par d'autres moyens .
.ill1HAMHM llOllYnHUl1f1 Heterc·dera avenae 11 B03MOlKHOCTH EOPhEbl
OuHor1 113 oc11ou11b1X uener1 6opb6b1 c Heterodera avenae RBnReTCR y.a.eplKaHHe nnoTHOCTH nonynRUHi1
Ha YPOBHe HHA;e noporoe TOJlepafiTHOCTH B MOMeHT cesa (RpOBOH OBeC : Mettee I Ri1ua/r n04Bbl,
Y\/BCTHHTe,"lbHbll-1 HYM€Hb : Me Hee 3-x RHU/ i-' RPOBaR nweHHU.a RBnReTcR e.a.ea nH 6onee 4YBCTBH-
TCJlbHOf1 4€" R4MCHb; 03H~lble 3Jl;JK0Uble KynbTYPbI, KaK npaBIUJO, noKa3bIBalOT 5onee BblCOKYIO Tone-
paHTllOCTb no cpastteHHIO c RpOBhIMH). TaKofl no.uxo.u K npo5neMe onpe.uenReTcR 3HaHHeM .UHHaMHKH
nonynRU11ii He'1.1TO;t. )Ta :uma"HKa H 60,<uwoii CTeneHH onpenenReTCR : II Ka4eCTBOM pa3nH4HbIX
paCTCHHl-1 KaK X03Re!J (JTO Ka4eCTBO 0 OCHOBHOM onpe.nenReTCR .UBYMR !jlaKTOpaMH, KOTOpble He
Hcer.'lil Kouap11aHTl!bl). 2/ COKPa1UeHH€'1 061Uero 4HCJla HeMaTOil 8 TO speMR, KOr):la 3eMJ1R 11axo.u11T-
CR no;:i nap0'1, a TaKJ«e 33 C4eT uanH411ll pacTeHIBI, He RBnRIOU.lHXCR X03ReBaMH, 3/ BHeWHHMH ¢>aK-
TOp'1Mll, KOTOpblC OKil3blll;JkJT cuoe UnHRHHe Ha '.JTll pa3nH4Hble :ineMeHTbl. llnR yKa3aHHblX Bblllle 3na-
KOElblX KYJ11>Typ CTpORTCR CIICilYIOU.lHe y6bl9alO!UHe nocne.uosaTeJlbHOCTH : 03HMbll1 osec' RpOBOH osec.
>lpOHaR llWClfHU3' RPOBOi"I ll4~1elib' 03HMble nweHliUa H PO>Kb. 03HMbrH R4MeHb' n0-811.llHMOMY' no cso-
11'1 Ka4eCTHaM X03RHHa np116,<1-DKaeTCll K llpOBOMY R4~1eHIO, B TO speMR KaK KyKypy3a RBnReTCR "nno-
XH'1 X03RliH0'1". JnaKOBble Tp3Bbl, KaK npaBH:lO' RBnRIOTCll XY.'.lWHMH X03ReBaMH no cpaetteHHIO co
3JlaK08blMli Kynl>TypaMH Ii 3a4acTy10 npHBOilRT K 3aMeTHO~IY COKpaJlleHH!O Bb!COKHX IUJH yMepeHHblX no-
llYJlRUHl-1 fl. ave nae. 0.uHaKo, B xo:re nepsoro roua HX npo113pacTaHHR 3TH 3naKOBb1e TpaebI 11ttor.ua
"oryT no:r.uep>KHBaTb nony.<Ru1111 He'1aTo:r Ha cpasHHTent.Ho Bb!COKHX ypOBHRX pas11oeec11R. Ka4ecTBO
X03llHHa pa3nH4HblX pacTeHHH H3'1eHReTCR 8 3aBHCHMOCTH OT '1eCTOHaXOJl(JleHHR Ii ro.ua Ii CBR3atto
TaK>Ke co B3i1H'100THOWeHHR~m '1elKJly pa3nH4Hb1:'1H pacTeHHRMH-X03ReBaMH. HolKHO .nonycTHTh, '!TO co-
KpaiueHHe r10ny_<Ru11r1 COCTaB,<RCT OT 7u :10 85% 8 Te4eHHe rot:1a 110.U napoM IUJH npH HanH4HH pacT.e-
HHl-1, He l!BJJRIO!UHXCR xo3ReBaMH, a Ta1<>Ke np11 Ha.TJH4HH ycTOi14HBblX 3naKOBblX KynbTyp. Ha nonynR-
UHli H. avenae 6naronpHRTHOe B03.Ue>1cT011e oKa3bIBatoT nerKHe no4Bht, TR)Kenb1e no4Bbl, HMe!Oll(He
a:reKBaTHYIO CTPYKTYPY, a T<lK>Ke 5naronpHRTHbJe .Uilll pacTeHHR ycnos11R n11TaHHR. BnaJKHOCTh n04BbI
BMeCTe c TeMnepaTYPO(! OK i13bIBalOT BJllillHHe Ha L\HHaMHKY nonynRI..tHH caMbJM pa3H006pa3Hb!M o6pa30M'
BKmo4aR B03.'.ler1cTHHe ecTeCTBeHHbIX sparos, s 4aCTHOCTH pa3JlH4HblX rp116KOB. Ha MHOr11x nonRX 3a
C4eT 3TOro :i<)xl>eKTa YI.taB,"1nOCb cox;;attHTb nonynRUHH Ha )l0CTaT04HOHH3KHX ypOBHl!X II TeM caMblM
1136e)KaTb HaHeceHHll yiuep6a. 06pal'.leHHe K TaKH.'1 '1eTO)laM Tp.3.,UHUHOHHOr· 6opb6bl KaK cesoo6opoT He
scer.ua 803M0)KH0' 110'.JTOM)' HaHJ1Y4111HM cpe.'.lCTBOM npe):ICTaBnReTCR HCll0Jlb30BaHHe YCTOf•4HBblX ce-
c"leKUHOHHbfX COpTOEl. B H<ICTORU'.ee opeMR HMelOTCR YCTOf:4118ble H TOilepaHTHble COpT."1 ll4MeHR, 0 TO
spe'1R KaK 6onbWilll 4aCTh copTOB osca noKa3blBaeT o4eHb BbICOKYIO 4YBCTBHTent.HOCTb. XoTR 611ono-
r114ecKaR 60pb5a CHCTeMi!TH4eCKH eiue lflir.Qe He ae:reTCR, Ha OCHOBaHHH nony4eHHhlX .uaHHhlX MOlKHO
3aKnto4HTh, 4TO x11MH4eCKaR 5opb6a s AscTpanHH seueTCR c 6onbWHM ycneXOM tte>Ken11 s ycnos11Rx
Esponb1. Heo6xo.UHMDCTb np11Me11eu11R Toro 11nu HHoro THna 6oph6b1 .uon"'ua onpe:renRTbCR c llOMOIUblO
OT5opa npo6 ll04Bhl H npyrHx '1eTOil08.
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225-234.
WILLIAMS, T.D. & SALT, GA (1970). The effect of soil sterilants on the cereal cyst-nematode (Heterodera avenae
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475
Nematodes
Edited by
J.L. Starr
USA
A.Cook
Aberystwyth
UK
and
J. Bridge
CAB/ Bioscience
Egham
UK
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Plant resistance to parasitic nematodes I edited by J.L. Starr, R. Cook and). Bridge.
p. cm
ISBN 0-85199-4nG-O (alk. paper)
1. Plants-- Disease and pest resistance. 2. Plant nematodes. I. Starr. ). L. (James L.) II.
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ISBN o 85199 466 O

Cyst Nematodes: Globodera
and Heterodera Species
R. Cook1 and G.R. Noel 2
1Institute
of Grassland and Environmental Research,
Aberystwyth, SY23 3EB, Wales, UK; 2 USOA ARS,
Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana,
IL 61801, USA
The cyst-forming nematodes include about 100 known species in six

genera. All are specialized parasites of plants, including temperate,
subtropical and tropical crops (Sharma, 1998). This chapter deals with
the genera Heterodera and Globodera and species of economic impor-
tance controlled by use of resistance. Cyst nematodes are so named
because upon death the female body undergoes a tanning process to
become a resistant structure that protects eggs from hostile edaphic fac-
tors. Species differ in a number of important biological characteristics,
associated with adaptation to particular agroecosystems. These charac-
teristics include: mode of reproduction (sexual or asexual): numbers of
generations per year or per crop cycle (ranging from a single generation
on temperate annual crops to continuous reproduction in suitable
conditions on tropical crops); differences in hatching (from responses
to temperature change to a requirement for host specific stimuli from
root exudates); and tolerance of abiotic stresses. There are also differ-
ences among species in numbers of host plants.
Common features of the cyst nematodes include a life cycle in
which the second-stage juvenile (JZ) emerges from the egg as the infec-
tive preparasitic stage that locates and penetrates host roots, migrating
through cortical cells towards the stele. No further development takes
place unless the JZ stimulates plant cells adjacent to vascular tissues
to develop as a syncytium, the feeding site for all juvenile stages and
adult females. The J2 grows and undergoes three moults. In many
species adult, non-feeding males develop. Mating is necessary before
the female produces eggs in some but not all species. First-formed eggs
(eds J.L. Starr, R. Cook and J. Bridge) I1
72 R. Cook and G.R. Noel
may be deposited into a gelatinous matrix, external to the vulva.

Whether or not this occurs, some eggs are retained within the female
whose dead body forms the cyst. In some species, eggs within the cyst
are very persistent when conditions are not favourable for plant growth
and infection. Viable eggs can be transported in this way, for example,
on potato tubers and in wind-blown soil. Most of these biological
differences are relevant to evaluating resistance (Table 4.1).
Identification
Cyst nematodes are usually recognized by the morphology of the adult
female (cyst) and by host plant associations (Table 4.2). However, there
are risks of misidentification in over-reliance on host plants to assign
specific identity. For example, cereals are hosts to the cereal cyst nema-
tode group of Heterodera, encompassing a number of morphologically
and biologically distinct species. The genera Heterodera and Globodera
are readily distinguished by generally lemon- and round-shaped
cysts, respectively. Specific identification usually needs more detailed
morphometric studies. Diagnostic characteristics of the cyst include its
size, colour and cuticular patterning as well as features associated with
the preserved genitalia. These include presence or absence of a vulval
cone, the length of the vulval opening, distance between vulva and
anus, the nature of the cyst wall around the vulva and anus and the
detail of structures inside the vulval cone (bullae, underbridge, vaginal
sheath). Specific diagnostics also rely on features of the J2, notably size,
number of lateral lines on the cuticle, stylet length and shape, tail
length and shape. Good taxonomic keys are available, but it is worth
noting that in wild vegetation and perhaps especially in the tropics,
there may be as yet undescribed species. Advice is available in many
parts of the world from nematode taxonomists, and international
collaboration is important to confirm specific identity.
Closely related species, for example, of potato C~'st nematodes can
be distinguished by isoelectric focusing of proteins and genetic-based
approaches are available for most groups. Identification is now assisted
by molecular approaches that can distinguish species that are agri-
cultural pests (see, e.g. Subbotin et al., 2000a). In some cases, crop
pest species are not yet distinguishable from wild related species
solely by molecular technologies, although this will become possible.
The attractiveness of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based
approaches is that few specimens are needed to confirm identity and
that sampling of individuals within populations will reveal differences
among species.
Recognition and definition of pathotypes as a subspecific grouping
depend on tests with 'host differentials' (plants with genetically
Table 4.1. Biological features of cyst nematodes (Heterodera and Globodera spp.) relevant to screening protocols.
Attribute State H. glycines H. avenae H. schachtii H. trifolii G. rostochiensis G. pa/Iida
Reproduction Sexual + + + + +
Asexual +
Diapause + + + (-) +
J2 emergence: response +essential (+) -
+
~
+ + + (/)
.....
•
to root diffusates (+) some response
~
- not essential 3
tl)
Generations per crop 3-7 1 1-5 1-8 1(2) 1(2) 0
Optimum temperature (°C) Hatch 25-30 10-22 25 15-25 20-25 15-20 ~
(/)
Development 26-28 15-20 21-27 15-25
Days to mature females 14 65-40 17 45-20
Eggs in egg mass + - +
Host range Principal family Leguminosae Gramineae Chenopodiaceae Leguminosae Solanaceae So!anaceae
Cruciferae
Other families Few None Very many Many Few Few
"'-J
w
Table 4.2. Key morphometric features for distinguishing cyst nematodes, Heterodera and Globodera spp. (measurements in µm).
1~
H. glycines H. avenae H. schachtii H. trifolii G. rostochiensis G. pa/Iida
Cyst Shape Lemon Lemon Lemon Lemon Round Round

Size 700 x 490 710 x 500 750 x 450 650 x 400 445 x 382 579 x 534
Length : width 1.43 1.43 1.67 1.63 1.27 1.11
Subcrystalline layer ++ ++ + +
Egg sac +200 0 +few +200 0 0
Cuticle pattern Rugose zigzag lines Rugose zigzag Minutely rugose
Cuticle punctation Reticulate
Colour Brown Dark brown Brown Brown/dark brown Golden yellow then brown Pale yellow then brown ;o
Vulva/ cone Obtuse cone Obtuse Prominent Prominent None None
Length vulva 50 12 > 35 47 10 11.5 ~
0
;l\"
Vulva-anus 77 62 60 45 tu
::J
Underbridge ++ - Prominent Very prominent - - a..
Bullae +elongate ++high + + - - 0
Fenestration Ambifenestrate Ambifenestrate Ambifenestrate Ambifenestrate Circumfenestrate Circumfenestrate ;o
Granek's ratio - - - - 3.6 2.1 ~
J2 Body length 470 575 470 510 468 486 ~
Lateral lines 4 4 4 4 4 4
Style! length 23 27 25 27 22 24
Tail length 45 56 59 44 51
Hyaline tail % true tail 50 70 60 60 50
Stylet knobs shape Flat to anterior Flat to slight concave Forward projecting Concave anterior Round, slight posterior Forward projection
of anterior Iace projecting slope
Phasmids Minute Distinct Obscure Small, obscure Obscure
Phasmid to anus 10 posterior Just post. Just post. Mid-tail Mid-tail
Dorsal gland outlet 5.3 3-4 5-9 2.6 3.4
to sty/et
Cyst Nematodes 75
distinct resistance). Different names have been used for these group-
ings, notably 'race' for soybean cyst nematode, but pathotype for others,
including both cereal and potato cyst nematodes. In this chapter,
we use the currently accepted words for each species for practical
relevance. These subspecific groupings based on virulence phenotypes
of populations or individuals are not yet distinguishable by molecular
means, but because differences in virulence are based upon the
genotype, this will become possible. Potato cyst nematode species are
distinguishable in this way and Rouppe van der Voort (1998) was able
to distinguish between Ro1 and Ro5 using amplified fragment length
polymorphism (AFLP). Subbotin et al. (2000b) could distinguish
closely related species of the cereal cyst nematode group using
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), but not between true
pathotypes within a morphological species.
Sources of Resistance
There is a logical approach to the search for sources of resistance. As
outlined for root-knot nematodes (see Hussey and Janssen. Chapter 3),
resistance in existing cultivars or advanced breeding lines of the crop
is likely to be more readily handled within a breeding programme.
Moving to less well-adapted sources, including land races, wild
relatives of the crop or related species, may increase the work necessary
to transfer resistance to agronomically acceptable cul ti vars. Many pest
species of cyst nematodes have had co-evolutionary associations
with the host crop or its progenitors. Consequently. there are many
host resistance genes (R-genes) and complementary avirulence genes
(Avr-genes) in the nematode populations.
The study of resistant plants has identified different mechanisms
by which resistance is expressed and an understanding of the mecha-
nism may enable selection of different sources of resistance. In domes-
tication, selection for traits that have value for consumption or use of
the crop usually minimizes mechanisms providing general pest and
disease resistance and tolerance. In nature, the extensive polymor-
phism of plant resistance and nematode a virulence genes is of adaptive
value to both plant and parasite survival in heterogeneous populations.
Pure line breeding for advanced agriculture may further erode defences
by reducing the numbers of R-genes in adapted cultivars. This is
more likely where variety development is done in the absence of the
nematode. This is usually the case in breeders' field nurseries where
nematode populations are absent or are controlled by the use of rota-
tions with non-host species to minimize contamination of the soil with
crop seeds and to provide soil uniformity for successive selection
cycles. Varieties bred in such conditions may subsequently reveal their
susceptibility when exposed to nematode populations resulting from

intensification of cropping.
A key consideration in resistance breeding is the extent of hetero-
geneity in nematode populations. It is clear that some cyst nematode
populations identified in agricultural systems have one or a few
avirulence genes of relevance to R-genes in current crop cultivars.
These are identifiable as pathotypes by distinct differences in multipli-
cation on plants with different R-genes. In other cases, usually where
the R- and Avr-gene interactions are more diverse, identification of
differences in the virulence phenotype of nematode populations is less
clear. The extreme examples of these continuously variable genetic
interactions may be interpreted as either qualitative or quantitative
resistance, respectively.
General Considerations in Screening

General considerations should lead to tests with practically relevant
outcomes, i.e. direct assessment of nematode growth and reproduction.
Such tests will be practically applicable to traditional screening and
be adaptable for other purposes, including screening of transgenic
resistant plants. Usually, some measure of reproduction is required,
although in testing the effects of transgenes, less direct assessments
have been used; for example, Atkinson et al. (1996) demonstrated that
expression of transgenes reduced the surface area of female potato cyst
nematodes.
Rearing and preparation of inoculum
The choice from a variety of approaches is determined by the biology of

the nematode; for example, inoculum of potato cyst nematodes can be
accumulated as dried cysts. The eggs within these remain viable for
long periods without special storage conditions. In other cases, for
example Heterntlera avenae, it is possible to retain viable inoculum in
cysts kept moist at temperatures too low for J2 emergence. Species such
as H. glycines, H. schachtii and H. trifolii, that deposit eggs in a matrix
external to the female, require special attention to collecting eggs for
inoculum, and there are differences in hatchability between eggs in
matrices and those within the cyst.
Producing desired quantities of inoculum by multiplying nema-
todes on plants in soil may require more than one crop cycle. However,
several generations can be multiplied on a single crop with species
without diapause, e.g. H. trifolii. Plants for rearing inoculum should be
grown in as clean conditions as possible to produce clean inoculum,
that is, the desired nematode (species and pathotype(s)) without
Cyst Nematodes 77
contamination either by other nematodes or other plant pathogens, and

to ensure that the inoculum remains free of parasites of the nematodes.
Fungi infesting cysts and eggs can be problematical when cultures are
maintained in field-derived soil. None the less, large quantities of good
quality inoculum can be raised in fields or microplots, as well as in
more fully controlled conditions in glasshouses or on artificial media.
Selection of isolates
Where there is variation within a species, it is advisable to rear

inoculum of each population separately. For example, when the
researcher plans to use mixed inocula to select for widely effective
resistance, maintaining individually characterized populations allows
the same known mixture to be used for successive tests as well as
avoiding selecting particular virulence phenotypes.
It is essential to know something about variation. Mixing so-called
aggressive populations of a nematode species without knowledge of
the range of resistance in the tested plant material may provide the
opportunity to select for resistance effective against many populations.
But if done speculatively, this approach will discard sources of resis-
tance as insufficiently effective, because they are effective against only
a proportion of the inoculum. It is conceivable that such an approach
could lead to discarding individual resistance sources that, if combined
in a single plant, would provide the required degree of resistance. If
all required R-genes are known to be present in an interbred plant
population, then the mixed inoculum approach will be appropriate to
identify plants combining the genes.
Inoculating plants
Nematodes for use as inoculum may be applied as cysts to plant culture

media or as eggs and/or hatched juveniles, freed from cysts. The order
of greatest control of inoculum quantity and quality is J2 >eggs > cysts;
robustness in the face of environmental variation is the converse
of this. The appropriate choice of inocul um should optimize these
opposing trends, taking account of the extent of control over environ-
mental conditions of the screen, number of entries for evaluation,
available space, and the cost of labour.
In controlled screening tests, inoculum is usually hatched juveniles
to give precise control over initial population density (Pd and to
synchronize subsequent female development. Application methods.
including mixing cysts with soil, adding them in various mesh contain-
ers (to allow newly formed cysts to be distinguished from those of the
inoculum), are detailed in the later sections on each nematode species.

One important factor is nematode response to plant-produced hatching
factors. Potato and soybean cyst nematode populations differ in
response to diffusates from roots of different potato and soybean geno-
types, respectively (Sikora and Noel, 1996; Dale and de Scurrah, 1998).
Such interactions introduce variability in screen results of significance
to the choice of inoculum; tests using free eggs or eggs in cysts may give
classifications different from tests with hatched juveniles. Applying
egg suspensions or eggs within cysts may have the advantage that
prolonging the root invasion period may make tests more robust to
environmental variation. The key feature is to avoid applying too many
nematodes, which may cause such damage from root invasion that
subsequent development of plants and nematodes is adversely affected.
In stressed plants and when nematodes are competing with each other
for feeding sites or other resources, some genetically female J2 develop
as intersexes, others may fail to develop.
Generally, the investigator will know how to avoid excessive
competition. It is worth allowing plants to develop some roots before
adding nematodes, then to limit the period of exposure to infective J2
and to feed plants after inoculation. With some species, particularly
cereals and grasses in their vegetative growth phase, and other plants
with indeterminate growth, excessive root growth can make subse-
quent extraction and counting of nematodes difficult.
Evaluating interactions
Resistance
Resistance is a relative concept expressing the effects of plant genotype
on nematode reproduction. Even when resistance of iliajor effect is
being evaluated, it should be related to reproduction on known suscep-
tible control plants and, where possible, with known r~sistant plants.
Resistance is often described by some form of index of nematode repro-
duction, usually a Reproduction Index (RI= lOOPr/Pi, \'\ Lere Pi and Pr
are the initial and final nematode numbers) used in comparison with
that on controls of known response. Usually, evaluation is of new gen-
eration females: it is easier to count these before thev have tanned and
formed cysts. When plants have been grown in a rooting medium (soil
or other), this may be shaken from the roots before examination for
presence/absence or counting of white females. More accurately, root
systems may be washed and females adhering to roots as well as those
extracted by flotation and sieving from the soil are counted. Various
techniques are used to extract females from the soil, from sophisticated
apparatus to simple decantation and sieving. Fuller references detail-
ing and comparing techniques are available (Eisenback and Zunke,
Cyst Nematodes 79
1998). It is important that the rooting medium is one from which new
generation females and cysts can be readily separated. When soil is
used, high sand contents are preferred. The sophistication and accu-
racy applied to assessment will reflect the known contrast between
resistant and susceptible phenotypes and the purpose of the screen.
Comparisons of cysts visible on the surfaces of root balls, removed from
pots (Colour Plate 6), are sufficient to distinguish between susceptible
plants with several hundred visible females and resistant plants with
no or few females. In other cases, precise counts are required from
known amounts of root.
In some cases, nematode reproduction is measured by counting
eggs in cysts extracted from the soil; this is more labour intensive but
acceptable when inoculum was applied as eggs or hatched juveniles.
When naturally infested soil or soil mixed with cysts has been used, it
is much less satisfactory, although with care new cysts can be distin-
guished from old. Extraction is usually more efficient with drier cysts
from air-dried soil than with fresher cysts from moist soil.
Occasionally, plant root responses may be related to resistance. For
example, wheat roots inoculated with cereal cyst nematode have dis-
tinct 'knots', with swelling and lateral root proliferation at sites where
female nematodes are developing. In contrast, oat and barley roots
infected by the same species of nematode do not show such distinct
morphological responses, so that this form of assessment cannot
usually be relied upon.
Tolerance
Plant tolerance of nematode infestation requires a comparison of
growth of infected and non-infected plants. In controlled conditions,
this may be difficult to achieve at the same time as assessing resistance.
In some cases, there are plant responses to infection that seem to be
related to tolerance. Thus, in white clover germplasm resistant to H.
trifolii some plants have marked browning of the roots as a result of
necrosis caused presumably by a hypersensitive response. It is possible
to select for non-necrosed roots and non-cyst formation.
Plant growth or crop yield as a measure of tolerance is usually
characterized initially in field or plot trials. In some cases, small plot
trials can be used to screen for tolerance, for example, of cereal cyst
nematode in spring-sown oats in Australia and of soybean cyst nema-
tode in the USA. In the case of oats, plants were differentiated that
showed all four possible combinations of resistance or susceptibility
with tolerance or sensitivity. In potato, a number of traits, including
plant growth characteristics as well as root responses to nematode
infection, contribute to tolerance to cyst nematodes (Trudgill et al ..
1998; van Riel and Mulder, 1998). Tolerance to soybean cyst nematode
has been quantified by comparison of plant yields in plots or pots of
infested soil treated or not with nematicides and seems to be effective

against more than one pathotype (Hussey and Boerma, 1992). Given the
complexity of the trait, it is likely that pot or field plot trials will con-
tinue to be necessary to facilitate selection for tolerance, or at least to
identify parental combinations from which tolerance may be expected.
The development of host plant genomic maps will allow use of
marker-assisted selection for quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for indirect
selection of tolerance. It is evident that tolerance and resistance are
independent traits (Trudgill, 1991). Many factors, including root size
and growth rate, and resistance to other biotic and abiotic stresses,
contribute to tolerance. It is a complex character with many genetic and
environmental factors influencing yield loss caused by nematodes.
Within selection programmes, it is necessary to assess the performance
of potential resistant cultivars in nematode-infested soil in the field
(Colour Plate 5 ).
Screening Protocols for Specific Crops

It is essential that the screening protocol should give consistent and
repeatable classification between years and, preferably, also between
test centres. Accuracy, repeatability and throughput tend to favour
selection of controlled techniques rather than field tests, although
costs may not. Growing conditions must be adjusted to ensure optimal
expression of the susceptible phenotype with which known or poten-
tially resistant responses are to be compared. The following summary
of protocols adopted for individual crop/nematode associations gives
specific illustration of the general principles but is not meant to be a
complete review of breeding methodologies for each nematode.
Heterodera glycines, soybean cyst nematode (SCN)
Historically, soybean screening was done in SCN-infested fields.

counting white females attached to roots at 1 month after planting.
Each test entry was compared with a standard suscepi ible in a tvvo-
row plot (Colour Plate 4) (Ross and Brim, 1957). Pot tests (Epps and
Hartwig, 1972; Noel et al., 1990) used 8-cm diameter clay pots to test
single seedlings in infested field soil; females on washed roots were
counted at 1 month. The technique proposed for race identification
(Golden et al., 1970) has been widely adopted for screening. Individual
seedlings with 2-3 cm radicals are transplanted into pasteurized sand
or soil in 7.5 cm diameter pots, grown for 3-4 days, then inoculated
with 1000-5000 eggs collected from fresh white females. After 1
month, new white females, extracted from each pot, are counted and
expressed as a female index (the ratio (as a percentage) of female
Cyst Nematodes 81
numbers on test line and susceptible cv. Lee). This index is used
to classify cul ti vars: 0-9%, resistant; 10-30%, moderately resistant;
31-60%, moderately susceptible; and more than this susceptible
(Schmitt and Shannon, 1992). This index is reliable when the virulence
phenotype of the test population is known but mixtures of the races
have caused problems with its interpretation. None the less, more than
200 soybean cultivars, representing maturity groups I-VIII, have been
produced in the USA and are effective in reducing yield losses.
For practical breeding in Illinois, USA, individual plants are scored
as: 0 = 0, 1=1-5, 2 = 6-10, 3 = 11-30 and 4 = > 30 females per root
system, and only plants scored as 1 and 2 are kept. This has worked
very well and maintained resistance for about 20 years in Illinois,
where about 5000 lines are assessed per year.
Molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS), using both RFLPs and
random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs), is being applied in
some breeding programmes and will become more widespread. It can
screen single plants for their responses to more than one race and
allows the development of cultivars with multiple R-genes. In cv.
Peking, two independently inherited markers pA136 and pA635 on
linkage groups A and C, respectively, are associated with resistance
to race 3. There is a rapidly increasing number of markers to other
soybean cyst nematode R-genes (Cregan and Quigley, 1997; Anand
et al., 1998). Screening protocols for the markers (see Chapter 12 by
Young and Mudge) require an intensive application of a traditional
approach to identify single plant reactions; subsequent checks on MAS
will also need to run concurrently, to confirm association between
marker and response.
Making progress before all genetic interactions are catalogued is
clearly possible. Practical breeding in the USA utilizes knowledge of
different distributions of predominant races in northern and southern
states. In the north, races 1 and 3 predominate (about 25 and 70%,
respectively) and the screening protocol first selects for resistance to a
population of race 3, and then tests resistant or moderately resistant
lines with 1-5 and 14 prior to making a release. In the south, where
8 7% of SCN infestations are races 2, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 14, the screening
is first with races 6 and 2, followed by races 14, 4 and 5. This selects
efficiently for effective gene combinations m currently available
sources and varieties (Kim et al., 1998).
Heterodera avenae and the H. avenae-group, cereal cyst nematodes

(CCN)
Resistance screening has frequent! y relied upon natural! y infested field

soil: very susceptible cultivars may be used to maintain populations on
fields or microplots. In Europe, natural biological control agents may

prevent nematode multiplication and endanger inoculum supply. For
this reason, some investigators use 'clean' cysts to inoculate susceptible
plants to multiply inoculum for one cycle and then store dry soil at
2-4 °C to allow regular withdrawal of inoculum. This is then used
either as infested soil mixed with sterilized rooting medium, generally
sand, or J2 may be hatched from clean cysts to apply to roots in a
variety of media. Refinements include the test-tube methods. Ireholm
(1994) used 100 hatched J2 to inoculate seedlings growing in 100 ml of
sand. The plants are fed and watered carefully. Rivoal et al. (1991) grew
plants on agar in Petri dishes, adding either four or eight J2 per root tip
(depending on the pathotype involved) and was able to distinguish
resistant from susceptible plants.
Rivoal et al. (1991) also used soil-based methods. The substrate in
70 cm 3 plastic tubes was sand and clay with added mineral fertilizer.
Single wheat plants, grown in this substrate, were inoculated with two
new cysts preconditioned at 3°C to break diapause and constrained in
nylon mesh bags. This inoculum corresponded to 220 J2 per plant.
Plants were grown at 16°C and 18 h day length, and watered as required
once a week. Females and cysts were washed free of roots on to a
63 µm-pore sieve at 2-5 months. Taylor et al. (1998), modifying Fisher
(1982), planted seedlings in soil in 27 x 125 mm tubes, and inoculated
at planting and at four more times at 3 and 4 day intervals, to give 500
J2 per plant. Plants were grown at 15°C in 16 h day length for 9 weeks
after the last inoculation, before counting total cysts.
In Australia, much initial selection could be done in field condi-
tions, by uprooting plants sown in clumps or drills to assess female
numbers in comparison with susceptible controls. Higher throughputs
are achieved by screening plants sown in racks of 50 pots each filled
with 200 g of naturally infested soil mixed with washed sand and
fertilizer to deliver between 16 and 32 eggs g- 1 soil. In these conditions,
susceptible plants had from 13-45 cysts on the surface of the root ball
(138-902 on the whole root system) compared with 0-6 on partially
resistant controls (27-91). Four people were able to assess up to 600
plants day- 1 on root ball scores. The target throughput is to assess
100,000 plants per season and computer-assisted sowing and recording
is invaluable (McKay, 1998). The key to success at these relatively
high reproduction levels is good plant nutrition and irrigation in
outdoor daylight. It is important to ensure good drainage from the
pots and racks of pots, to protect from pest attack, including birds
and small mammals, and to remove weeds or volunteer host plants
when using naturally infested soils. The assessment of 100-200 plants
day- 1 is readily achieved in a variety of soil-based methods. The
restriction of the natural growing season may limit numbers that can be
assessed.
Cyst Nematodes 83
Screening procedures must be adapted for the needs of the breeding

programme. Tests must be able to characterize responses of single
plants, e.g. in heterogeneous sources, and to select parent plants, but
also able to test multiples of plants. This allows more than one plant
per unit to be assayed and is useful to improve the chances of detecting
segregation in later generations. For instance, screening four pots each
with four plants gives a probability of 0.95 of detecting the 1 : 3 suscep-
tible : resistant segregation in barley with gene Rha2. The probabilities
of detecting segregations for other genes are given by Mather (1951).
Frequently, resistance to CCN has been set as< 5% as many cysts as
on the susceptible control: flexibility is required when applying this
rule. In particular, there should be reproduction (that is Pf> Pd on the
susceptible control with about 100 females developing without intra-
specific competition. The dilemma of interpreting plants that develop
one or two cysts is unresolved (Andersen and Andersen, 1982a). It
has not been established whether these are virulent individuals but
that outcrossing prevents their progeny from expressing recessive
virulence, or whether such cysts result from incomplete expression of
resistance. Although the phenomenon cannot be explained, it should
not be ignored, and where such females occur there should be planned
progeny testing to assess emergence of virulence.
Marker-assisted selection using morphological markers in the plant
can be used in some crosses, e.g. in barley, major genes for anthocyanin
pigments are closely linked to the Rha2 gene. DNA markers identify
one gene in selected wheat crosses (Eastwood et al., 1994) and in
barleys (Williams et al., 1996).
Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida, potato cyst nematodes

(PCN)
Techniques used to screen for resistance to both potato cyst nematode

species are essentially identical. The greater diversity of G. pallida
has presented the greater challenge to find quick and accurate tests to
accurate! y discriminate between fully susceptible genotypes and ones
with partial resistance.
Initially, plants were grown in naturally infested soil in fields.
This was refined to screen plants in pots, using root-ball cyst counts
to identify sources of resistance. Replication is essential but may be dif-
ferent depending on the target resistance genes. Thus, three replicates
are used to identify clones with single major gene resistance to G.
rostochiensis but up to ten replicates are needed to screen for quantita-
tive resistance to G. pallida (Fleming, 1998). Multiplication rates are
usually two to three times greater in pots than in the field. but do not
usually affect relative rankings of clones. In UK National List trials, a
standardized procedure, described by McKenzie and Turner (1987),

relied upon multiplication rates calculated from Pi and Pr expressed as
numbers of cysts per pot. A series of critical evaluations of potato cyst
nematode screening systems emphasize that relative expressions and
rankings of cyst numbers are more accurate and allow better cross-site
comparisons than absolute assessments (Fleming, 1998).
More accurate tests of more plants can be handled in a variety
of smaller container-based tests. Between 60 and 240 cm 3 of rooting
medium is infested with 5-20 eggs cm-3 • Potato vegetative sprouts and
seedlings grow well in canisters with soil moisture level adjusted to
30°/o. The transparent-walled canisters are closed and placed in a con-
trolled environment at 20°C for 7 weeks. Developing females are then
clearly visible and can be counted through the wall of the clear canister
or extracted and counted. Roupe van der Voort et al. (1998) also used
the Phillips et al. (1980) canister method: one tuber per 125 cm 3 con-
tainer of silver sand was infested with five eggs and J2 cm- 3 and grown
in the dark at 20°C for 3 months, before elutriating and counting cysts.
In testing for resistance in gene bank accessions of cultivated and
wild potato species in the Dutch-German Potato Collection, samples of
15-40 plants per accession are tested by one of three approaches: (i) in
infested soil; (ii} in pots including an inoculum of 25-30 'full' cysts:
or (iii) in pots including an inoculum of three cysts wrapped in
nylon mesh. Reproduction was assessed by elutriation and centrifugal
extraction of females, plants with more than five females being scored
as susceptible, and putative resistant clones being retested. The second
simple method (ii) was used for most accessions in later tests. Tests
in France used method (iii) which was the most reliable (Rousselle-
Bourgeois and Mugniery, 1995). In Europe, at present five virulence
groups of G. rostochiensis and three of G. pallida are recognized. Earlier
results had to be adapted to the pathotype identification scheme of Kort
et al. (1977). More recently, information on the number of plants with
0 cysts (Pa2) and 0-2 cysts (Pa3, 1981-1985) in relation to the total
number of screened plants, has been made available for this collection.
In the root-ball test, only the outside of the root ball is screened for the
presence of females, but when tests were performed under suboptimal
growing conditions (winter season) the inside of the root ball was also
examined visually. In tests regarded as more accurate, Mugniery (1983)
used Petri dishes with water agar and placed J2 near root tips.
In comparisons of these approaches, although the actual multipli-
cation differs among tests under different conditions, the overall rank-
ing of genotypes is in good agreement. An additional safeguard when
using these tests was to include partially resistant clones and also to try
to include standard nematode populations for reference purposes. In
general, canister methods overestimate, whereas Petri dish methods
underestimate the degree of resistance expressed in field conditions.
Cyst Nematodes 85
Rapid progress in mapping the potato genome will allow markers to

be used in potato breeding programmes. These will select for genotypes
rather than phenotypes to ensure combinations of different genes likely
to provide more durable resistance to heterogeneous populations of
PCN (Dale and de Scurrah, 1998). RFLP markers linked to major genes
have been identified in a number of resistance sources (Fleming, 1998).
DNA sequencing of PCN resistance genes will allow their detection
in segregating populations by PCR-based screening. There are RFLP
markers linked to gene H1, and RFLP QTLs to Ro1 resistance from
Solanum spegazzini. Progress with at least three different mapping
families will greatly enhance the value of these markers for selecting
not only major gene resistance but particularly for improving the levels
of resistance to G. pallida. QTL analysis indicated that a common
locus with multiple genes conferred broad spectrum resistance to
G. rostochiensis and G. pallida (Roupe van der Voort et al., 1998). This
may provide a better approach than seeking to apply MAS to known
R-genes. In this work, plants grown in vitro were nematode tested after
transfer to sterile silver sand and sandy loam mix and inoculated after
2-4 weeks growth. Stem cuttings from individual seedlings were used
to replicate tests and for DNA extractions without loss of the parent
plant (Rouppe van der Voort et al., 1997). In these tests, 3-4 week-
old plants were planted in a loamy sand mixture (900 g per pot) and
inoculated with five eggs and J2 g- 1 soil. At 3 months, cysts were
recovered by Fenwick can elutriation, and a root size rating (0-3) was
given. Mean numbers of cysts per genotype (log x + 1 transformed)
were used to distinguish three categories: resistant, unassigned and
susceptible (Roupe van der Voort et al., 1998).
Other cyst nematodes
Resistance to other cyst nematodes is evaluated following these

principles, adapted as necessary to (i) match the requirements and
resources of the programme and (ii) the nature of the plants and
nematodes. Sugar beet cyst nematode resistance introduced from wild
species was selected in tests using loess soil from 3-5 m deep and
supplied with nutrient solutions in PVC tubes (2 x 4 x 12 cm) stacked
in 10 rows each of 12 tubes, sown and inoculated at 14 days with 1000
J2 per tube and grown for 6 weeks at 20°C and 14 h day length. Cysts
were collected after washing substrate through 1 and 0.1 mm meshes
and treating the debris for 5 min with 20% acetic acid to dissolve loess
before counting. Quality assurance required that the susceptible con-
trol cv. Desiree had a minimum of 40 cysts per plant and plants with
less than 30 cysts were selected as resistant. The key feature is that the
frequency distributions of cysts per plant should not overlap between
susceptible controls and putative or control resistant plants (Muller,

1998a).
Kaplan et al. (1999) reared beet cyst nematodes on cabbage and
then on selective hosts in clay pots filled with river sand inoculated
with cysts. Host tests were performed in 80 g of sand (particle size
> 250 µm) in vials 3.7 x 6.2 cm with a mesh covered drainage hole.
Seeds were sown directly and the resulting seedlings thinned to one
per vial. Nutrient solution was applied daily. After expansion of the
first true leaf, plants were inoculated with 500 hatched J2 and cysts
were counted at 38 days after two generations.
Tobacco cyst nematode resistance has been selected in seedlings
germinated in vermiculite, transplanted at 4 weeks to 10 cm diameter
clay pots with 250 cm 3 of a sterilized 1 : 1 soil : sand mix over a filter
paper in the bottom of the pot. Plants were grown for 2 weeks and inoc-
ulated with 6000 eggs per pot. The eggs were collected from crushed
field-grown cysts, stored dry in closed containers at ambient tempera-
ture, until use. At 8 weeks, pot contents were washed to dislodge
females that were collected on a 250 µm aperture mesh. Subsamples
(1 g) of roots were washed and stained to detect immature stages. These
tests had eight to ten replicates and plants had 0.1-34 females g- 1 root
(Hayes et al., 1997).
Clover cyst nematode resistance is selected in pots of pasteurized
sand/soil mix in 6.5 cm diameter pots at 18-25°C, watered by capillary
action from trays with liquid fertilizer added as needed. Two-week-old
seedlings were inoculated by injecting the soil under the seedling with
a syringe with 2000 eggs withdrawn from an agitated suspension of
eggs extracted from pot-cultured cysts. At 8 weeks, the roots and soil
were washed in an elutriator and cysts collected on a 180 µm aperture
sieve and counted. Similar techniques were used for cuttings as for
seedlings. Data in these experiments were expressed as the number of
cysts per plant and per g dry root weight at assessment (Hussain et al.,
1997).
Resistance to H. sacchari in rice (Ozyza spp.) was identified
in plants grown in small pots (100 cm 3 ) and inoculated with J2, and
correlated well with the results from field plots in naturally infested
soil (Plowright et al., 1999 ).
Pathotypes and Races

Variation in virulence of SCN has been catalogued mainly in the

USA where differences between field populations were evident
soon after the first resistant cultivars were grown. Subsequently, field
Cyst Nematodes 87
populations were shown to be heterogeneous for virulence. A set of

four differential plants with resistance genes describes 16 possible
races (Table 4.3), although not all have been isolated from field
populations. The scheme classifies a differential plant as resistant to a
nematode population if it supports less than 10% as many females as
the susceptible control cv. Lee. This underestimates SCN diversity
although it is a useful classification for breeder and grower advice
in the USA. Closer to the putative centre of origin of SCN, in China,
selection of one race for several generations on four cultivars led to the
emergence of four different races.
More recently, studies with inbred nematode lines confirmed that
major genes determine the outcome of interactions between resistance
and avirulence genes in soybeans and cyst nematode (Opperman and
Bird, 1998). Incompatible interactions involve dominant R-genes and
recessive v-genes. If this is confirmed, then previous uncertainties
over classification of plant responses result from testing plants with
nematode populations of complex virulence genotypes.
A new scheme for classification of variability in SCN has been
proposed in the USA (Niblack et al., 2001). The new scheme will
designate a population 'Hg Type', based on development of females on
sources of resistance used either as germ plasm or in registered cul ti vars
(see Table 4.6). The differentials (Indicator Lines) will be Peking (now
PI548.402), PI88. 788, PI90. 763, PI437.654, PI209.332, PI89. 772 and
Cloud (PI548.316). A population that reproduces on none of the lines
will be designated Hg Type 0, one that reproduces on PI548.402 and
PI88.788 only would be Hg Type 1.2. This scheme will be open-ended,
able to include new sources of resistance as these are incorporated
into germplasm and varieties, and should be suitable for adoption
worldwide.
Table 4.3. Races of soybean cyst nematode recognized on four differentials and expressed in
relation to a fifth, susceptible soybean cv. Lee.
Racea
Soybean
differential 1b 2b 3b 4b Sb 6b 7 8 gb 1O 11 12 13 14 b 15 16
Pickett _c + + + + + + + +
Peking + + + + + + + +
P188.788 + + + + + + + +
Pl90.763 + + + + + + + +
3
Race designation from Riggs and Schmitt, 1988; bRaces that occur in the USA; c_, susceptible
(female index::::.: 10% that of susceptible cv. Lee);+, resistant (female index< 10% cv. Lee).
Heterodera avenae and H. avenae-group, cereal cyst nematodes

(CCN)
Populations of cereal cyst nematodes are very heterogeneous for

virulence but also differ in cereal species host range. Thus, in northern
Europe most populations reproduce well on oats but in southern
Europe, North Africa and parts of Asia, oats are non-hosts to most
populations. Even so, there are exceptions and, for example, some
Swedish populations do not reproduce on oats. Initial classifications of
CCN used differential cereal cultivars of four genera and also nematode
populations that included more than one morphological species. The
series used was helpful for classifying northern European populations,
particularly for the purpose of developing resistant spring barley
cultivars (Table 4.4), but underestimated the variation in virulence
genes in nematode populations. This was probably a very great under-
estimate and Ireholm (in Cook and Rivoal, 1998) has shown that on just
four differential cultivars each of barley, wheat and oat, 69 populations
from around the world could be classed as 30 distinct virulence pheno-
types. So, although the Andersen and Andersen (1982b) pathotype
scheme has the simplicity of being based on known R-genes or at least
resistance sources, it suffers from underestimating the polymorphism
of resistance and avirulence genes. In practice, many European barley
and oat cultivars have resistance genes historically overcome by CCN
in the areas in which they have been developed and grown. Whether as
a result of residual action of these or of other genes contributing to
quantitative resistance, many traditional cultivars have good levels
of partial resistance expressed to field populations. For example, the
old Swedish oat cv. Sol II (also Sun II) consistently has only 25 % as
many cysts as the very susceptible UK cv. Milford (Cook and Mizen,
1991). It is possible when screening accessions of exotic genotypes
to isolate ones with very much greater susceptibility than those
commonly grown and used as susceptible standards. It follows that it
will be difficult to define precise pathotypes based on the interactions
between incompletely characterized plant genotypes and unknown
nematode genotypes. It also follows that virulence of local populations
should be evaluated with local susceptible and, where possible,
resistant controls as well as with exotic differential varieties. There
may be exceptions to this complex picture where an introduced
nematode has a limited virulence genotype on a host with limited
resistance genotype, e.g. H. avenae on cereals in Australia. Elsewhere,
it is clear that full virulence characterization will be problematic; the
partial interactions that cause problems in pathotype schemes most
likely indicate greater heterogeneity in the plant-nematode interaction.
This demands continued vigilance on the part of nematologists and
breeders.
Cyst Nematodes 89
Continuous cultivation of resistant cereal cultivars has not been

much practised. Long term, growing barley with the Rha2 gene has
selected a virulent pathotype of H. avenae in Denmark, and of the
related species H. filipjevi in Sweden. Growing oats with a single
dominant resistant gene in France also selected a virulent pathotype of
H. avenae (Lasserre et al., 1996).

(PCN)
Both species and their pathotypes were originally recognized on

European potato cultivars with R-genes, on South American cultivated
potatoes and on wild Solanum species. These distinguished popula-
tions differing in virulence phenotypes which were represented by
pathotype schemes, based on the gene-for-gene hypothesis. Separate
schemes for European (Kort et al., 1977), and South American (Canto
Saenz and de Scurrah, 1977) populations were developed independ-
ently (Table 4.5). The influences of environment on PCN multiplica-
tion, the use of some clones with an apparently quantitative type
of resistance and the application of an arbitrary multiplication ratio
undermined the basis of the schemes (Trudgill, 1985). It appears that
G. rostiochiensis populations in Europe can be grouped into three
pathotypes but that extensive variation in virulence in G. pallida field
populations means these are best considered as virulence phenotypes.
These populations will likely change virulence phenotype in response
to selection pressure imposed by the use of resistant cultivars. Identifi-
cation of RFLP and RAPD markers linked to a virulence genes will more
accurately describe populations in terms of general genetic variation
and specifically in terms of virulence genotypes.
Growing potatoes with Hl resistance to G. rostochiensis has led to
shifts in the PCN populations of Europe to G. pallida. Using resistant
potatoes selected with European populations. it was shown that
European G. pallida has as much variation in its virulence phenotype
as did populations from South America. The virulence phenotypes of
populations differed between the two regions (Phillips and Trudgill.
1998).
Partial resistance to G. pallida selects virulent nematodes and.
recognizing the finite durability of this resistance (seven to ten potato
crops or nematode generations), potato breeders are identifying
and introgressing new resistances. The methodology must be flexible
to test sources with growth habits differing from clonal tuberous
potatoes, and ideally more information should be collected on the
interaction between nematode and plant to diversify the genetic basis
of resistance.
c.o
0
Table 4.4. Pathotype groups of cereal cyst nematodes defined by an International Test Assortment of cereal species and cultivars. (From Cook and Rivoal, 1998.)
)J
Hat group Ha2group Ha3group I.
Q
0
Differential species Ha11 Ha21 Ha31 Ha41 Ha51 Ha61 Ha71 Ha12 Ha13 Ha23 Ha33 I~
~
Cultivar [R-gene ] 8
10
;JJ
Barley
Varde +b + + + + + + + ~
Emir[+ ex Emir]
Ortolan [Rha 1]
+
-
+
- -
+
- -
-
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
('!)
Morocco [Rha3, +]
Siri [Rha2 +ex Herta] - - - + + + - - + + +
KVL191 [Rha2, +] - - - + + +
Bajo Aragon - - - - - + + +
Herta + + - - - + +
Martin 403 [2 dom] - - - - - - + +
Dalmatische (-) + - (+) + + H +
l_a Fstan1ur;la ... I-)
f i;;rl:;r' ~-~
Oats
Nidar + (+) + - + + + +
Sol II [minor genes] + - - - - + - + + + +
Pusa Hybrid BS1 [1 dom] - - - - - - - + - +
A. sterilis 1376 [1 to 3 dom]
Silva [> 1 gene] (-) - (-) - (-) (-) (-) +
IGV.H 72-646 - - - - - + + +
Wheat
Cap a + + + + + + + + +
AUS 10894 [Cent+] - - - + - (-) + +
Loros [Ccn1 +] - - - (-) - - (-) + +
Psathias + + -
I~
+ +
lskamish K-2-light + - (-) .. + + + +
~
1~0
3
Resistance genes: those in italic (Rha 1, Rha2, Rha3) define the 3 pathotype groups; dom, dominant gene; +additional gene(s) inferred; b+, susceptible;-, resistant
(< 5% new females on susceptible control);() intermediate; .. , no observation.
~
(;)
<O
.......
tO
I\)
I
Table 4.5. Interactions between potatoes with resistance genes and populations of potato cyst nematodes, summarizing pathotype schemes and their modifica-
tions. (After Cook and Rivoal, 1998.)
G. rostochiensis G. pa/Iida Globodera species
Rot Ro3 Ro5 Pa2/3 Virulence grouping

-
Ro1 Ro4 Ro2 Ro3 Ro5 Pat - - - Pa2 Pa3 - European pathotype
Species and accession Ploidy Resistance genes RtA RtB R2A R3A - PtA PtB P2A P3A P4A P5A P6A S. American pathotype
;J:J
S. tuberosum ssp. tuberosum 4x (minor) +/-a + + + + + + + + + + +
S. t. ssp. andigena CPC 1673 4x Ht on chromosome 5 - - + + + + + +
~
0
" " "
::i:;-
S. kurtzianum KTT 60 .21 .19 2x Kt K2 A & B - (+) - (+) (+) + + + - + + + Q)
::,
S. vernei GLKS 58.1642.4 2x Quantitative - + - - + + + - + + + + Q.
S. vernei vtn 62.33.3 2x Quantitative - - - - + - + - - - + + p
ex S. multidissectum hybrid P55/7 2x > 1 + polygenes H2 + + + + + - -!+ - - + + + ;J:J
S. t. ssp. andigena 4x H3 + polygenes + (-) " (-) (-) ~
CIP 280090.10
S. vernei hybrid 69.1377/94 2x
Quantitative
Polygenes
- - + --
(!)
S. vemei hybrid 65.346/19 2x Polygenes - - - - - + + +

S. spegazzini 2x Fa= H1 - - + + +
S. spegazzini 2x Fb + 2 minor + - +
Gro1 on (-) + + + +
chromosome 7
a+, Compatible interaction nematode virulent. potato susceptible; -, incompatible interaction: nematode avirulent, potato resistant; (), indicates partial or uncertain
interaction; .. , no information.
Cyst Nematodes 93
Other species
Pathotypes of the sugarbeet cyst nematode, have been identified and

selected with newly available resistance sources, indicating that there
is heterogeneity within native populations of H. schachtii. Two new
and different virulent pathotypes of H. schachtii were selected from
two German field populations after six generations of selection on beets
with resistance introgressed from related species (Muller, 1998b). In
California, USA, crops with different host status selected different
genetic markers in different beet cyst nematode populations, demon-
strating the heterogeneity of the nematode populations. Such infra-
specific variability must be taken into account in management of
resistance sources (Kaplan et al., 1999). Plowright et al. (1999) observed
that field populations of H. sacchari formed a few cysts on resistant
genotypes of Oryza glaberrima, perhaps reflecting heterogeneity,
although this nematode reproduces parthenogenetically.
Genetics and Sources of Resistance

Resistance of most sources was originally and predominantly regarded

as a recessive characteristic. Heterogeneity of sources and nematode
populations has complicated genetic interpretations. Molecular map-
ping has identified a number of complex loci in the soybean genome in
which resistance genes are clustered. The practical consequence is that
F 1 hybrids between susceptible and resistant plants do not express
resistance. To identify resistant plants it is therefore necessary to
screen the segregating progeny in F 2 or backcross generations.
Sources of resistance extensively used in the USA include
accessions from the US World Collection, which includes 16,000
entries. Dong et al. (1997) listed cultivars and sources effective in
the USA. Table 4.6 lists those resistance genes from plant intro-
ductions (PI) that have been used to develop successful cultivars in
the USA. Most of the useful resistance genes available in Glycine max
have been made available. Molecular markers will likelv allow
new R-gene combinations to be developed and used in breeding
programmes, which will greatly increase the range of genes used and
should ensure that SCN resistance will continue to contribute to the
control of this major pest. Direct genetic screening may be useful.
although it may only detect known genes. New sources of resistance
are likely to come from perennial soybean G. tomentella and other
species, representing the 'treasure harboured in wild perennial
re la ti ves of the cultivated soybean' (Singh et al., 1998) that geneticists
Table 4.6. Chronology of release of sources of resistance to soybean cyst nematode (SCN),
Heterodera glycines, and examples of their use in public breeding programmes in the USA.
Cultivar or Year Resistant to

Source of resistance germplasm released racesa Citation
Pl548.402 (Peking) Pickett 1966 1,3 Brim and Ross (1966)

Pl88. 788 and Peking Bedford 1977 1,3,4b Hartwig and Epps (1978)
P188.788 Fayette 1981 3,4b Bernard et al. (1988b)
Pl90.763, Peking and P188.788 Cordell 1990 3,4,5 Hartwig and Young (1990)
Pl209.332 and Peking Delsoy 4710 1992 3,4,14 Anand (1992b)
Pl209.332 LN89-5699 1993 2,3,4, 14 Nickell et al. (1994b)
Fairbault Orf and MacDonald (1995)
P1437.654 and Peking Hartwig 1992 1-6,9,14 Anand (1992a)
Pl437.654 and P188.788 Ina 1997 1-3,5,9,14 Nickell eta/. (1999)
Pl89.772 LN89-5717 1993 2,3,4,5,14 Nickell eta/. (1994a)
Pl548.316 (Cloud) LN89-5612 1993 3,14 Nickell et al. (1994c)
3
R, resistant or partially resistant.
bCompare with Table 4.3, where strict application of 10% rule gives Pl88.788 susceptible to race 4.
are increasingly able to incorporate into ti~fulgermplasm (Riggs et al.,

1998).

(CCN)
Much use has been made of simply inherited major genes and resis-
tance sources have frequently been chosen with single dominant major
genes (Table 4.7). It is likely that many more genes are available within
germplasm collections. Those in wheat appear to be at complex R-gene
loci (Lagudah et al., 1997). Resistance sources in polyploid plants,
e.g. oats and wheat, with simple major resistance genes often appear to
have other genes of minor effect, for the transfer of the major gene rarely
gives derived progeny the complete resistance of the parent. In
contrast, single genes are often fully effective in diploid barley.
There is a shortage of good sources of resistance in wheat, but
research in Australia, France and Spain has identified related Triticum
species with genes of potential value to wheat resistance breeding.
These have been introgressed by traditional hybridization and selec-
tion into new sources with potential widespread effectiveness in both
soft and hard wheats. Resistance from Aegilops ventricosa is distinct
from the Loros resistance and has been called Cre2 (or Ccn2) (Delibes
et al., 1993). That from France derives from Aegilops ventricosa and is
called Crex; it is on the homologous chromosome group 2, like Cre 1
and the genes (Cre3 and Cre4) from T. tauschii (=A. squarrosa).
Cyst Nematodes 95
Table 4.7. Sources of resistance and their use in breeding cereal cultivars resistant to cereal cyst
nematodes (CCN), Heterodera avenae and other species.
Source
Cereal
species Original R-gene(s) Use and cultivars Response to pathotypesa
Barley N. European Rha1 N. Europe cvs R to Ha1

(Hordeum) landraces 1900-1950s
Emir Rha? Susceptible in R to Ha61(Norway, NL,
much of Europe India, Siberia)
N. African Rha2 Cvs in Denmark, R to Hat and Ha2
accession? Sweden, UK S to Ha3
Morocco from N. Africa Rha3 Not in CVS R to Hat, Ha2 and Ha3
Galleon Major gene Australia R to Hat3
Oats Sol II, from Sweden Minor genes Scandinavia Partial resistance to many
(Avena) populations
A. sterilis 1376 1-3 major UK R to all Hat, Ha2 and
genes Ha3: bred cvs susceptible
to some populations
US 1624 (Cl3444) Major gene Sweden, Denmark, R to Hat and Ha2
UK S to Ha3
Avon and several ? Australia R in Australia (Hat3), S
Australian cvs to Ha 1 and Ha2
Wheat Loros, AUS10894 Cent R to Ha1, Ha2
( Triticum) S to Ha 13 in Australia
T. tauschii Ccn01 R to Ha13
Ccn02 Partial R to Ha13
Ae. ventricosa Ccn2
asee also Tables 4.5 and 4.9.
Genes in wheat have been cloned and sequenced and these arc
being used in breeding in Australia. Marker-assisted selection is being
used to incorporate these genes. singly and in concert (Jeffries et of ..
1997; Ogbonnaya et al., 1998). There are indications of synteny in that
sequences from the wheat R-gene, Cre3. introgressed from Triticum
tauschii, detected resistance gene analogues in barley which mapped to
loci known to be associated with genes for CCN resistance (Seah et of ..
1998).

(PCN)
Potato resistance sources contribute a range of genes (Table 4.8).

Initially, progress was made with a single dominant gene that gave
fully effective resistance to the then predominant virulence phenotype
Table 4.8. Sources of resistance in Solanum spp. to potato cyst nematodes (PCN), Globodera
rostochiensis and G. pa/Iida, examples of their use in European breeding programmes and some
additional resistance sources. (After Anand et al., 1998; Dale and de Scurrah, 1998.)
Resistance to pathotypesa
Source A-genes Cultivars G. rostochiensis G. pa/Iida
S. tuberosum ssp. H1 Maris Piper UK 1963 Ro1, Ro4

andigena CPC1673 Saturna NL 1964
> 70 CVS
S. tuberosum ssp. H3 polygenic (Pa1,
andigena CPC2802 Pa2!3)
S. multidissectum H2 Pat
S. vernei oligogenic Morag UK 1985
Glenna NL 1987
Several cvs in D, NL,
UK by 1997
S. brevicaule Broad spectrum
S. capsicibaccatum P4A, PSA
S. circaefolium Pa2, Pa3
S. gourlayi Major genes and Broad spectrum P4A, PSA
quantitative resistance
S. kurtzianum Major gene Broad spectrum
S. leptophytes P4A, PSA
S. megastacrolobum
S. optocense Broad spectrum
S. santae-rosae
S. sparsipilum P4A, PSA
S. spegazzinnii Major gene Broad spectrum
S. vernei Major and quantitative Broad spectrum
aAlso see Tables 4.5 and 4.9.
of G. rostochiensis. Other major R-genes have been introduced into

cultivars. Resistance to G. pallida is available from a number of sources
of cultivated and wild Solanum species, but is rarely fully effective
after hybridization.
Other cyst nematodes
Resistance has been introduced from wild beet species into cultivated
sugar beet. The translocation appears to have introduced a major single
gene complemented by a gene of less effect. Other n~sistance genes
present in the wild species were not transferred into the breeding lines.
This gene has been cloned and sequenced and may be a useful synteny
for nematode R-gene location in other crops. Resistance and tolerance
Cyst Nematodes 97
to beet cyst nematode are generally independently inherited in beet

(Muller, 1998a), but there is no information on the genetics of tolerance
and no selection methods have been described. Useful resistance to
H. sacchari in the wild rice, 0. glaberrima, appeared to be qualitative,
suggesting simple genetic control. The resistance was readily trans-
ferred to and selected in interspecific hybrids with cultivated nee,
0. sativa (Plowright et al., 1999).
Germplasm Tests and Collections

Increasingly, searchable databases of plant genetic resources are
available on the Internet. Some of those that are particularly relevant
to nematode resistance, having some information about variation in
response to cyst nematodes, are detailed below (Table 4.9). One good
general starting site is the United States Department of Agriculture
National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS). This cooperative public
and private venture to preserve the genetic diversity of plants is one
part of the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) that
allows access to collections and associated databases. Its web site pro-
vides links to many related sites, including national and international
organizations. Most do not have information about responses to nema-
todes but allow individually defined ranges of variation to be identified
and acquired for screening. Another generally useful starting point is
the URL http://www.cgiar.org/ecpgr. From this site, there are links to
collections in which nematode resistance has been evaluated, as well
as to other attributes of crop plant collections relevant to planning a
screening programme. Results of nematode screening included in such
databases should be regarded as preliminary, particularly when the
germplasm is to be used for a different region.
The NPGS soybean database lists responses to SCN in the USDA

Soybean Germplasm Collection. All resistant cultivars developed in
USA public institutions derive ultimately from one or more of only six
plant introductions (Tables 4.6 and 4.9; Bernard et al., 1988a; Dong
et al., 1997). Having defined ror genes (reproducing Qn a resistant host)
in SCN, Dong and Opperman (1997) concluded that gene for gene inter-
actions do apply in the SCN/soybean system with dominant alleles of
R-genes in resistant plants and recessive ror alleles in virulent nema-
todes. It follows from this that the intermediate reactions observed in
population level interactions result from expression of heterogeneity in
plant and animal. This disguises potentially useful gene combinations
Table 4.9. URL addresses of plant genetic resources with particular relevance to cyst nematode
resistance.
Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)

Agricultural Research Service-United States Department of Agriculture
National Plant Germplasm Repository, links to USA and international germplasm collections
http://www.ars-grin-gov/npgs
Soybean cyst nematode
USA State sites, list results of SCN screening on varieties, e.g.
http://www.ag.uiuc/-wardt/cover.htm
Cereal cyst nematodes
Nordiska Genbanken (Nordic genebank), maintains and distributes CCN
Differential varieties
http://www.ngb.se/cereal
Potato cyst nematodes
Centro Internacional de la Papa (GIP)
http://www.cgiar.org/cip
Commonwealth Potato Collection
http://scri.sari.ac.uk/cpc
Dutch-German Potato Collection
http://www.cprodlo.nl/cgn
that are increasingly revealed and potentially exploitable by molecular

marker-aided selection.
USA cultivars are usually registered with the Crop Science Society
of America, and brief descriptions of new cultivars are published in
Crop Science. There are also lists of resistant cultiv<ffS on a number of
web pages, some of which give useful methodological links. Some
states in the USA frequently have web pages referring to locally resis-
tant soybeans and these usually allow links to othei soybean sources
(Table 4.9).

(CCN)
Some National Lists of Registered Varieties (Europe) give details of

cereal cultivars with cyst nematode resistance. Rivoal and Cook (1993)
indicate accessions of cereal germplasm with resistance to some of the
pathotypes and species with details, where known, of genetic control
and relationships (Tables 4. 7 and 4. 9).
In Australia, barlev cultivars with resistance based on Galleon are
registered and grown (Wheeler, 1998) and these also have good toler-
ance compared with that of oats. There are also additional sources of
resistance in Triticum to a broad range of cereal cyst nematodes (Nicol,
2001). The approach of using gene sequences to screen genomes
Cyst Nematodes 99
directly will identify other genes in due course. A sequence from wheat
gene Cre3 has been used to detect resistance gene analogues on all
chromosomes of wheat (Spielmeyer et al., 1998). Development of this
approach will allow direct gene screening for sequences conditioning
nematode resistance. Resistant wheats include Festiguay, whose par-
entage is not known, and Molineux and recently bred varieties with
Loros or AUS10894 alleles.
Oats resistant in Australia are susceptible in the UK (Cook and
York, 1988). Most cultivars of rye are generally resistant, but within
triticales there are cultivars which have resistance, some like the quan-
titative type expressed in rye and others with the major gene resistance
like that in wheat (Cook and York, 1987).
The USDA World Collection of small grains and the International
Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) collections have not
been systematically screened with different isolates of cereal cyst nem-
atodes. The Nordic gene bank (Nordiska Genbanken, Sweden) lists
accessions with CCN resistance and also maintains the International
Differential series that has been relatively widely characterized.
Ancestral cultivars include old landraces, e.g. cv. Sol II, that
may have resistance that is effective against nematodes from outside
their zone of origin; e.g. Scandinavian and north-western European
sources, although now susceptible to home populations, are effective in
southern France, India and Australia.

(PCN)
Several important collections have been screened for resistance to PCN

(Tables 4.5 and 4.9). The germplasm includes not only cultivars of the
crop species, but also a number of related species in the Common-
wealth Potato Collection and Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP):
www.cgiar.org/cip. There are also national lists of potato cul ti vars,
including the Dutch-German Potato Collection, tested in The Nether-
lands, Germany, and France to pathotypes Rol, Ro2, Ro3, Ro5, Pal.
Pa2, Pa3 and (Rol + Ro2 + Ro3 + Ro4 + Ro5) in mixture. Other potato
collections are accessible via links from the CPC or Dutch-German
Potato Collection web sites. There is also considerable variation in wild
Solanum species (Table 4.8).
Globodera tabacum, tobacco cyst nematodes
Tobacco cultivars resistant to G. tabacum subspecies are listed bv

LaMondia (1988) and by Johnson (1990). Twenty-four genotypes of
tobacco included nine with good resistance in glasshouse tests in pots

of soil infested with eggs (Herrero et al., 1996). Tobacco genotypes
resistant to a North Carolina population of the nematode were: cvs
Burley 21, PD 4, VA 81, NC 567, Speight G-80, Kutsaga Mammoth 101,
Kutsaga 110 and two flue-cured breeding lines. Hayes et al. (1997) did
similar tests with a Virginia isolate but stained root samples at 8 weeks
after inoculation of 6-week-old transplants. The more resistant acces-
sions included TI 1597, TI 1625, and cvs Burley 64, MD 40, Pennbell 69
and Kutsaga Mammoth 10.
Heterodera ciceri, chickpea cyst nematode
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and related species were evaluated for

resistance to Heterodera ciceri in glasshouse trials. Plants were grown
in pots with infestations adjusted to 20 eggs g- 1 soil. Accessions were
evaluated by a 0-5 index, related to numbers of first generation white
females and new cysts on roots. Resistance was found in some lines of
three species but not in C. arietinum, nor in five other species. The
resistance of one line of C. reticulatum, ILWC 292, is likely to be useful
for hybridization with cultivated chick pea (Singh et al., 1996) and is
maintained at the International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry
Areas (ICARDA), Syria.
Heterodera sacchari, rice cyst nematode
West African accessions of the African rice (Oryzo globerrima) and

hybrids with cultivated rice (0. sativa) have been identified as valuable
resistance sources (Plowright et al., 1999). Fifteen of 21 accessions of
0. glaberrima and seven of nine accessions of the wild species 0.
breviligulata were resistant to H. sacchari (Reversat and Destombes,
1998 ). Like the nematode, all the resistance sources were of African
ong1n.
Heterodera trifolii, clover cyst nematode
Resistance to Heterodera trifolii has been identified in genotypes from a

number of cultivars and populations of white clover in the United
Kingdom and in New Zealand. Selection was based on numbers of
females per plant, or in New Zealand per g root. Those from New
Zealand have been developed as experimental populations and proven
to control this nematode in long-term field trials. The proportions
of resistant plants increased after repeated selection in successive
Cyst Nematodes 103
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Nematodes
Edited by
9 J.L. Starr
USA
A.Cook
Aberystwyth
UK
and
8 J. Bridge
GABI Bioscience
Egham
UK
CABI Publishing
CABI Publishing CAB! Publishing

Oxon OX10 8DE New York, NY 10016
UK USA
Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 212 481 7018

Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 212 686 7993
be reproduced in anv form or by any means, electronically, mechanicallv. by
photocopying, recording or otherwise. without the prior permission of the
copyright owners.
A catalogue record fur this book is available from the British Libr;in Lnndon. UK.

Plant resistance to parasitic: nematodes I edited by J.L. Starr. R. Cook ,111d j Bridge.
p. cm
ISBN 0-85199-4GG-O (alk. paper)
1. Plants--Disease and pest resistance. 2. Plant nematodes. I. Starr./. L. (James L) l!.
Cook, R. (Roger J.) lII IJridge, J. (John)
SB750 .P58 2001
632' .625 7--dc:21
2001046 l 09
ISBN 0 85199 460 '.J

Ditylenchus Species
R.A. Plowright1 , G. Caubel 2 and K.A. Mizen 3
1GABI Bioscience, Bake ham Lane, Egham, Surrey
TW20 9TY, UK; 2/NRA, 35653 Le Rheu Cedex, France;
3 /nstitute of Grassland and Environmental Research,
Aberystwyth SY23 3EB, Wales, UK
The genus Ditylenchus comprises many species, of which four are cur-
rently known to be important pests of crop plants, namely: Ditylenchus
dipsaci (Kuhn) Filipjev, D. destructor Thorne 1945, D. angustus (Butler
1913) Filipjev 1936 and D. africanus Wendt et al. 1995. D. dipsaci,
the stem and bulb nematode, is prevalent in a wide range of climatic
conditions, temperate, subtropical and tropical, where moisture
regimes enable nematode infection, multiplication and dispersal.
D. dipsaci is an important pest of lucerne (alfalfa, Medicago sativa),
red and white clover ( Trifolium pro tense and T. re pens), pea (Pi sum
sativum), bean ( Vicia faba) and bulbous species of Liliaceae including
garlic (Allium sativum), onions (A. cepa), tulip (Tulipa spp.) and
narcissus (Narcissus spp.). D. dipsaci has been of importance to cereals,
particularly oats (Avena spp.) and rye (Secale cereale). The many host
races and populations of D. dipsaci are regarded as a species complex
(Sturhan, 1971). Resistant cultivars play an important role in nematode
management as chemical control is generally uneconomic, seed treat-
ment not always effective and crop rotation complicated by the wide
host range of this nematode. Some sources of resistance are available
and in lucerne. red and white clover, oat, garlic, strawberry
(Fragaria x ananassa) and sweet potato (Ipomoea botatas), resistant
cultivars have been developed.
D. destructor, the potato tuber rot nematode, is widespread and
locally important. Historically, a pest of potato (Solanum tuberosum)
in the USA and Europe, the incidence of D. destructor is low and the
nematode is now of minor importance, except in eastern Europe where
(eds J.L. Starr. R Cook and J Bridae\ 107
108 R.A. Plowright et al.
economic crop losses occur (Sturhan and Brzeski, 1991). D. destructor

seriously damages sweet potato in China (Lin et al., 1993, 1996) where
research has identified sources of resistance, and is one focus of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) research (Anon., 1992).
D. angustus, the ufra disease nematode (Colour Plate 7), was an
important pest of deep-water rice (Oryza sativa) in south and Southeast
Asia, but its importance has declined as the area sown to deep-water
rice has declined. D. angustus is also widespread in lowland rice
systems in the south and particularly the south-west of Bangladesh,
where it causes crop failure sporadically in rainfed and irrigated crops.
There are good sources of resistance to D. angustus and advanced
generation breeding material is available for development of resistant
cultivars suitable for lowland and deep-water environments.
D. africanus, infecting groundnut (peanut, Arachis hypogaea)
(Jones and De Waele, 1988) is widespread in South Africa. The nema-
tode reduces the marketable value of groundnut and in some cases can
affect crop yield (Venter et al., 1991, 1993). All cultivars tested to date
are susceptible to D. africanus, although the variety Kwarts is said to be
tolerant (Venter et al., 1993).
General Considerations in Screening

Species identification
Precise identification of the target species of plant parasitic nematodes

and a thorough understanding of the variability in pathogenicity that
can exist in field populations is of crucial importance to resistance
breeding and the deployment of cultivars. In this regard, Ditylenchus
spp. are no exception.
Ditylenchus species are difficult to separate morphologically
but, in practice, morphological examination will be the first step in
identification. Morphology and clues from field host, site history, the
site of infection (root, stem, tuber, seed), symptoms and geographic
location, all assist in species identification. A number of organizations
offer nematode identification services to aid in this first step.
Intraspecific variation has not been detected in D. destructor.
D. africanus or D. angustus but 30 or more biological races exist within
D. dipsaci (Janssen, 1994). More recently, pathotypes that can break
resistance have been found. Some races of D. dipsaci have distinct host
specialization, particularly the races on herbage legumes and Liliaceae
but all have considerable variation in host range. The usefulness of host
range tests for race designation is thus a subject of discussion but, in
practice, the designation of host race or pathotype of field populations
Ditylenchus Species 109
is crucial. Only this will enable correct advice for nematode manage-
ment to be given. The occurrence of mixtures of races (intraspecific
variants) in field populations should be considered to be possible.
Some research has attempted to separate Ditylenchus species by
using genomic DNA probes (Palmer et al., 1992) or by restriction
fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) of polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) amplified ribosomal sequences (Wendt et al., 1994). These tech-
niques currently fail to separate races other than the giant from normal
races of D. dipsaci and these can readily be separated by adult
female size. Some progress has been made towards the development of
random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers for other host
races of D. dipsaci (Esquibet et al., 1998), but this approach, too, was
more successful in distinguishing giant from normal races. Within
these giant and normal groups, races were highly similar. Problems
with the reproducibility of RAPDs will probably preclude their use
in the field, particularly where populations of mixed races can be
expected.
lnoculum
Selection of isolates
Nematode isolates reared for use in resistance screening should be
representative of the nematode populations in the target geographic
area. Ditylenchus spp. can be reared in monoxenic cultures on a variety
of 'host' substrates (see below) and, where quarantine regulations
permit, the containment provided by these methods enables the devel-
opment of collections of nematode 'isolates'. These isolates could be
different races or pathotypes of D. dipsaci or geographically isolated
populations of other Ditylenchus species. Nematode isolates must be
cultured separately, although for screening purposes some advocate the
use of mixtures of isolates (Whitehead. 1992; Alcaniz et al .. 1996).
Population samples
When nematodes are collected from plants in the field for rearing
purposes, there is inevitably some selection from the nematode gene
pool that exists in the field. Cultures will, in practice. be established
from relatively few nematodes and sometimes just a single female. This
selection can be useful, for example. allowing analysis of within-field
variation in nematode pathogenicity. In most screening, however. this
selection is not desirable. Inoculum for screening may be collected
from the field or reared on plants in microplots or in pots. For
D. dipsaci, this works well in white clover and V. faba. Infected plant
tissues can be collected for immediate use or, in the case of V. faba, air
dried and stored for future use. When inoculum is collected from more
than one field, fields with a similar recent cropping history should be
selected. Likewise, other species can be obtained from infected tissues:
D. angustus from fresh rice stems from pots or microplots; D. destructor
from peel of potato tubers; and D. africanus from hulls and seed of
groundnut pods. Host plant sources of inoculum, however, may be
unreliable and lack the flexibility to supply nematodes when they are
needed because the availability of plants infected with many nema-
todes depends on crop management and season. It is often difficult to
collect sufficient D. dipsaci from the field when inoculum is required.
Even when symptoms are apparent on plants, in new infections, there
may be few nematodes present and, in older infections, maturing popu-
lations may become contaminated with bacterial feeding nematodes as
D. dipsaci migrate from the damaged tissues.
Nematode infectivity
Among the species of Ditylenchus considered in this manual, D.
dipsaci and, to a lesser extent, D. africanus can survive slow desicca-
tion and persist in plant tissue and seed in an anabiotic state. D. dipsaci
extracted after rehydration of dried plant tissues and seed will be
mainly fourth stage juveniles (J4), the survival stage, whereas fresh
tissue will contain all life stages. As tissues senesce, nematode pop-
ulations have a progressively increasing proportion of J4. D. africanus
survives in seed predominantly as eggs and some anhydrobiotic
nematodes (Venter et al., 1995).
For screening purposes, when inoculum is placed directly on
a plant maintained in high relative humidity, it is likely that within
each species of Ditylenchus, juveniles within eggs, free juveniles and
adults have equal infection potential. Thus, in determining inoculum
densities all stages can be counted and weighted equally, in terms of
infectivity. On the other hand, when inoculum is introduced into soil
or water adjacent to a plant, the relative infecti\·ity of different stages
influences the numbers that invade. With D. crngustus, for example.
Plowright and Gill (1994) found that second stage juveniles (J2) and
hence eggs were not infective using an inoculation system to mimic
natural invasion (see below). These issues can hP hest addressed
through consistency of method, particular! y in rel at i O!l to the source
of inoculum and the age of cultures which provide the inoculum.
Plowright and Gill (1994) found that populations of D. angustus
achieved a stable demographic equilibrium 60 days after inoculation.
Cultures of that age were used to provide inoculum for screening
purposes. Some of the difficulties in inoculating plants, encountered
by Whitehead et al. (1987), may have been due to the range of sources
of inoculum, which included callus cultures, fresh and dried plant

material and populations dried on filter papers.
Regardless of the source of nematode inoculum, nematodes should
be recovered from extracts daily and used as soon as possible after
extraction. They can be stored in shallow water (up to 5 mm deep)
in dishes at 2-5°C for 1-2 weeks and still maintain good infectivity.
Cook and Evans (1988) avoided the extraction phase by inoculating
an aqueous suspension of macerated nematode-infected white clover
plant tissue. Similar approaches have been used for D. angustus (see
below). When extracted from fresh tissue, nematodes should be washed
in several changes of sterile water to remove traces of plant phenolics
and chlorophyll, which would otherwise render them inactive.
Long-term culture of Ditylenchus spp. on callus tissue or an alter-
native host can influence the ability of nematodes to multiply on the
original field host species, as has been reported for D. angustus (Ali and
Ishibashi, 1997). For this reason, the infectivity or aggressiveness of
Ditylenchus spp. reared in monoxenic culture should be monitored on
the field host. In contrast, a lucerne race of D. dipsaci maintained and
regularly subcultured on callus, retained its host specificity and ability
to induce symptoms on susceptible lucerne for more than 10 years
(Eriksson, 1972).
Rearing inoculum
With careful maintenance, monoxenic cultures of Ditylenchus spp.
can provide a reliable supply of inoculum of consistent quantity
and quality. They can also reduce the risk of dissemination of the
nematodes in the vicinity of breeding stations.
DITYLENCHUS DIPSACI: MONOXENIC CULTURE. Monoxenic culture methods

have been developed for D. dipsaci {Hooper, 1986) and are ideal for
raising the large numbers of nematodes required for screening. The best
methods culture D. dipsaci on lucerne callus. Not all callus is suitable
for nematode multiplication; indeed resistant and susceptible categori-
zations derived from whole plants may no longer apply to callus tissues
raised from the plant. From callus tissue derived from different lucerne
genotypes, those most suitable for nematode multiplication must
be selected. Nematodes collected in soil or plant material must be
extracted, identified, cleaned and surface sterilized before inoculating
on to callus. When collected from field-grown whole plants, D. dipsaci
must first be identified, after hand-picking with a mounted eyelash or
micropipette. When establishing cultures it is important to select only
D. dipsaci, and to reselect at the first subculture. in order to ensure
a monoxenic culture. Nematodes can be separated from debris by
migration through either tissue paper on a Whitehead and Hemming
(1965) tray or a 5 mm depth of cellulose sponge filter, cut to fit

into an appropriate Baermann funnel modification, and collected in
clean water or an antibiotic/antimycotic solution. A suitable antibiotic
surface sterilization solution would be: penicillin G sodium (300 units
ml- 1 ), streptomycin sulphate (300 µg ml- 1 ), amphotericin B (0.75 µg
ml- 1 ). There is a variety of methods for surface sterilizing nematodes.
Batches of 1-10 nematodes are quickly transferred, one at a time, using
an entomological micro-pin or mounted eyelash, to a few drops of
malachite green (0.1 % w/v for 15 min) on a sterile glass cavity slide.
The nematodes are then quickly transferred to sterile distilled water
(SDW) in a sterile excavated glass block. Once sufficient nematodes
(30-50) have been axenized in this way they can be transferred to the
callus in a drop (5-10 µl) of SDW. Alternatively, larger numbers of
nematodes can be rinsed several times in SDW and then, depending on
the level of contamination, soaked in 0.5-1.0% Hibitane (chlorhexi-
dine gluconate 20% v/v) for up to 3 h at ambient temperature or
overnight at 2-5°C. Following treatment, the nematodes are washed in
SDW, coll~cted in a glass block and inoculated on to callus in 5-10 µl
of SDW. An excavated glass block is a useful receptacle for surface
sterilizing larger batches of nematodes. By gently rotating the block,
nematodes in sterilant or rinsing water can be aggregated as they settle.
The supernatant liquid can then be removed using a fine Pasteur
pipette or a micropipette, leaving the nematodes in a small volume
ready for further washing or inoculation. These procedures can also
be carried out in sterile centrifuge tubes (e.g. 1.5 ml Eppendorf
microtubes) using centrifugation to settle the nematodes.
Protocol for culturing D. dipsaci on callus
The following protocols describe the scarification and surface steriliza-

tion of lucerne or clover seeds, their use in callus production and the
techniques for rearing stem nematodes on callus.
General precautions
1. Wear gloves and follow good laboratory practice guidelines.

2. Ensure that as much sulphuric acid as possible is drained from
seeds before rinsing with water (exothermic reaction).
3. Collect the concentrated acid separately and dilute in a fume hood
by adding acid slowly to an exu;~;s of water, neutralize and discard.
4. Mercury vapour is evolved from mercuric chloride in contact with
ethanol: prepare in a fume hood.
5. Work in a laminar flow hood and use aseptic techniques through-
out.
Method: seed scarification, sterilization and germination

1. Place unscarified seed, two deep to cover the base of a c. 100 ml
sterilized glass beaker.
2. Add concentrated sulphuric acid to cover seeds.
3. Stir with glass rod and leave to stand for 5-10 min depending on
seed size and hardness.
4. Pour off excess H 2 S0 4 .
5. Rinse seed with excess sterile distilled water (SDW) (to counteract
heating effect of dilution of the acid).
6. Repeat rinse with SOW four times.
7. Fill beaker with 1000 p.p.m. HgC1 2 in 30% ethanol.
8. Allow to stand in fume hood for 15 min.
9. Pour off HgC1 2 /ethanol.
10. Rinse with excess SOW.
11. Repeat rinse with SOW four times.
12. Allow seed to stand in SDW in laminar flow hood for 2-3 h to
imbibe.
13. Pour off water and rinse with SOW to remove leached tannins.
14. Transfer seed to Petri dishes of nutrient agar and germinate for
2 days at 15-20°C.
15. Discard any contaminated seedlings or plates and transfer healthy
seedlings to 30-ml universal tubes of agar and grow on at 20°C and 16 h
photoperiod.
Method: callus production, inoculation and nematode collection

1. Sterilized seedlings of lucerne, red or white clover with 3 or 4
trifoliate leaves are cut at the hypocotyl and transferred to callusing
medium (B51, that is, Gamborgs B5 medium, pH 5.8, supplemented
with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (2 mg 1- 1 ), kinetin
(0.5 mg 1- 1 ), sucrose (2% w/v), agar (8 g 1- 1 )). Pinch entire seedling
length including laminae lightly between serrated forcep points to
create multiple wounds. Insert cut end of hypocotyl into the agar with
the rest of the seedling laid on the agar surface, 3 to 4 seedlings per dish
and store in the dark for about 7 days. Primary callus will begin to form
from each wound point and can be subcultured and inoculated after
2-3 weeks. Inoculate with 100-200 sterilized nematodes delivered in
5-10 µl from a positive displacement pipette. Always inoculate young,
actively growing callus by selecting those which have increased in
volume. Establishing an initial culture can prove difficult. in which
case sterilized seedlings can be inoculated between the cotyledons
or in a leaf axil 1-2 days after transfer to the callusing medium. The
nematodes then invade and develop at the same time as the primary
callus is initiated.
114 R.A. P/owright et al.
2. Established cultures are maintained in the dark, preferably in an

incubator at 20°C. Depending on the size of the initial inoculum and
the nematode multiplication rate, callus will require subculture after
40-90 days. Callus with a heavy burden of nematodes tends to discol-
our and has a watery appearance. Subculture by sterile transfer of
pieces of agar and callus containing nematodes on to new, actively
growing callus.
3. Nematodes are harvested by breaking up callus and agar with ster-
ile forceps and placing the entire culture with any nematodes washed
from the dish on a sterile Baermann funnel or similar device to select
active worms. Nematodes should be collected regularly to sterile Petri
dishes. Residual 2,4-0 can be removed from the nematode suspension
in three or four of the rinsing cycles described above, and the clean
nematodes stored at 2-4 °C until use. Some nematodes can be collected
from condensation droplets on the dish lid, where they accumulate
after migration from the callus. These should also be selected by pas-
sage through the sterile filter system.
DITYLENCHUS DIPSACI: ALTERNATIVE CULTURE METHODS. D. dipsaci can be

mass cultured in courgettes (Hooper and Cowland, 1988) or onion for
some different races, including giant races. Tenente and Evans (1992)
found that teasel and red clover races reproduced well in courgettes.
but bean, oat and lucerne races failed to multiply. The nematodes
should be axenized as above and injected into the tissue in 5-10 µl
SOW using a hypodermic needle and sealing the puncture with molten
wax. Endogenous bacteria can be a problem leading to rot of some
courgettes before nematodes can be recovered.
D. dipsaci can be extracted from fresh tissue or dry plant tissue, the
latter being particularly good for V. faba. The ability of D. dipsaci to
survive in a desiccated state, means that dried tissues can be stored in
bulk to provide large numbers of nematodes. The plant material, fresh
or dry, is cut into 1 cm lengths, placed in a Baermann funnel in
shallow water or under automatically controlled, intPrmittent misting.
Nematodes extracted from dried plant tissues will hf~ mainly fourth
stage juveniles, whereas those extracted from fresh tissue will contain
eggs and all juvenile stages. As fresh tissue senesces. it will contain
nematode populations with a progressively increasing proportion of J4.
DITYLENCHUS DESTRUCTOR: MONOXENIC CULTURE. D. destructor can feed

and reproduce on a wide range of fungi and on callus tissues of carrot,
clover, potato and tobacco (Faulkner and Darling. 1961; Hooper.
1986). MacGuid\,vin and Slack (1991) reared D. destructor on Fu sari um
roseum growing on potato dextrose agar. For screening, it is preferable
to rear nematodes on plant tissue to reduce the risk of transferring
fungal spores with inoculated nematodes. For this purpose, potato
callus maintained at 25°C is suitable. Callus can be initiated from

potato stem internodes rinsed with ethanol (70% v/v) or from sterile
tissue cultured plants. De Waele et al. (1991) propagated callus
on Murashige and Skoog's (1962) medium supplemented with 2,4-D
(3 mg 1- 1 ) and kinetin (0.2mg1- 1 ). D. destructor can be surface
sterilized using the methods outlined above for D. dipsaci and the
same inoculation considerations apply. Cultures are maintained by
transferring small pieces of infected callus to new callus cultures.
OITYLENCHUS DESTRUCTOR ALTERNATIVE METHODS. D. destructor can be

reared on whole potato tubers. The inoculum is introduced in a
solution of carboxymethyl cellulose (2% w/v) into a shallow cavity
(c. 5 mm deep) cut using a 3 mm diameter cork borer, and sealed with
wax (see Hooper, 1986).
OITYLENCHUS ANGUSTUS: MONOXENIC CULTURE. Most screening for resis-

tance to D. angustus has been done in the field in microplots, infested
with cut pieces of infected rice stems which are reared in irrigated
microplots or in pots. Inoculation procedures for rearing D. angustus in
this way are the same as those for field screening purposes. D. angustus
can be reliably cultured on rice plantlets grown in monoxenic
conditions (Plowright and Akehurst, 1992). It is suggested that a
number of fungi also support nematode multiplication (Latif and
Mian, 1995). Contrary to earlier work (Plowright and Akehurst, 1992),
Ali and Ishibashi (1997) found that D. angustus could reproduce on
Botrytis cinerea. Fecundity was always greater in seedling culture but
there was a suggestion that nematodes could adapt and become more
fecund on B. cinerea.
To establish rice plantlet culture, surface sterilize hulled rice
grain in mercuric chloride (0.1 % w/v), for 30 min, wash five times in
SOW and transfer to Gamborgs B5 medium with sucrose (2°/ci w/v) and
solidified with agar (1 %) in 9 cm diameter Petri dishes. After 30 days.
inoculate a leaf base adjacent to a newly emerging leaf with c. 30 adult
axenized nematodes in 5 µl of SDW. Seal the Petri dish with elastic
PVC tape or Parafilm and maintain at 25°C, 12 h photoperiod. Nema-
todes migrate from plant tissues and move throughout the Petri dish as
numbers increase. Moisture droplets may form on the underside of lids
of culture plates, particularly when temperatures fluctuate diurnally
by a few degrees. Nematodes can become trapped, starve and die if
such droplets persist. When extracting nematodes from such cultures.
care should be taken to avoid high proportions of these weak or dead
nematodes in the resultant inoculum. Nematodes migrating on the
underside of lids can be easily collected in a small volume of SDW
(< 1 ml) to provide axenic inoculum to form subcultures. The nema-
todes collected in this way can be concentrated in a sterile microtube
by centrifugation, if necessary, to achieve an inoculum density of

6 µl- 1 • A consistent quality of inoculum for screening purposes can be
achieved by standardizing the age of cultures used.
DITYLENCHUS AFR/GANUS: MONOXENIC CULTURE. D. africanus can be

reared on groundnut callus derived from groundnut leaves (Van
der Walt and De Waele, 1989). Leaves from 4-week-old plants
are surface sterilized using ethanol (70% v/v) for 30 s, then sodium
hypochlorite (0.5% v/v) containing Tween 20 for 15 min before
washing five times in SDW. Leaf sections (1 cm 2 ) are cut and trans-
ferred to Murashige and Skoog's (1962) medium, pH 5.7. Actively
growing callus is inoculated after 4 weeks. Callus can show discolor-
ation and requires subculture after 5 weeks. Subculture procedures are
the same as those for D. dipsaci above.
Inoculating Plants
A wide variety of methods has been developed to achieve stern nema-
tode infection in plants. Stem nematodes can be inoculated on to plants
directly or, depending on the species concerned, they can be placed, in
soil or water, in the vicinity of plants. The inoculum can be delivered
in aqueous suspension with or without a gelling agent such as agar or
carboxyrnethyl cellulose, or by using infected fresh or dry plant material.
Similarly, a range of inoculum densities has been used. often without
any clear rationale or knowledge of the fate of inoculated nematodes.
Ditylenchus dipsaci
Inoculating plants in the field

In common with most nematodes, infection by D. dipsaci in the field
can be achieved by establishing a nematode 'sick' plot. ruok and Evans
(1988), for example, transplanted pot-grown, white dU\ er accessions
and cultivars into a field that had previously been a 1.,vhite clover
monoculture, with an established stem nematode infection. Ri voal
et al. (1978) and Stanton et al. (1984) also relied on natural soil-borne
infestation of D. dipsaci for screening for resistance in cereals. The
population dynamics of D. dipsaci, however, are strongly influenced
by environmental conditions, particularly relative humidity and
temperature and thus field results can vary from year to year, with
the prevailing conditions. Furthermore, the distribution of nematodes
in field soil is known to be heterogeneous which requires that trial
designs be replicated and incorporate resistant and susceptible refer-
ence cultivars. \!Vorking with V. faba, Hanounik et al. (1986) reduced
the heterogeneity of inoculum in the field, by overlaying seed, sown in

rows 1 m long and 50 cm apart, with nematode-infested soil to a depth
of 15 cm. The infested soil was prepared by incorporating large quanti-
ties of infected stems cut into 2 cm segments. This soil was watered
daily and diluted with uninfested soil after 2 weeks, to achieve a popu-
lation density of about 300 J4 dm-3 soil.
Inoculating plants and seedlings in containers

The problem of plants escaping infection for reasons unrelated to host
plant resistance can be minimized but rarely eliminated, by inoculating
plants or seedlings with infective nematodes. If this is done in condi-
tions optimal for infection, individual plant responses can be character-
ized and compared. There are many methods of inoculating plants with
stem nematodes and different laboratories probably employ variations
of standard approaches. Nevertheless, there are some guiding principles.
lnoculum density
The inoculum density should be 30-100 nematodes per plant or seed-
ling. Elgin (1984) preferred 200 but considered 100 to be sufficient.
Hooper (1984) used 50,000-100,000 nematodes per pot of field beans,
which, although this was added to the seed at sowing, appears to be
excessive. For white clover, Cook and Evans (1988) found no difference
between 34 or 61 nematodes. There have been few studies on the fate of
inoculated nematodes, but losses, i.e. those inoculated individuals that
do not invade the host, are probably high. Plowright and Gill (1994)
estimated that > 75% of D. angustus inoculum were lost, Mercer and
Grant (1995) estimated losses of D. dipsaci between 67 and 93%.
lnoculum delivery
In all inoculum delivery systems, whether nematodes are introduced to
soil or directly on to plants, it is essential that high relative humidity
is maintained immediately after inoculation. The first 2-3 days after
inoculation are particularly critical. Details of optimal conditions vary
with the host plant, but plant growth should be slow for 1-2 weeks after
inoculation to allow nematodes to establish an infection site. Actively
growing plants may outgrow the infection, so that subsequent second-
ary thickening can trap nematodes in tissues and prevent or reduce
symptom development. It is also advisable to re-inoculate plants after
1-2 weeks to minimize escapes, particularly where nematodes are
inoculated in aqueous suspension.
D. dipsaci can be inoculated on to seedlings of lucerne, V. faba,
clover and pea, in a small drop of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) sus-
pension (1-2% w/v) placed in the axil of the first leaves close to the
seedling terminal meristem (Figs 5.1 and 5.2). This method can be used
Fig. 5.1. White clover plant being inoculated with Ditylenchus dipsaci in
controlled environment screening test.
Fig. 5.2. White clover plant immediately after inoculation showing growing point
with Ditylenchus dipsaci in inoculation droplet.
to ino cu late older seedlings in pots or adapted for 11sP. with the 'rag doll'
protocol (see below). Elgin (1984) inoculated lu cerne seedlings in trays
or 'flats', 2 weeks after emergence with nematodes delivered either in
droplets of water or as an atomized spray, at a rate of 100 nematodes
per plant. Mercer and Grant (1995) used a technique for white clover
similar to that of Hussey and Krusberg (1968) for pea, in which an
to survive desiccation (Ibrahim and Perry, 1993) and soil population

densities are virtually undetectable where rice is followed by a dry
season, non-irrigated crop. Infested plots can be produced, after drain-
ing and allowing the soil to dry, by incorporating infected stubble.
Field microplots of rice are infested by floating cut pieces of infec-
ted rice culm on the surface of water around rice seedlings. Sufficient
inoculum is introduced to provide at least 100 infective nematodes
per seedling (predominantly J4 and adult) (Anon., 1985). The depth
of water in relation to seedling height is an important factor in deter-
mining the success of inoculation (see protocol and Fig. 5. 7).
Inoculating plants in pots

Inoculation of rice coleoptiles was developed in Vietnam (Kinh and
Nghiem, 1982). Ten adult nematodes were inoculated in a drop of
water on to germinated seed and maintained in a saturated environ-
ment for 48 h at 28-30°C. Infected seedlings were potted up and kept
in a partly shaded screenhouse at 80-90% relative humidity. Plow-
right (unpublished) adapted the 'rag doll' method and inoculated
D. angustus in 2% CMC on rice coleoptiles held in saturated rolls
of chromatography paper, but found the method to be very unreliable.
D. angustus are extremely active and readily aggregate in solution.
Aggregates of nematodes can be dispersed by agitation in water, but are
difficult to disperse in CMC.
Rahman (1987) inoculated 3-4-week-old plants in pots by intro-
ducing nematodes directly into water around plants at a rate of 100
per plant. For routine screening, Plowright and Gill (1994) inoculated
300-500 nematodes per seedling into water and used plastic tubes to
confine the inoculum around seedlings (Fig. 5.3). Confining nematodes
around the plant ensured more equal infection of plants within a tra_v
and reduced escapes, compared with releasing inoculum into the whole
tray of 24 plants at the same rate per plant (Plowright and Gill, 1994 ).
These methods mimic natural invasion from water which takes place at
the water surface and it was assumed that with such methods onlv
about 10% of inoculated nematodes would invade the leaf sheath inter-
stices. Rahman and Evans (198 7) injected nematodes into the rice leaf
sheath, incorporated infected tissues into soil or placed them at the base
of the 10-day-old plants in water. The latter method gave the highest
proportion of infected plants, but less than 10% of the inoculurn invaded.
Ditylenchus destructor and D. africanus
There is very little information regarding techniques for inoculating

either D. destructor or D. africanus for the specific purpose of screening
for resistance. Both species invade plant tissue below ground and can
aqueous suspension of nematodes was applied to 3-day-old clover

seedlings or germinated pea seeds. Cook and Evans (1988) inoculated
white clover stolon-tip cuttings with a suspension of macerated
infected white clover containing about 100 nematodes to the soil
surface in close proximity of buds. Clover can be injected with a
nematode suspension using a hypodermic syringe (Dijkstra, 195 7; Cook
and Evans, 1988). Cereal seedlings can also be inoculated in this way
(Seinhorst, 1952); however, since it is difficult to inject even small
volumes of inoculum into plants, the volume to be injected into each
seedling must be no more than 5 µl (Cameron, 1963).
Carboxymethyl cellulose provides a number of functions as a
carrier for inoculum. It facilitates adhesion to the plant surface, reduces
surface tension allowing the inoculum drop to settle into the axil and
dries more slowly than water. It can be useful for keeping D. dipsaci
in suspension in the inoculum bulk and thus ensure more uniform
inoculation, although the more active D. angustus may form clumps
which are hard to disperse. However, automatic micropipettes can
now accurately dispense aqueous suspension in microlitre volumes,
provided the nematodes can be maintained in suspension. Aqueous
inoculum droplets of 5-10 µl maintain their integrity and can be made
to adhere at the point of inoculation, although such small drops may
dry very quickly and do not settle quickly into the axil. Mercer and
Grant (1995) found that infection using droplets was very poor, but this
may have been because of the relatively large droplet volume (30 µl).
Inoculation into soil or on young seedlings mimics natural invasion
more closely, but, since mechanisms of resistance are thought to oper-
ate after infection, direct inoculation methods are equally valid. Better
control of the nematode number inoculated to each plant is gained
by inoculating individual plants, and the homogeneity of inoculum
can be checked regularly by direct observation of sample droplets
placed on a glass slide. The spraying/sprinkling approaches used
by many are faster, but must sacrifice accuracy unless inoculation is
repeated. Cook and Evans (1988) found that the different ways that
plants were inoculated led to different levels of overall susceptibility
expressed in particular tests, but that there was gt~neral agreement in
the rank classification of clovers in separate tests. This would suggest
that relatively few nematodes are required to establish an infection to
classify a genotype.
Ditylenchus angustus
Inoculating plants in the field

Natural infestations of D. angustus are very sporadic and can not be
relied on for screening purposes. The nematode has no intrinsic ability
Ditylenchus Species 12 1
Fig . 5.3. Container of rice plants grown and prepared for inoculation with
Oitylenchus angustus in glasshouse screening test, showing plastic tubes arou nd
base of seedlings to concentrate the inocula. (Note host respo nse in foreg round.)
be applied in aqueous suspensions to so il around estab lished plants.

Venter et al. (1993), for example, inoculated 100 or 1000 D. africanus
of mixed life stages on to 5-week-old plants . They demonstrated very
little influence of initial density (Pd on the relative host status of
groundnuts. Many of the considerations regarding the inoculation of
plants are the same as those for migratory endoparasitic nematodes (see
De Waele and Elsen. Chapter 8). D. africanus can invade and multiply
in groundnut roots and so inocu lation can take p lace before pod forma-
tion. Similarly, D. destructor can feed on underground stem tissue
before stem tuber development in potato or root tuber development in
sweet potato.
Laboratory-based methods for screening root tubers of sweet .Potato
(Anon .. 1992) involve the same considerations as those for establishing
potato tuber cultures of D. destructor (see above and Hooper. 1986).
The thickness of the root periderm plays a role in resistance. and
mechanical injury of the periderm predisposes the tuber to nematode
infection. Inoculating nematodes through the peri derm (circu rn venting
this barrier) can enable the differentiation of clones based on a rotting
index (Anon .. 1992 ).
Evaluating Genotypes for Resistance
Resistance is interpreted as the ability of some cultivars of an otherwise

susceptible plant species to reduce the abi lity of the rwmatod<)
to reproduce and multiplv to high popu lation densities. Svmptoms
are expressed by plants in response to nematode invasion and (or)

nematode multiplication. The type of symptom and the severity of
expression are generally good indicators of susceptibility or resistance
to Ditylenchus spp. (Colour Plate 8), although care should always
be exercised when categorizing symptomless plants which may be
escapes or resistant.
Ditylenchus dipsaci
D. dipsaci feeds on parenchymatous tissue inducing hypertrophy

and hyperplasia in susceptible hosts. Infected plant parts containing
reproducing populations of nematodes are characteristically stunted,
swollen and distorted (Colour Plate 8). Individual plants may exhibit
some, although not necessarily all of the typical symptoms. In white
clover, for example, symptom development is dependent on the bal-
ance between nematode population growth and internode elongation,
a balance which is temperature dependent (Griffith et al., 1996 ).
Sub-epidermal infestations are not always correlated with the presence
of symptoms. Ectoparasitic infections of stem nematodes can establish
and multiply in leaf axils without producing typical susceptible
symptoms, e.g. in lucerne and white clover (Griffith et al., 1997).
Resistant plants can be symptomless, less swollen than susceptible
ones and/or exhibit localized necrosis. For example, the giant race
causes limited necrosis on a resistant plant, but never such severe stem
swelling as on a susceptible plant (Caubel and Leclercq, 1989). Thus.
the reactions of plants after infection may be evaluated by observations
of aerial plant parts. Ideally, assessments of symptom expression
will be supported by estimates of the rate of nematode multiplication.
This can be estimated by soil analysis for field plots and/or by
counting nematodes in plants. In field conditions, however, this is time
consuming and the distribution of infestation is never regular.
The assessment of symptoms in seedlings facilitates the screening
of large amounts of material: in general seedling response, for example.
in red clover and lucerne. correlates well with the host suitability of the
mature plant (Bingefors. 1970; Lundin and Jonsson. 1975; Caubel et al ..
1977). Very early assessments at 2-4 days after inoculation, can be
largely a measure of host reaction to invasion and Elgin et al. (1975)
argued that host responses should be judged weeks after inoculation.
\vhereas Whitehead (1992) considered it necessarv to assess plants
at flowering and again several months later. Cook and Evans
(1988) described an apparent loss of resistance v.rhen plants initially
categorized as resistant later exhibited susceptibility. This further
demonstrates that nematodes can survive in plant tissue without
exhibiting symptoms.
Resistance to D. dipsaci in V. faba, lucerne, and red and white

clover is a function of the response of individual plants derived from
seed, and the reaction of a cultivar determined by the proportions
of resistant plants in a population that expresses both resistant and
susceptible symptoms (Caubel and Leclercq, 1989).
Stem nematode multiplication is greatest in plants induced to form
massively hypertrophied tissues at infection sites. The probability of
this occurring seems to reflect the balance between nematode multipli-
cation rate and plant growth and differentiation. Thus, in spring-sown
oats, primary stems quickly become secondarily thickened as stem
elongation occurs (Colour Plate 9). In susceptible early heading
cultivars, invading stem nematodes rarely induce hypertrophy and do
not multiply so much as in susceptible winter oat cultivars whose
meristems remain vegetative for long periods. Nematode infection
causes massive hypertrophy and symptoms including the infestation of
secondary tiller meristems, before lignification and elongation.
Ditylenchus angustus
D. angustus feeds ectoparasitically on the youngest developing leaves

of rice, within the leaf sheath. Genotypes of rice can be classified
according to the type of symptom on emerging new leaves, following
inoculation. Susceptible symptoms are small white speckles on the
leaf, which coalesce towards the base of the leaf blade (Colour Plate 7).
These can be accompanied by puckering of the leaf surface and
distortion of the mid-rib or the leaf periphery. In severe infestations.
the entire emerging leaf is white. Plowright and Gill (1994) devised a
method of assessing the severity of susceptible symptoms on a new leaf
and demonstrated a good correlation between symptom severity and
the number of nematodes per plant (Fig. 5.4). Resistant plants are either
symptomless or exhibit a rapid browning response to feeding. This
browning may be on the leaf mid-rib or within relatively discrete
yellow halos on the lamina. Browning also occurs in the susceptible
response but it occurs slowly due to the deterioration of affected tis-
sue. The qualitatively different resistant response provides a basis for
genotypic selection. Plowright and Gill (1994) also found q uant i ta ti ve
variation in susceptibility to D. angustus.
Ditylenchus africanus
Resistance to D. africanus has not been reported. although some

cultivars appear to be more tolerant (Venter et al., 1993). Characteriza-
tion of groundnut genotypes is based on the severity of pod disease and
0 1 2 4
Fig. 5.4. A system for scoring ufra symptom severity on rice susceptible to
Ditylenchus angustus.
seed disease at harvest. Pod disease severity is rated on a 10-point scale

and estimates the proportion of the pod surface which is discoloured,
whereas seed disease severity is the proportion of blemished seed
(Venter et al., 1991).
Ditylenchus destructor
In China, sweet potato genotypes are assessed according to the extent

of browning of the flesh of root tubers, extending from the point of
inoculation (Anon., 1992).
Screening Protocols
Screening white clover, red clover and lucerne (alfalfa) for
resistance to D. dipsaci in controlled environment/glasshouse
Screening is best conducted in controlled environments maintaining

15/12°C (day/night) with a 16 h photoperiod. Alternatively, similarly
cool glasshouse or field conditions may be used, if protection from
unfavourable conditions (frosts or sun) is available. Field screening
may be used but, due to the variability of climatic conditions and diffi-
culty of inoculation, a greater number of escapes should be expected
and the replicate number increased accordingly.
1. Set up multi well (8 column x 5 row) 50 cm:i plastic pots containing
mixed (3:1 v/v) compost and horticultural vermiculite in propagator
trays, with drainage holes. Stand these trays in water to soak the
compost and after draining, stand each tray in a similar-sized tray
without holes and cover with a clear propagator hood.
2. Sow individual germinated seed in each pot, with five seedlings

(pots) of each variety per column. Each tray will contain six columns
of test entries and one column each of resistant and susceptible
controls.
3. Grow seedlings for approximately 3 weeks at 15/12°C day/night
with a 16 h photoperiod or until the first trifoliate leaf is expanded,
when the seedlings are inoculated.
4. Extract inoculum from infected plants or in vitro culture:
Infected plants. Collect well-infected buds and stolons showing symp-
toms from pots or field, cut off leaves, roots and any dead or rotting
tissue (to remove chlorophyll and phenolics). Wash on a 1-2 mm
aperture sieve to remove compost, soil and ectoparasites. Chop roughly
into 5 mm lengths and extract on a modified Whitehead tray or in a
mist extraction chamber.
In vitro cultures. Select Petri dishes of infected callus containing active
healthy nematodes on the lid and in the agar. Roughly break up the
callus and agar with forceps and extract together with the nematodes
washed from the lid of the Petri dish on a modified Whitehead tray or
in a mist extraction chamber.
5. Collect nematodes after 2, 24 and 48 h. Each time, settle the extract
at 2-4°C, siphon off the supernatant and refill with fresh water. This
process will remove plant phenolics and chlorophyll which would
otherwise inactivate the nematodes.
6. Make up the bulk to a known volume, aerate then remove measured
subsamples in which the number of stem nematodes are counted.
Calculate the total number of nematodes.
7. Reduce the bulk volume by settling and siphoning the supernatant
to give an inoculum density of approximately 10,000 nematodes ml- 1
(10 µl- 1 ). Aerate, then settle at 2-4°C, before removing half the super-
natant and replacing with an equal volume of 2% CMC.
8. Inoculate seedlings by delivering a 10 µl droplet of nematode sus-
pension on to the primary meristem in the axil of the emerging trifoliate
leaf (Fig. 5.2). Continue until all seedlings have been inoculated,
mixing suspension regularly to ensure even distribution of nematodes.
Cover each tray with a clear propagator hood (vents closed for 1 week)
to maintain high humidity.
9. Take sample droplets at the start and end of each tray. and count
nematodes to monitor the homogeneity of the inoculum.
10. Re-inoculate all seedlings as above, 2-7 days after the first
inoculation and in the reverse order. to reduce the chances of escapes.
11. Seedlings may be harvested after about a week and stained whole
using the acid fuchsin method (Byrd et al., 1983) to determine invasion
and start of egg-laying. Symptom development can be assessed visually
at 3 and 6 weeks postinoculation, scoring for hypertrophy, hyperplasia,
swelling and stunting in meristems. petioles and leaves.
Fig. 5.5. Field bean ( Vicia faba) plants after inoculation with the giant race of
Ditylenchus dipsaci, showing susceptible (left) and resistant phenotypes .
12. Second generation population development can be assessed 4-6

weeks after inoculation by counting life stages of nematodes extracted
from individual seedlings.
Screening field beans for resistance to D. dipsaci
Different methods have been developed under field, glasshouse and

laboratory conditions, using soil naturally or artificially infested. and
direct inoculation of plants.
Field evaluation
1. Collect large quant1t1es of infected stems from fields. cut them

into 2 cm segments and mix thoroughly with soil, to give about 300
nematodes dm <i soil.
2. Sow seeds in open drills, 1 m long, 50 cm apart, with a susceptible
cultivar repeated every five test entries. Cover all seeds vvith 15 cm
depth of infested soil. Irrigate immediately. Abbad et al. (1990) applied
an aqueous suspension of 300 nematodes per seedling at 1 month of age .
3. Record disease at about 80tYo podding, when stem symptoms are
well developed on susceptible controls, scoring by extent and nature of
symptoms (Hanounik et al., 1986).
Pot tests
1. Place seeds on silicate cla\· (Vermex M®. Efi sol. France) at 23 °C

transfer after 4-5 days one seed per pot or steam-treated organic:
compost, with 30 pots per tray, and transfer to a controlled environ-

ment chamber at 15°C, 16 h photoperiod.
2. Extract inoculum from dry tissues of infected plants to select
predominantly preadult stages. Cut dry tissue coarsely on to a 20-µm
aperture sieve and soak in water. Collect nematodes every 2 h, settling
each extract at 2-4°C. Siphon off supernatant and refill with clean
water.
3. Make up bulk of cleaned extracts to known volume, aerate and
remove subsamples, count nematodes and calculate total number.
Reduce the volume by settling and siphoning to give an inoculum
density of 200 nematodes per 15 µl.
4. Add an equal volume of 2% CMC to give 100 nematodes per 15 µl
droplet with good adherence to plants allowing increased penetration.
5. Inoculate 10-day-old seedlings by placing a 15 µl droplet in the first
stipule. Cover each tray to maintain high humidity for several days.
6. Take a sample droplet at the start and end of each tray to monitor
the homogeneity of the inoculum.
7. Assess symptom development at 2 months after inoculation,
scoring swelling, stunting or necrosis in stems and leaves (Fig. 5.5).
8. Assess nematode multiplication in each plant. Crush plant tissues
in a blender, dilute or concentrate the suspension and count nematodes
in subsamples to determine total nematodes per plant. Assess multipli-
cation rate (final population/100) which is correlated with symptom
express1on ..
Screening cereals for resistance to D. dipsaci
Glasshouse screening of cereals is most effective during the natural

season for field infection of the cereal type (that is. in winter or early
spring). Alternatively, controlled environment conditions can be set
to mimic the seasonal regimes of the particular crop to be examined.
A long, slow growing period after inoculation allmvs nematodes to
reproduce and symptoms to develop before plant stem di ffcrentiation
and elongation occur.
1. Sow 8-10 germinated seeds of each entry in a r:ircle 2 cm from the
rim of a 15 cm diameter pot containing soil-based compost. Stand each
pot in a saucer to allow bottom watering and randomize pot layout.
Each block of pots should contain entries to be tested and known
resistant and susceptible controls.
2. The seedlings are inoculated once the coleoptile has emerged.
3. Collect infected dried straw, select 3 or 4 tillers and soak in
tapwater for about 2 h (this prevents damage to the nematodes \vhen
extracting), rinse, then tease each straw apart longitudinally under

a stereomicroscope and extract nematodes overnight on a modified
Whitehead tray. Count the nematodes recovered and calculate the
tillers required to give an inoculum density of 100-200 nematodes per
seedling. Extract (see protocol for legumes), collect nematodes twice
daily for 48 h. For each collection, settle at 2-4°C before siphoning off
the supernatant and rinsing with clean water to remove plant phenolics
which would otherwise inactivate the nematodes.
4. Bulk cleaned collections in a known volume of water and remove
measured subsamples for counting and calculate the total number of
nematodes in the bulk. Reduce the bulk volume to give an inoculum
density of 10-20 nematodes µl- 1 . Settle, remove half the supernatant,
then add an equal volume of 2% CMC and mix.
5. Inoculate by delivering 5-10 µl of the suspension (100-200 nema-
todes) directly into the coleoptile sheath. This can be achieved using
a hypodermic syringe or micropipette. Begin by scraping away some
of the compost from the base of the seedlings to be inoculated, then
either:
(a) Fill a hypodermic syringe with well-mixed nematode suspension,
insert the needle into the exposed base of the coleoptile at 45° angle.
and deliver the inoculum directly into the sheath. Some resistance will
be felt as the suspension fills the sheath, occasionally a small droplet
appears at the top of the coleoptile. Take care not to pass the needle
straight through the coleoptile. Practice is required to ensure consistent
delivery. Extra inoculum will be needed as the needle sometimes clogs
and has to be replaced. Maintaining even distribution of nematodes is
more difficult with this method and inoculum densitv- and deliver\'-
will be more variable.
(b) Alternatively, use a scalpel to cut a slit longitudinally in the
exposed base of the coleoptile, into which the inoculum can be
precisely delivered using a micropipette (avoid loss of inoculum b~·
ensuring that it is delivered into the developing leaf tissue within the
coleoptile sheath).
6. Replace the compost around the base of the coleopti le and ensure a
high humidity is maintained by covering each pot \Nith a plastic bag for
1 week after inoculation.
7. Assess invasion by staining additional whole seedlings in bleach/
acid fuchsin (Byrd et al., 1983) 2 weeks after inoculation. Plants
should then be characterized by visual observation of symptom devel-
opment after approximately 4-6 weeks (refer to symptom expression
on control pots for exact timing). Population structure is assessed in
individual plants by shredding tillers longitudinally (including base)
and extracting on a modified Whitehead tray, then counting eggs and
life stages.
Screening rice for resistance to D. angustus
Field tests
Field screening for resistance in deep-water rice requires the construc-
tion of large tanks which can be flooded in a controlled manner
to a depth of 2-3 m (Fig. 5.6). Screening for resistance in lowland
rice requires only conventional bunding with soil banks 30-40 cm
high. Screening should not be done out of season (e.g. screening for
resistance in deep-water rice, using irrigation, during the dry season,
because of the sensitivity of nematode population dynamics to the
prevailing atmospheric humidity). This protocol has bee n adapted
from Rahman (1982) and Anon . (1985).
1. Divide the deep-water tank into 1 m 2 plots , demarca ted by a mud
levee 15-20 cm high. There should be paths, 1 m wide , between plots.
2 . Sow rice entries in rows 20 cm apart, thinning to 20 seedlings per
row. Each plot includes a resistant and a susceptible control and three
test entries.
3 . Inoculate seedlings with D. angustus 2-3 weeks a fter sowing or
when the collar of the leaf sheath is about 10-15 cm above so il leve l.
4. Raise the water level in the plot to about 10 cm before inoculation.
It is important that the plants are not submerged.
5. Collect sufficient infected plants from cultures to provide
inoculum for the whole trial. Cut the leaf sheath section, above the
uppermost node, of infected culture plants into 3 cm lengths and mix .
Remove a subsample, tease apart longitudinally in water and leave to
extract overnight. Determine the number of nematodes per stem section
Fig. 5.6. Field plots of deep-water rice screening for resistance to ufra caused
by Ditylenchus angustus. (Photograph taken at inoculation stage . See also
Fig . 5.7.)
Suggested layout for 24 plots One plot

rep1 rep2 100x 100cm
.. I
.: a--d test entries

.
I
I I
I
..
I
I I I
I I
I e, susceptible
.
I I
.
I I
' I
I
control
a:b c d : e=
Deep-water tank
Sowing in 1m 2 plots
Inoculation
3-week-old seedlings
'
Water level raised above plot Water level below
levees to top internode for 3-4 months plot levee for 7 days
Fig. 5. 7. Diagrammatic representation of field screening protocol for resistance

to Ditylenchus angustus in deep-water rice (see also Fig. 5.6).
and hence the number of stem sections required to provide 100

nematodes per seedling (i.e. 10.000 nematodes per plot).
6. Cut the required number of stems into smaller pieces, split them
longitudinally and float them on the water surface evenly across the
plot.
"?. After inoculation, maintain the water level in the plots 2 cm bclovv
the seedling collar for 7 days. If inoculation is delayed, such that plants
begin to elongate, raising the rneristematic node above the water level,
they will 1wt become infected.
8. After the 7-day invasion period, the water level must be raised as
the plants elongate above the plot levee, so that the water is maintained
in the same relative position, above the top meristc)matic node.
9. After 3-4 months, but before flowering, score symptoms on the

most recent leaf of all tillers in each row (Fig. 5.4). Remove ten plants at
random and cut back the main tiller to the innermost leaf and obtain a
10 cm length of tiller above the top node. Cut up this section, tease
apart in water and leave to extract overnight, if necessary.
10. Determine the proportion of infected tillers per entry and the
number of nematodes per tiller.
Glasshouse or screenhouse tests

This protocol is adapted from Plowright and Gill (1994).
1. Sow seed in small (100 cm 3 ) rectangular pots, in a deep tray,
without drainage holes, to allow a water depth of at least 10 cm above
the soil surface. Thin seedlings to one per pot after emergence. (In a tray
containing 20 pots, include four resistant and four susceptible
controls.)
2. Twelve days after sowing, or when seedling collar height is 10 cm,
raise the water level to 8 cm. If cold water is used. allow 24 h for
temperature equilibration before inoculation.
3. Extract nematodes from monoxenic cultures. D. angustus can be
rinsed from the Petri dish lid of cultures or from the agar surface and
combined with nematodes extracted into water, from rice tissue, on a
modified Baermann funnel (Hooper, 1986). After extraction, dilute to
achieve an inoculation volume of 1 ml. This suspension will require
agitation to prevent the formation of clumps of nematodes.
4. Place a 1-3 cm diameter tube (e.g. plastic piping, cut plastic
pipettes, straws, etc.) around each plant in a tray. support the tubes
(e.g. with a removable grid of wire placed over the tray) and inoculate
each seedling within the tube, with 300-500 J3 to adult stage
nematodes (Fig. 5.3).
5. After 7 days, remove the tubes surrounding the inoculated plants.
6. Symptom type and severity (Fig. 5.4) on individual plants can be
scored 7 days after inoculation and repeated. for confirmation. 14 days
after inoculation.
7. If nematode counts are required. cut plants at soil level 28 days
after inoculation, remove the leaves. label and store either by freezing
or in formaldehyde (4(Yo v/v). If formaldehyde is used. plants should be
immersed in boiling water for 1 min prior to fixing.
8. To count nematodes. cold stain plants overnight in acid fuchsin
(0.01 % w/v) in a mixture of equal parts lactic acid, glycerol and
distilled water. Nematodes can be released by teasing apart the leaf
sheath or by blending in a blender. As D. angustus is ectoparasitic. it is
usually better to use the teasing method as the resulting suspension of
nematodes and eggs is cleaner and much easier to count.
Nematode Virulence
The existence of races of D. dipsaci with more or less, well defined host
preferences has already been mentioned. Evidence for the existence of
pathotype-like variation in D. dipsaci has emerged over the last 50
years, but is indisputable in only relatively few cases. Evidence for the
existence of pathotypes has to be examined critically, for if these occur,
screening needs to include a range of nematode populations.
Virulence has been reported in white clover races. The white
clovers tested were sixth generation inbred, near isogenic lines, differ-
ing from each other only in their resistance or susceptibility, and
phenotypically uniform resistant and susceptible F 1 populations bred
from pairs of selected characterized parents. The resistance in both sets
of clovers was effective against populations of the nematode from white
clover in UK, France and New Zealand but was wholly ineffective
against a population from Switzerland (K.A. Mizen, 1999, personal
communication). The existence of a pathotype is also clear in a second
case, where one field population of D. dipsaci multiplied and induced
a compatible reaction in the highly resistant V. faba homozygous line,
INRA 29H. This virulence was recorded at a high incidence in a single
field population in Morocco, causing severe swelling symptoms and
high multiplication.
Resistance breaking pathotypes of lucerne race D. dipsaci have
been described (e.g. Smith, 1951; Grundbacher and Stanford, 1962;
Whitehead, 1984) and of D. dipsaci giant race (Sturhan, 1965). White-
head (1984, 1992) and Whitehead et al. (1987) found that supposedly
resistant cultivars were susceptible to some European isolates, and
concluded that there were pathotype-like variations within races of
stem nematode. The problem with these conclusions is that they do not
eliminate two important sources of variation which create doubt about
the pathotypes. The first is that cultivars in the screen were hetereo-
geneous and the second the misclassifications brought about by
'escapes' due to failure of inoculation. A high proportion of 'escapes' in
the initial characterization of resistant lines could lead to an apparent
loss of resistance in subsequent tests with fewer escapes. Lucerne
cultivars are heterogeneous and comprise both resistant and suscepti-
ble genotypes and hence the number of plants screened must be
sufficient to reflect this variation. Furthermore, Whitelwad et al. (198 7)
clearly found it very difficult to inoculate plants and the nematode
multiplication on susceptible reference cul ti vars, where they were
used, was rather variable. Among other populations, Whitehead (1992)
presented evidence, from pot studies, of pathotype variation in D.
dipsaci sampled from two different fields of the same farm in southern
England. Although the management of these fields was not discussed,
it seems improbable that they would have been different pathotypes.
Oitylenchus Species 133
Extensive intraspecific variation and genetic polymorphism is

known in D. dipsaci. Barker and Sasser (1959) and Sturhan (1975)
found nematode population x variety interactions in pea, field beans
and broad beans, and the latter author described obvious differences in
pathogenicity and virulence between nematode populations. North
American populations of stem nematode showed some variation in
pathogenicity on susceptible plants but did not overcome resistance in
cultivars with the Lahontan-derived resistance (Elgin et al., 1977).
There are different degrees of susceptibility to stem nematode in garlic
(Shubina, 1987).
There is no evidence of resistance-breaking pathotypes in D.
angustus (R.A. Plowright, 1999, personal communication). Differences
in multiplication of nematode populations on susceptible rice cul ti vars
can occur but are rarely consistent in repeated experiments. The source
of such differences is more often due to practical differences related to
the culture, preparation and delivery of nematode inoculum.
Genetics of Resistance and Germplasm

Some UK winter-sown oat cultivars derive their resistance from the
land race, Grey Winter. In other oats, resistance may be derived from
Uruguayan land races, but ultimately both sources may have originated
from wild oat species (Griffiths et al., 1957; Goodey and Hooper. 1962).
In Grey Winter-derived cultivars, resistance is inherited as a single
dominant gene, and has been incorporated into many winter oat
cultivars bred in IGER. Wales. UK. The wild oat, Avena ludoviciana.
has more than one gene for resistance. A number of other cultivars have
been reported to be resistant (Table 5.1: Whitcdrnad, 1997) but many
of these have only partial resistance or tolc!rance. Although these
reactions may represent different genetic control, it is essential that
the sources are retested before use in an v new area.
In lucerne, resistance is relatively simply inherited and readily
increased by selection within heterogeneous I ucerne cul ti vars. It is
easily transferred through backcrossing and by recurrent selection for
resistant phenotypes. There appears to be a dominant gene inherited
tetrasomically, that is, in a plant there may tw one to four resistance
alleles. Resistance in the extensive breeding programmes in the USA
originates from a lucerne population from Turkestan, grown in Utah.
From this a resistant reselection, Nemastan. was made and is the
source of mother plants of the variety Lahont;i 11 with between 50 and
60% resistant plants. In Sweden, the variety A Ira II with 70(X) resistant
plants originates from 500 resistant plants id<!ntified among 25 ,000
seedlings of the parent population. The resistance of both Lahontan
and Vertus is effective against stem nematode populations throughout
Table 5.1. Crop cultivars and accessions resistant to Ditylenchus dipsaci.
Crop Cultivar/accession Country Reference
Lucerne Medicago saliva Vertus Sweden Cook and Yeates (1993)

Nova Australia
Washoe Lahontan USA
Resistador 11
White Trifolium repens Line G49 New Zealand Mercer and Grant (1995)
clover Tolerant Sa bed a New Zealand West and Steele (1986)
Katrina
Alice UK Cook and Evans (1988)
Donna
Aran
Pronitro
Rye Secale cereale Ottersum (land The Netherlands Ritzema-bos (1922)
race) Heertvelder
Vici a Vicia faba INRA 29H France Caubel and Le Guen (1983)
bean Several Gastel (1990)
Hanounik et al. (1986)
Sauk el Arba Morocco Schreiber (1977)
Rharb (land race)
Red Trifolium pratense Sabtoron UK
clover Norseman
Oat Avena sativa Grey Winter
Peniarth
Anita Belgium Clarno! (1985)
Bettong Australia MacDaniel and Barr (1994)
A. ludoviciana Cc 4346 UK Griffiths et al. (1957)
the world. Resistance in red clover is readily selected from existing and
older commercial cultivars through recurrent phenotypic selection.
Resistance seems to be effective against all red clover race populations,
and although isolates with differing levels of multiplication may be
found there is no sound evidence for interactions indicating virulence
on resistant genotypes despite intensive selection pressure (Cook and
Yeates, 1993). Resistance in some Swedish red clovers appears to
be inherited as two dominant genes (Nordenskiold. 1971 ). A number
of breeding programmes have exploited the lucerne and red clover
sources to produce named cultivars (Table 5.1; Cook and Yeates, 1993;
Whitehead. 1997).
White clover resistance to stem nematode seems to be under
relatively simple genetic control as the proportion of resistant
plants can be increased by two generations of phenotypic selec-

tion. Intercrosses between resistant parent plants produces an F 1
generation in which most plants are resistant, indicating dominance.
Many cultivars have a proportion of resistant plants although few
qualify as truly resistant cultivars. Those with some degree of
resistance are listed in Table 5.1, in Cook and Yeates (1993) and
in Whitehead (1997). Such cultivars, like those of lucerne and
red clover, are heterogeneous and require continued reselection
during seed production cycles to maintain their stated level of
resistance.
In V. faba, the high resistance of INRA 29H line (Rinal x Cotes-
d'Or) seems to be polygenic and partially cytoplasmically transmitted.
The resistant cultivars and accessions (Table 5.1) have been used in
France to develop resistant cultivars for use in North Africa. Pea (Pisum
sativum) cvs Alma and Glenroy are described as tolerant of D. dipsaci
in Australia (Scurrah et al., 1997). Pea cv. Wanda was resistant to one
North Carolina population of D. dipsaci, but susceptible to a second
population (Barker and Sasser, 1959).
Studies on the genetics of resistance to D. angustus suggest that
resistance is recessive and that two genes may be involved (Anon.,
1996). At the International Rice Research Institute, The Philippines and
the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh, several
breeding families have been identified to include resistance. These
incl_ude lowlan~ rice (IR6317 4) and several families of deep-water
rice, as well as a number of other resistant accessions and cultivars
(Rahman, 1994). Sweet potatoes with resistance to D. destructor have
been recognized in China (Anon., 1992: Lin et al., 1996: Whitehead,
1997).
Of the germplasm and cultivars listed above, in Table 5.1 and
in reviews by Cook and Yeates (1993) and \Nhitehead (1997). most
would need validating before use as controls, parents or cul ti vars. This
is partly because of the extent of variation in plant nematode inter-
actions, as described in this chapter. Variation, and hence variability in
results, also arises through the existence of both different nematode
host races and pathotypes. Moreover, many of the resistant crops are
out-breeding cultivars which require regular reselection to maintain
a high proportion of resistant plants during seed production and
multiplication phases. Exceptions appear to be the widely used lucerne
and red clover germplasm. But with these, and probably with
resistance in other crops to D. dipsaci or to other Ditylenchus species,
locally adapted cultivars may be the best source of resistance. The
careful application of the protocols detailed in this chapter should
allow researchers to identify individual plants or plant progenies with
hereditable, highly effective resistance, in spite of these quantitative
variations.
References
Abbad, F.A., Ammati, M. and Alami, R. de Ditylenchus dipsaci par les
(1990) Stem nematode in Morocco. symptomes chez la feverole (Vicia
Distribution and preliminary screen- faba L.). Nematologica 35, 216-224.
ing for resistance. 8th Congress Medi- Caubel, G. and Le Cuen, J. (1983) Variabil-
terranean Phytopathological Union, ity of relationships between Vicia
Agadir, Morocco, pp. 347-349. bean and stem nematode (Ditylenchus
Alcaniz, E., Pinochet, J., Fernandez, C., dipsaci) characterization of varietal
Esmenjaud, D. and Felipe, A. (1996) resistance. First European Conference
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on groundnut callus tissue. Pln·to- A comparison of somt• quantit<1ti\ t~
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potential of Ditdendws clestruc/or Whitehead. A.C .. Fraser. J.E. and Niclrnls.
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12-rn. m<~nt of sl<~rn 1wmatocics. Ditdenr:hus
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(1q93) Reproducti\'(~ and damage crop plants. Annuls of Applied /Jiol-
potential of Oitdench us de st rue/or og_v 111. :i n-:rn:i.
Nematodes
Edited by
J.L. Starr
USA
A.Cook
Aberystwyth
UK
and
J. Bridge
GABI Bioscience
Egham
UK
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Plant resistance to parasitic nematodes I edited bv J.L. Starr. R. Cook ctnd ). Bridge
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ISBN 0-85199-4GG-O (alk. paper)
1. Plants--Diseasc and pest resistance. 2. Pl;rnt nematodes. I. Starr.). L. (James L.) Il.
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ISBN 0 85199 4Gb (J

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Migratory Endoparasites:
Pratylenchus and
Radopholus Species
D. De Waele and A. Elsen
Laboratory of Tropical Crop Improvement, Catholic University
Leuven (K. U. Leuven), Kasteelpark Arenberg 13, 3001
Leuven, Belgium
Species of Pratylenchus and Radopholus are small (adults < 1 mm

long) and polyphagous. They migrate inter- and intracellularly in roots.
corms or tubers and feed mainly on the cytoplasm of cortical cells. Cell
walls collapse and cause cavities and tunnels, which evolve as necrotic
lesions that may extend to the whole cortex. The lesions are dark
brown, reddish-purple to black, elliptical in shape with the axis paral-
lel to the root axis. The reduction of root tissues reduces the uptake of
water and nutrients by the plant. Above-ground symptoms of attack
include chlorosis and stunting. In banana and plantain. a weakened
root system also affects plant anchorage resulting in plant toppling.
especially at bunch filling and when strong storms are prevailing. rn
nematode-infestPd fields, losses caused bv root-lesion nematodes can
be very high.
The most important Pratylenchus species are P. crenotus LooL
P. hexincisus Taylor and Jenkins. P. neglectus (Rensch) Filipjev and
Schuurmans Stekhoven, P. penetrans (Cobb) Filipjev and Schuurmans
Stekhoven. P. scribneri Steiner, P. thornei Sher and Allen and P. vulnus
Allen and Jenser; in temperate zones. subtropics and cooler regions of
the tropics. and V brachyurus (Goclfre_v) Filipjev and Sc:huurrnans
Stekhoven. P. coffeae (Zimmermann) Filipjev and Schuurmans
Stekhoven, P. goodeyi Sher and Allen and P. zeoe Graham in the trop-
ics. Pratylenchus species seem to occur everywhere where conditions.
especially temperature, permit them to thrive. In general. it can be said
that their geographical distribution is zonal: when a species is found in
a given climatic zone it will occur throughout this zone. The same
(eds J.L Starr. R. Cook and J. Bridge) 175
176 0. De Waele and A. Elsen
holds for the tropics. The most important Radopholus species is

Radopholus similis Cobb, the burrowing nematode. Since Valette et al.
(1998) proposed to consider R. citrophilus Huettel, Dickson and Kaplan
as a junior synonym of R. similis, R. similis now also includes the
Radopholus populations which, mainly in Florida, USA, are able to
infect citrus roots. R. similis is widespread in tropical and subtropical
zones and is also present in glasshouses in Europe. All the other
Radopholus species only occur in natural habitats in Australasia.
The life cycle of these genera is simple. Eggs are laid in roots, corms
or tubers. The first-stage juveniles moult inside the eggs, the second-
stage juveniles hatch, moult through the third and fourth stages
and become adults. Amphimictic reproduction occurs in species
in which males are common (such as R. similis, P. co_ffeae, P. goodeyi.
P. penetrans and P. vu/nus). Other species in which males are rare
(such as P. brachyurus. P. neglectus, P. thornei and P. zeae) reproduce
parthenogeneticall y. The duration of the life cycle differs between
species and is temperature dependent. Tropical species, such as
P. brachyurus and P. zeae. can complete their life cycle in about
3-4 weeks at 30°C (Olo-vve and Corbett. 1976). Species that prefer cooler
climates, such as P. penetrans, complete their life cycle in about 6-7
weeks at 20°C (Mamiya. 1971).
Efforts to screen agricultural crop germplasm for resistance to
plant-parasitic nematodes have mainly been aimed at identifying
resistance to sedentary endoparasitic nematodes. such as root-knot
(Meloidogyne spp.) and cyst (Globodera and Heterodera spp.)
nematodes. As a consequence, resistance to nematodes has primaril ,.
been identified in this group of nematodes which has. moreover. the
most specialized host-parasite relationships (Cook and Evans, 1987:
Roberts. 1992; De Waele. 1996). Because host-parasite relationships arc
genetically controlled. the natural selection of resistance genes is more
likely to occur in the most complex interactions (Sidhu and \!Vcbster.
1981; Roberts. 1992). In contrast. fewer efforts have been made tu
incorporate resistance into agricultural crops that sutler economic
losses caused bv Protvlenchus and Hadopholus spp. Because th(~
host-parasite relationships of this group of migratorv endoparasitic:
nematodes are less specialized than the sedentarv endoparasitic:
nematodes. these efforts have also been less successful. Nevertheless.
sources of resistance and tolerance to Rodopholus a!ld Pmtylenchu.'. ;
species have been and can be found.
Evaluation of agricultural crop germ plasm for nematode reproduc-
tion and damagp is based on the terms 'resistance and susceptibility'
and 'tolerance and sensitivity'. Resistance/susceptibility on the rnw
hand and tolerance/sensitivity on the other hand are defined by Bos
and Parlevliet (1995) as independent. relative qualities of a host plant
based on comparison between genotypes. A host plant may either
Migratory Endoparasites 177
suppress (resistance) or allow (susceptibility) nematode development

and reproduction; it may suffer either little injury (tolerance),
even when quite heavily infected with nematodes, or much injury
(sensitivity). even when relatively lightly infected with nematodes.
The comparison between genotypes results in such indications as
completely, highly and partially resistant genotypes describing,
respectively, genotypes supporting no, little or an intermediate level of
nematode reproduction. A non-resistant or susceptible genotype allows
nematodes to reproduce freely (see Roberts, Chapter 2).
Sources and Genetics

Cereals
Resistance to several Pratyfenchus species was found in maize

(Zea mays) and in the teosintes Z. diploperennis and Z. perennis. The
perennial teosintes are closely related to and sometimes considered
ancestral to maize. The diploid Z. diploperennis crosses readily
with maize (Pohl and Albertsen. 1981) and fertile hybrids have been
obtained by many breeders. In the glasshouse, Z. diploperennis and
Z. perennis supported significantly fewer P. hexincisus than did some
common maize lines. although these differences were not confirmed
in the field (Norton. 1989). In the USA. improved maize hybrids with
resistance to P. hexincisus have been registered, including 50101
(PI533.658), S0102 (PI533.659) and 50103 (PI533.660) (Wicks et of ..
1990a.b). 50101 is not only resistant to P. hexincisus but also to P.
scribneri and the fungi Exserohilum turcicum (Setospfwera turcico)
and Diplodia (Stenocarpeffa) mavdis. Resistance to P. brochvurus and
P. zeae was also found in maize and differences in susceptibility of
maize to P. penetrans were observed. Qing-Y u et of. ( FE18) evaluated
13 randomly selected maize cultivars for their ability to support a
population of P. pcnetrons in growth chamber and glasshouse studies.
The cultivars Earlivee. Seneca Horizon. Lnic:. Grant and King Arthur
supported the fewest nematodes in both tests. The inheritance of
the resistance in maize to P zeae and P. hrarhvurus was studied bv
Sawazaki el of. (19B7) using segregating populations obtained from
crosses between the lines Col 2(22) (resistant) and Ip 4H-'.1-] (suscepti-
ble) grown in a field naturalh' infested with P. zeoe and P. bruchvurus.
Based on the number of nematodes g~ 1 roots at 80 davs after planting.
Sawazaki et al. (1987) concluded that the resistance \\'as due to two
dominant genes with an additi\'C effect.
In Australia. sources of resistance or tolerance to P. thornei and
P. neg/ectus were found and several \1vlwat (Triticum uesfi\'11111)
cultivars with tolerance to one or both nematodes Wl~n~ rclc<1secl.
Sunvale, Baxter, Sturt, Kennedy, Pelsart, Tasman and Houtman are not
only tolerant to P. thornei but also possess the linked resistant genes
against Puccinia striiformis, P. graminis and P. recondita. Sunvale
is also moderately tolerant to crown rot ( Gibberella zeae), Pelsart is
resistant to flag smut (Urocystis agropyri) and moderately tolerant
to Heterodera avenae, and Houtman resistant to flag smut, partially
resistant to crown rot and common root rot (Cochliobolus sativus)
(Anon., 1994, 1997a,b,c; Brennan et al., 1994a,b,c; Ellison et al., 1995).
Resistance to P. thornei has been found in wild cereal species such as
Aegilops tauschii. Thompson and Haak (1997) tested 244 accessions of
A. tauschii from Central Asia for resistance to P. thornei in a series of
glasshouse experiments. A. tauschii is one of the grass-like wild pro-
genitors of wheat and a rich source of resistance to pests and diseases
(Cox et al., 1992). Of the accessions tested by Thompson and Haak
(1997) 39 had fewer P. thornei than GS50a. a partially resistant line
of wheat used as a reference standard. Resistance was most common in
A. tauschii subsp. slrangulata, with 20 out of 40 strnngulata accessions
classed as resistant and none as susceptible. Three out of four
accessions of A. tauschii var. meyeri with the Cre3 gene for resistance
to H. avenae were also resistant to P. thornei. If CreJ confers resistance
to P. thornei, it will be valuable in breeding ·wheat for areas where both
species occur. All the A. tauschii subsp. strangulato accessions shown
to be resistant to P. thornei were susceptible to H. avenae. Nombela
and Romero (1999) examined the host response to P. thornei of the
introgression wheat line H93-8. bearer of the Cre2 gene conferring resis-
tance to H. avenae. In the growth chamber, line H93-8 was resistant
to P. thornei but in a 5-rnonth field experiment this line was
as susceptible to P. thornei as were susceptible reff~rence standards
included in the experiment. Eighteen wheat culti' ars varying in reac-
tion to P. thornei. substitution lines and lines \.Vi th the \.Vhole genome ol
rye (including the triticales) 1.verc~ screened in tlw glasshouse for their
resistancL~ to P. neglectus by Farsi et of. (1995). Si~nif'ic:ant differences
in the number of nematodes per plant and per g cln root bet\veen the
three main groups vvere observed. The triticale li Ill's t\bacus and Muir
had the fewest nematodes and triticales (hvbrids iwtween whcd! and
rye) are therefore considered a useful rotation crup for fields infested
with P. neglect us. None of the 1.vheat cultivars \ arying in reaction
to P. thornei was resistant indicating that tlw genetic: tlll~chanisms
conferring resistance or tolerance to P. thornei an~ not effective against
P. neglectus. Vanstone et ol. (1998) ranked ni1w wheat cultivars for
their susceptibility to P. thomei and P. neglectus. The tolerant varietv
Excalibur ~'ielcled 33% (P. thornei) and l q-2Jl 1.~1 (P. neglect us) nHff(!
and had GJ-69(Yci fewer nematodes than the intolerant c:ul ! i vars
included in the field experiments. In contrast to Farsi et ul. ( 1995). the
varietal reactions were unexpectedly similar for the two Prntvlenchus
species. Nevertheless, Vanstone et al. (1998) considered it doubtful that

resistance or tolerance to one Pratylenchus species necessarily confers
resistance or tolerance to the other species and unlikely that this simi-
larity would occur with all wheat cultivars. Growth of tolerant cul ti vars
that are also resistant enhances not only yield but also reduces the need
for growers to implement other nematode management strategies.
In rice (Oryza sativa), tolerance to P. zeae linked to drought-
avoidance strategies, such as deep roots, might be present (Plowright
et al., 1990).
Townshend (1989) examined the host response of two oat (Avena
sativa) cultivars, Saia and OAC Woodstock, to P. neglectus, P. crenatus,
P. penetrans and P. sensillatus in the glasshouse. Both cultivars were
non-hosts for P. crenatus and susceptible to P. sensillatus. Saia was less
susceptible to P. neglectus and P. penetrans than OAC Woodstock.
In 1990, Sato et al. registered Natsukaze, a guineagrass cul ti var
with resistance not only to· P. brachyurus but also to several
Meloidogyne spp. This cultivar was derived from clones of Panicwn
maximum.
Root and tuber crops
A detailed search for resistance to P. penetrans among diverse potato

(Solanum tuberosum) germplasm was undertaken vvhen Brodie and
Plaisted (1993) evaluated potato clones from five different breeding
populations for their resistance to P. penetrans. Brodie and Plaisted
(1993) found that clones that supported the least P. penetrans were
from a breeding population derived from S. tuberosum ssp. andigenn
crossed to a S. tuberosum ssp. tuberosum hybrid that contained some
S. vernei germplasm originally selected for its resistance to the potato
cyst nematode Gfobodera paffida. Most. but not all. of the clones that
were less susceptible to P. penetrans were also resistant to G. pollido
(P 4 A and P,,A) and to G. rostochiensis (Rol). Although the genetics
of resistance to P. penetrans \Vas not investigated, the variation i 11 t lw
different levels of resistance exhibited between experiments suggest
that this response is quantitatively inherited and not controlled h\ Cl
single major gene ..'\s such, this resistance is subject to genetic and
environmental interactions. Such interactions could account for the
observed relatively large variation in the number of nematodes per root
unit of resistant plants in the different tests. Previously. less detailed
studies had evaluated commercial potato cul ti vars for their abi Ii t v to
support reproduction of P. penetrans (Bernard and Laughlin. F17():
Olthof. 1986 ). The potato cul ti vars Pecon ic and Hudson were in it iall _\
described as less susceptible to P. penetrans but this could not
be confirmed (Brodie and Plaisted, 1993). According to Brodie and
180 D. De Waele and A. Elsen
Plaisted (1993). the ability of Hudson to support different amounts of

reproduction of geographically isolated populations of P. penetr(lns
suggested the existence of biological races of this nematode species.
The potato cultivar Butte was reported to be highly resistant to
P. neglectus and to possess some resistance to P. penetrans (Davis
etal., 1992).
In Japan, screening sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) germplasm for
resistance to P. coffeae has resulted in the release of the resistant
cultivars Fusabeni, Joy White, J-Red and Sunny Red (Tarumoto et al ..
1990; Yamakawa et al., 1995, 1998, 1999). Interestingly, these four
cultivars are also resistant to M. incognito. Moreover, Fusabeni is
moderately resistant to soil and stem rot, caused, respectively. by
Streptomyces ipomoea and Fusarium oxysporum, whereas Joy White
is moderately resistant to Ceratocystis fimbriata. In glasshouse trials.
P. flakkensis was unable to reproduce on all 20 sweet potato cultivars
tested (Anguiz and Canto-Saenz, 1991).
Banana and plantain (Musa spp.)
In Musa, two widely confirmed sources of resistance to R. similis are

known: Pisang Jari Buaya and Yangambi km5 (Wehunt et al., 1978:
Pinochet and Rowe, 1979; Sarah et(]}., 1992; Price, 1994b: Viaene et of ..
1997; Fogain and Gowen, 1998; Stoffelen et al., 2000a,b ). The Pisang
Jari Buaya group consists of diploid AA genotypes of which sPveral
cultivars showed no lesions when planted in R. similis-infestecl soil
(Wehunt et al., 1978). The use of Pisang Jari Bua ya in the Musa breed-
ing programme of the Fundacion Hondurena de Investigacion Agricola
(FHIA) in La Lima. Honduras, resulted in the R. similis-resistant dip-
laid AA hybrid SH-3142 (Pinochet and Rowe, 1979). Crossing SH-J l4L
with the triploid AAB cultivar Prata Ana produced the tetrciploid
AAAB hybrid FHIA-01 (Goldfinger; Rowe and Rosale~. 1993 ). FHL\-0 l
was partially resistant to R. similis when 3-4-rnonth-old plants grnw!l
from corms were evaluated. but was as susceptible as the reference
standards when plants of the same age grown from in vitro maiutained
tissue culture plants were used as the source of planting rnall~ricil
(Viaene et of .. 1998 ). Yangambi km5 is a tri plaid i\ ,\A genut _vpe col-
lected in Ute Democratic: Republic of Congo and is possibly relall·d to
some Malaysian genotypes. Although male and female fertile. th is
genotype is not being used in Musa breeding because all progcni(~S
produce abnormal leaves and/or erect and semi-erect bunches. In addi-
tion to these tvvo widely confirmed sources of resista11ce to H. simifi..:..·.
several other possible sources of resistance have been reported but
these need to be confirmed. In Cameroon, three diploids from the wild
Musa balbisiana (BB-) group were found to be as resistant to R. similis

as Yangambi km5 in glasshouse trials whereas three triploids from the
AAB-group, Pisang Kelat, Foconah (Pome group) and Pisang Celan
(Mysore group), were less susceptible to R. similis (Fogain, 1996). The
lesser susceptibility of the latter three genotypes was also observed in
field trials (Price and McLaren, 1996). In Nigeria, PITA-8, a tetraploid
(AAAB) plantain hybrid resistant to the black Sigatoka disease caused
by the fungus Mycosphaerella fijiensis, appeared not to be infected
with R. similis during field trials (Afreh-Nuamah et al., 1996). In glass-
house experiments in Belgium, evaluation of the host plant reaction to
R. similis of 25 banana cultivars of the section Eumusa (AA-group) and
seven of the section Australimusa (Fe'i-group) collected in Papua New
Guinea revealed the Fe'i cultivar Rimina to be resistant to R. similis and
the Fe'i cultivar Menei to be a possible source of resistance to R. similis
(Stoffelen et al., 1999b, 2000b). Although I:e'i bananas are highly seed-
and pollen-sterile and have a rather low harvest index and erect bunch
orientation, their resistance to R. similis warrants investigation of their
combining ability with Eumusa bananas. Gros Michel, a triploid AAA
culti\'ar, has been reported as less susceptible to R. similis in some
studies (Mateille, 1992; price, 19_94b) but this host reaction was not
confirmed (Stoffelen et al., 2000a).
Several histopathological differences were observed between
R. similis-resistant and -susceptible Musa genotypes. In Gros Michel,
movement of the nematodes and the development of necrosis in the
outer cortex along the root axis seemed to be slowed down compared
with migration and necrosis formation in the susceptible cultivar Poyo
(Mateille, 1994). In Yangambi km5, R. similis was only observed in the
cortex and not in the stele as in Poyo (Valette et al., 1997). The genetic
basis of the resistance to R. similis in Musa has not been established.
Preliminary tests demonstrated that the genetic resistance to R. simihc.,'
in Pisang Jari Buaya is co.ntrolled by one or more dominant genes
(Pinochet. 1988a).
Yangambi km5 is not only resistant to R. similis. it has also been
reported as partially resistant to P. goodeyi (Fogain and Gowen, 1998:
Pinochet et al., 1998). Based on field trials, both M. acuminata and
M. balbisiana were less susceptible to P. goodeyi and so was the
cooking banana Banane Cochon (AAA-group) of the Lujugira sub-
group (Price, 1994a). In the Kagera Region, Tanzania, replacement of
local cooking and beer bananas with exotic cul ti vars like Gros Michel,
Pisang Awak (ABB-group) and Kanana (AB-group) which are less
susceptible to P. goodeyi, the major nematode associated with banana
in that region, suggests, according to Speijer and Bosch (1996), that
farmers, unconsciously, selected these genotypes because of the
presence of the nematode.
Lucerne (Medicago sativaJ
In lucerne, differences between genotypes in host reaction to P.

penetrans have been reported (Townshend and Baenziger, 1977;
Nelson et al., 1985; Christie and Townshend, 1992). Within genotypes,
individual plants may differ for many inherited characteristics, includ-
ing nematode resistance (Thies et al., 1994). The cross-pollinated,
tetraploid-inheritance characteristics of lucerne contribute to the
existence of this type of variability. In 1989, two lucerne genotypes,
MNGRN-2 and MNGRN-4, with tolerance to P. penetrans were released
in the USA (Barnes et al., 1990). Both genotypes showed superior
performance in fields infested with large populations of P. penetrans.
Laboratory and field studies showed that they supported about 20-30%
fewer P. penetrans per g fresh root weight than did the susceptible
cultivar Baker. The tolerant genotypes had many fibrous roots even in
the presence of nematodes. MNGRN-2 and MNGRN-4 also showed
some resistance to Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. insidiosus,
Fusarium oxysporUm f. sp. medicaginis and Phytophthora mega-
sperma f. sp. medicaginis. The inheritance of the resistance to P.
penetrans in MNGRN-4 was studied using a diallel mating design
(Thies et al., 1994). The high correlation between parental clone means
and S 1 progeny means for numbers of nematodes in the roots indicated
that resistance to P. penetrans is conditioned by additive gene action.
Rootstocks (Prunus spp., Rosa spp., Citrus spp.)
[n Prunus, resistance and tolerance to P. penetrans has been found in

seedlings of the peach (Prunus persica) rootstock cultivars Bailey.
BY520-8, Chui Lum Tao, Guardian, Higama, Rubira, Pisa, Rutgers Red
Leaf. Tzim Pee Tao and in hybrids of Rutgers Red Leaf x Tzim Pee Tao
(Potter et al., 1984; Layne, 1987: McFadden-Smith et al., 1998). [n
contrast, the search for resistance to P. vu/nus lu > been less successful.
Efforts to find resistance to this nematode in li1,'. USA (Culver et al ..
1989: Ledbetter and Shonnard, 1991: Ledbetter. 1 C)94 ). France (Scotto
La Massese, 1975: Crossa-Raynaud and Audergon. 1987: Stalin et al ..
1994) and Spain (Marull and Pinochet, 1991: Pinochet et al., 1996)
have resulted in the detection of potential sources of resistance to
P. vu/nus in Bokhara and Shalil peach seedlings (Okie, 1987) and in
a few wild and hybrid plums (Prunus domestira), apricots (Prunus
armeniaca) and interspecific hybrids (Scotto La Massese, 1975:
Ledbetter, 1994: Pinochet et al., 1996). In France and Spain, resistance
to root-knot nematodes, the most common group of nematodes
associated with stone fruit production in the Mediterranean, has been
incorporated into new Prunus rootstocks. In most instances, Prunus
rootstocks which were resistant to one or several Meloidogyne species

were not resistant to P. vu/nus (Marull and Pinochet, 1991; Stalin et al.,
1998). Exceptions are the plum hybrid Bruce, one of the few rootstocks
that exhibit resistance to both Meloidogyne incognito and P. vu/nus
(Pinochet et al., 1996). Based on a glasshouse evaluation of five
cultivars, almond (Prunus amygdalus) was considered a poor host of
P. neglectus and a non-host of P. thornei (Marull et al., 1990).
In Rosa, resistance to P. vulnus has been incorporated in Ludiek, a
Rosa multiflora rootstock cultivar (Schneider et al., 1995 ).
In Citrus, the first rootstocks resistant to R. similis populations able
to infect citrus roots were released in 1964 (Cook and Evans, 1987).
Resistance was identified in only 15 out of 1400 clones screened.
Milam (a selection of rough lemon C. limon), Ridge pineapple and
Algerian navel (sweet oranges C. sinensis) are resistant; Estes rough
lemon (C. jambhiri) is tolerant but susceptible whereas Carrizo (C.
sinensis x Poncirus trifoliata) has some resistance and appears to be
tolerant. Balsamocitrus dawaii is another source of resistance to these
R. similis populations (Kaplan, 1990).
Strawberry (Fragaria spp.) and raspberry (Rubus spp.)
In strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), variation in cul ti var responses to

P. penetrans has been reported. Cultivars which are less susceptible to
P. penetrans include Guardian, Redchief, Senga Sengana and Micmac
(Dale and Potter, 1998). Cultivars related to the Lassen family group
from California appeared to be the most resistant suggesting that,
within the North American breeding programmes. the Californian
breeders had inadvertently selected for resistance to P penetrans
whereas the breeders in other parts of North America had not (Dale and
Potter, 1998). The continuous nature of the variation in response. the
relatively distinct family grouping for resistance and the demonstration
by Potter and Dale (1994) that intraspecific crossing of a susceptible
(Midway) and moderately resistant (Guardian) parent produced
offspring some of which were as resistant as Guardian. suggest that the
resistance of strawberry to P. penetrans can be improved b\' breeding.
Variation in resistance and tolerance to P. penetrans vvas found in
wild Fragaria spp.: beach strawberry (F. chiloensis) and woodland
strawberry (F. virginiana) (Potter and Dale, 1994 ).
Resistance to P. penetrans was also identified in red raspberry
(Rubus spp.; Bristow et al., 1980; Vrain and Daubeny. 1986). The
inheritance of the resistance was studied in a four-member half diallel
crossing involving two resistant genotypes, Nootka and Dalhouse
Lake, a North American red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) selection and
two susceptible genotypes {Vrain et al., 1994 ). Bimoda_l_it~y_o_f_tl_1e_,_ _ _ _ _ __
184 0. De Waele and A Elsen
distribution of each variable was not found, so the inheritance of

resistance was assumed to be quantitative. Estimates of the general
combining abilities for top weight and root weight suggested that
additive gene action is involved in the tolerance observed and that
either or both measures could be used for selection for nematode
tolerance in raspberry breeding programmes. Thus, parents could be
chosen based on phenotypic performance.
Other plants
Resistance to R. similis populations able to infect citrus was found

in Anthurium (Wang et al., 1997). In India, resistance and tolerance
to R. similis was observed in arecanut (Areca catechu) and coconut
(Cocos nucifera) (Sosamma et al., 1988; Sundararaju and Koshy. 1988).
Resistance or tolerance to P. brachyurus was reported in Barbados
cherry (Malpighia glabra) (Ferraz et al., 1989), soybean (Glycine max)
(Ferraz, 1996), groundnut (Smith et al., 1978). sugarcane (Saccharum
officinarum) (Dinardo-Miranda and Ferraz, 1991) and coffee (Coffea
spp.) germ plasm (Oliveira et al .. 1999). Interestingly. in several coffee
genotypes an intolerant reaction to P. brachyurus was observed in
which very few nematodes caused a lot of damage to coffee seedlings
(Inomoto et al., 1998). Several Crotalaria spp. were poor hosts for
P. brachyurus (Da Silva et al .. 1989). Resistance to P. coffeae was
reported in Ro bus ta coffee (Co ffea canephora) (Wiryadiputra. 1996).
Toruan-Mathius et al. (1995) examined the anatomy and total
polyphenol content of the roots and the polymorphism of root proteins
and genomic DNA of six Robusta coffee clones that were either suscep-
tible, moderately resistant or resistant to P. coffeae. Resistant clones
had hairy roots, thicker cell walls in the root epidermis and endo-
dermis and higher polyphenol contents. A specific protein marker of
molecular weight 29 kDa was found in the resistant clones. indicating
that resistant clones had specific enzymes as products of DNA associ-
ated with resistance. Resistance to P. scribneri was found in lirna bean
(Phaseolus lunatus) (Rich et al .. 1977). Tolerance to P. penetrans was
observed in grapevine (Vitis spp.) cultivars (Ramsdell et al .. 19~)6).
Resistance to P. sefaensis was reported in cowpea (Vigna unguiculczto)
(Sarr and Baujard, 1988). Resistance or tolerance to P. thornf!i was
found in Cicer arietinum, Cicer bijugum, Cicer cuneatum. Cicer
judaicum and Cicer yamashitae (Tiwari et al .. 1992: Simeone et al..
1995; Castillo et al., 1998). Resistance to P. vulnus was observed in
kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis) (Simeone et al., 1995). Resistance or
tolerance to P. zeae was reported in sugarcane (Novaretti et al .. 1988:
Dinardo-Miranda and Ferraz, 1991: Mehta et al.. 1994: Oinardo-
Miranda et al., 1996). Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus) hybrids and
several Crotalaria spp. were poor hosts for P. zeae (Bolton and De
Waele, 1989; Da Silva et al., 1989). In winter rapeseed (Brassica napus
ssp. oleifera), resistance and (or) tolerance to P. scribneri, P. neglectus,
P. fallax, P. crenatus, P. penetrans and P. pinguicaudatus has been
observed (Bernard and Montgomery-Dee, 1993; Webb, 1996).
Identification
It is essential that the nematode populations used in screening are
identified accurately at the species level. Radopholus similis can be
recognized relatively easily by light microscopy but identification
of Pratylenchus species is considerably more difficult. The general
morphology of all Pratylenchus species is uniform. There are only a
restricted number of characters that have taxonomical value and, with-
out exception, these show large intraspecific variation. Even species
that have been well decribed present difficulties. Diagnostics based
on biochemical (isozyme phenotypes) or genetic (DNA sequences)
differences are not available so that morphological characters and
morphometrics are still being used for species identification.
R. similis is recognized by the combination of the following
morphological characters: sexual dimorphism in the anterior region (in
females the head region is low, hemispherical. continuous or slightly
offset with strong cephalic sclerotization and stylet: in males the
head region is high, often knob-like, more offset with \,veak cephalic
sclerotization and degenerated stylet); the rather rare occurrence of
males; median position of the vulva (at about 50-60% of body length):
presence of two equally developed genital branches; female tail shape
somewhat elongate-conoid but with a rounded or indented terminus:
male tail elongate. conoid, ventrally arcuate with bursa extending over
two-thirds of tail length. A full description of R. similis can be found in
Orton Williams and Siddiqi (1973).
Taxonomic keys to the species of the genus Pratylenchus have been
published by Loof (1978). Cafe Filho and Huang (1989) and Handoo
and Golden (1989). P. brachyurus can be found in Corbett (E17b).
P. coffeae in Siddiqi (1972). P. goodeyi in Machon and Hunt (19B5 ).
V neglectus in Townshend_ and Anderson (1 q76). P pent->lmns in
Corbett (1973). P. thornei in Fortuner (1977). P. vu/nus in Corbett
( 197 4) and P. zeae in Fortuner (1976 ).
To mount whole specimens suitable for light microscopy. good
results may be obtained when the nematodes are quickly killed and
fixed immediate I y in hot 4 °~i formaldehyde (after Seinhorst. 1966 ).
transferred to glycerol by the ethanol-glycerol method (after Seinhorst.
1959) and mounted on glass slides with the wax-ring method (after
De Maeseneer and D'Herde. 1963). Unmounted specimens can be
preserved in 2-4% formaldehyde for shipping to laboratories with tax-

onomic expertise.
Screening: General Considerations

During screening for resistance or tolerance to Pratylenchus and
Radopholus spp., nematologists are confronted with several problems:
(i) the existence of differences in reproductive fitness and pathogenic-
ity among populations of R. similis and among populations of the same
Pratylenchus species; (ii) differences in host response and nematode
reproduction between experiments; (iii) the lack of information
concerning the effect of root development on host response and
nematode reproduction.
lntraspecific differences in reproductive fitness and pathogenicity

between Pratylenchus and Radopholus populations
In R. similis, biological diversity among populations was first demon-

strated by studies based on morphology, cytogenetics, host range.
reproductive and damage potential (reviewed by Pinochet, 1988b).
Examination of R. similis populations from the major banana-growing
areas of the world has revealed a large variability in pathogenicity to
banana and plantain. maize and other plants (Pinochet, 1979; Tarte
et al .. 1981: Sarah et al.. 1993: Fallas and Sarah. 1995; Fallas et al ..
1995; Fogain and Gowen. 1995: Hahn et of., 1996). A direct relationship
was found between the reproductive fitness (multiplication rate) on
carrot discs of populations and their pathogenicity (induced damage)
on banana roots: the higher the reproductive fitness on carrot discs, the
greater the pathogenicity on banana roots (Sarah et of., 1993; Fallas
et al., 1995 ). However. high reproductive fitness is not necessard\·
related to high pathogenicity (Tarte et al.. 1981: Hahn et al .. 199G).
Usually. the reproductive fitness of R. similis and Pu:tvlenchus spp. is
compared at a fixed time after inoculation. However. at that moment
only one measurement related to nematode reproduction is available./\
more comprehensive characterization of the reproduction (maximum
growth rate. presence of a lag phase and the commencement of the
stationarv growth phase) was obtained by Stoffelen et al. (1999a) who
studied the dynamics of the reproduction using the Gornpertz model.
A high maximum growth rate and an early stationan· phase were char-
acteristic of populations with a high reproductive fitness. Molecular
techniques such as isozyme patterns. RFLP and RAPD have also been
used to further study biological diversity among n sirnilis populations
(Hahn et al., 1994. 1996; Fallas et of., 1996 ). These molecular studies
have shown a high degree of genetic similarity among R. similis

populations from different areas of the world. In cluster analysis
of random amplified polymerase DNA (RAPD) profiles, two separate
clusters were found (Fallas et al., 1996). The two genomic groups
are being spread independently and no clear relationship is present
between molecular and biological diversity. Apparently, reproductive
fitness and pathogenicity evolved independently but similarly in both
genomic groups under the influence of local environmental conditions.
Initially, R. similis populations that were able to infect citrus in
Florida were considered morphologically indistinguishable from those
that attacked banana worldwide and thus were considered the citrus
race of R. similis (Ducharme and Birchfield, 1956). Based on differ-
ences in karyotype, isozymes, proteins and sexual behaviour (Huettel
and Dickson, 1981; Huettel et al., 1982, 1983a,b, 1984a), the sibling
species R. similis and R. citrophilus were established from the banana
and citrus races of R. similis, respectively (Huettel et al .. 1984b). In
1988, minor morphological differences in the tail regions of R. similis
and R. citrophilus males were described by Huettel and Yaegashi
(1988), who claimed that both species could be differentiated based on
these minute external characters. However, recent studies have shown
that populations of R. similis from banana and citrus are pheno- and
genotypically very similar (Hahn et al., 1996; Kaplan. 1999). Citrus
parasitism in Florida appeared to be associated with limited changes in
the genome (Kaplan, 1994; Kaplan et al., 1996, 1997: Kaplan and
Opperman, 1997). In addition, the inheritance of a specific marker and
ability to parasitize citrus by reproductively viable progeny derived
from matings of selected nematode populations suggested that gene-
flow is not restricted between the populations infecting banana and
citrus (Kaplan et al .. 1997). When Valette et al. (1998) a [so observed
that the minor morphological differences in the tail region of Fl. similis
and R. citrophilus males described by Huettel and Yaegashi (1988) all
showed variation overlapping the differences between the two species
described by these authors, R. citrophilus was proposed as a junior
synonym of R. similis. the citrus and banana races repn~senting
different pathotypes.
[n Pratvlenchus. biological diversity among populations of the
same species has been reported in P. brochyurus (Payan and Dickson,
1990), P. coffeae (\,Vehunt and Edwards in Stover. El72: Mizukubo,
1995: Bridge et al., 1997: Waeyenberghe et ol.. 2000). P. goodeyi
(Pinochet, 1998c). P. loosi (Waeyenberghe et al., 2000 ). P. neglectus
(Griffin, 1991: Ha fez et al., 1999). P. penetrans (Olthof. 1968: Griffin
and Gray, 1990: Griffin. 1991; Brodie and Plaisted. EJ93: France and
Brodie, 1995. 1996: Hafez et al., 1999) and P. 1/Ulnus (Pinochet et of ..
1992, 1993, 1994 ). [n P. coffeae, the taxonomic status of populations
designated as P. co/feoe is currently under scrutiny since studies have
shown that P. coffeae most likely represents a species complex

(Mizukubo, 1992; Duncan et al., 1999; Waeyenberghe et al., 2000).
Therefore, it is possible that the biological diversity observed among
P. coffeae populations represents in fact differences among species.
The variability in reproductive fitness (and thus pathogenicity)
among both R. similis and Pratylenchus populations belonging to the
same species can influence the interpretation of screening experiments
for resistance and tolerance. Therefore, the reproductive fitness of the
population .used in the screening experiments should be determined,
eventually compared with other populations, and the same population
should be used in all screening experiments. By preference a popula-
tion with a high reproductive fitness should be used. The existence
of differences in reproductive fitness between root-lesion nematode
populations from the field also means that, ultimately, promising plant
genotypes should be evaluated on their host response using a mixture
of populations from different geographical regions (Alcaiiiz et al ..
1996).
Differences in host response and nematode reproduction between

experiments
When screening for resistance to R. similis and Pratylenchus species. it

is not uncommon to observe differences in host response and nematode
reproduction between glasshouse and field experiments, anci 1~ven
between a series uf successive experiments conducted under similar.
controlled conditions. In some instances, resistance to Pratylenchus
spp. has been observed in the glasshouse but not in the field or vice
versa (see e.g. Norton, 1989; Nombela and Romero. 1999). Differences
in nematode reproduction can be high as shown by numbers of
R. similis and P. thornei extracted from the roots of ciifferent 1\ilusu dllci
wheat genotypes. respectively, in glasshouse expt·rinwnts carried out
almost simultaneously (Musa) or successively (\'.·heat). under si 111 i la r.
controlled conditions. On the same cultivar (Cavp11dish 901). the final
numbers of R. similis averaged 22,347, 732 and :u.201 in three tl:sts
(Stoffelen et al .. 2000b). On three wheat cultivars (CS50a. Catc:hc:r dllcl
Potam). the final numbers of P. thornei per plant \'\'ere 10.085 <1111!
33.390, 36.650 and 95.680, and 37,750 and 12B.f1fi5. respective!\. in
two experiments (Thompson and Haak, 1997}. Such differences ma~'
arise from differences in th!' abiotic and biotic environmental condi-
tions, in the developmental stage of the plants, and in infectivity of the
nematode inocul um. Even in a glasshouse, environmental conditions
may fluctuate enough to influence the outcome of successive experi-
ments (Stoffelen, 2000). It is known that temperature. soil moisture.
soil texture and other edaphic factors, greatly influence hatching,

penetration and development of Pratylenchus spp. (see e.g. Fiorini
et al., 1987; Castillo et al., 1996; Mizukubo and Adachi, 1997). Favour-
able conditions in small pots can alter the apparent reproductive rate of
Pratylenchus species as discussed by Farsi et al. (1995). Abiotic and
biotic environmental conditions not only influence the nematodes but
also plant development. The occurrence of these differences in host
response and nematode reproduction underlines the importance of
including the same susceptible ~eference cultivar in each experiment,
plus, if available, a resistant (or less susceptible) reference cultivar. The
reproduction of nematodes on the genotypes to be screened can then
not only be compared with the nematode reproduction on the reference
cultivars, but also comparison of the results obtained from different
batches or experiments is then possible. Furthermore, resistance
to Pratylenchus spp. should not only be assessed in glasshouse
experiments but also under field conditions examining plants in the
same developmental stage.
Effect of root development and root system structure on host

response and nematode reproduction
Pratylenchus and Radopholus spp. penetrate, feed. develop and

multiply in roots as well as migrating within and between roots. Root
development will influence this dynamic process and thus nematode
reproduction. on which resistance assessment is based. Root develop-
ment may also explain tolerance. In i\1usa. differences in both repro-
duction of R. similis and root damage (number of functional roots.
percentage of dead roots and necrosis) on 2-month-old sword sucker-
derived plants and on sword suckers of established mats were observed
during early field screening suggesting a different host response lo
nematode infection of young and old root systems (Speijer et of .. FJ9Sl).
Also in 1\!lusa. differences \Vere observed during earlv glasshouse
screening for reaction to both R. similis and P. coffeae bctwee11 in vitro
propagated plants and plants derived from corms of the same genotype
(Viaene et al .. 1998). In spite of its importance. the complex interaction
between nematodes and root development has seldom bPt)l1 studied.
Stoffelen (2000) examined root development and root S\'Stems of
several Musa genotypes in order to optimize early nematode resistance
and tolerance screening. To reduce the effect of root growth on
nematode reproduction. she recommended that rwmatocle inoculation
should be postponed until the second flush of primary root emergence
which in Grande Naine is at about 8 weeks after planting of in vitro
propagated plants.
Screening: Protocols
Nematode inocu/um
Carrot discs (Daucus carota L.) are widely used for rearing root-lesion
nematodes (O'Bannon and Taylor, 1968; Moody et al., 1973;
Verdejo-Lucas and Pinochet, 1992; Fallas and Sarah, 1994; Pinochet
et al., 1995). Cultures of R. similis and Pratylenchus species can be
established from a single gravid female. The initiation of in vitro carrot
disc cultures of nematodes requires four steps: (i) extraction of the
nematodes from infected roots; (ii) sterilization of the nematodes; (iii)
surface-sterilization of the carrot discs; (iv) inoculation of the carrot
discs with the nematodes.
Protocol 1: culturing root-lesion nematodes on carrot discs

1. EXTRACTION OF NEMATODES FROM INFECTED ROOTS. fuveniles and adults
of migratory endoparasitic nematodes can be extracted from roots by
several methods. Two of these methods. the maceration-Baermann
funnel and the maceration-sieving method are described below. In
contrast to the centrifugal-flotation method, these tv1'0 methods require
little equipment. A description of the maceration-sieving technique
can be found in Coolen and D'Herde (1972). Other methods are the use
of mist chambers and incubation with aeration or agitation (Seinhorst.
1950: Young, 1954 ).
Moceration-Baermann funnel method. \Nash the roots with tap water

and cut them in 1 cm pieces. Put the root pieces in a kitchen-type
blender with distilled water and blend three times for a total of 10 s
with a short pause between cycles (duration of bli:nding depends on
the root type). Pour the blended suspension through a 40 µm aperture
sieve and rinse the residue on the sieve with tap water. Collect the
mixture of blended roots and nematodes from the sieve with distilled
water in a beaker and put it on a Baerrnann funnel/dish (a 1 mm
aperture sieve covered with tissue paper placed in a funnel or in a dish
with distilled water). After an incubation period of 12-24 h. collect the
nematodes at the base of the funnel or on the bottom of the dish in a
beaker. Pour the suspension with the nematode'> through a 2~ µm
aperture sieve and rinse the residue on the sieve with tap 1.,vater
(to eliminate bacteria. etc.). Finally. collect the nematodes on the
sieve with <listilled water in a beaker. Clean the blender. sieves and
Baermann funnel/dish first vvith ethanol (to kill rc111aining nematodes)
and then with soap and hot water.
Maceration-sieving method. Wash the roots with tap water and cut
them in 1 cm pieces. Pour the root sample and 100 ml distilled water
into the blender. Macerate the root sample in distilled water for 30 s
(three 10 s periods separated by 5 s intervals). Depending on the type of
roots, macerate for a longer or shorter period. Pour the suspension of
nematodes and root debris through nested 250, 106 and 40 µm aperture
sieves and rinse with tap water (to eliminate bacteria, etc.). Collect the
nematodes from the 40 µm sieve with distilled water in a beaker.
2. STERILIZATION OF ROOT-LESION NEMATODES (SEE DE WAELE, CHAPTER 6, FOR

OTHER METHODS OF STERILIZATION).
Under laminar flow
Step A: selection of living nematodes from the suspension. Pour the
nematodes in a counting dish and select the preferred nematodes. For a
very dirty nematode suspension, the nematodes are hand-picked using
a very thin needle. For a clean nematode suspension. the nematodes
are aspirated with a micropipette, previously heated in a flame. The
selected nematodes are then transferred to sterile water in a sterile Petri
dish.
Step B: sterilization with HgCJ 2 . Start with a sterile Petri dish with
nematodes in sterile water. Transfer the nematodes with a sterile
pipette to a small sterile 20 µm aperture sieve and put the sieve with
the nematodes in 0.01 % HgC1 2 for 2 min. Rinse the sieve with the
nematodes twice with sterile water. Finally. place the sieve with
nematodes in sterile water and transfer the nematodes with a sterile
pipette to sterile water in a sterile test tube
Step C: sterilization ivith streptomycin sulphate. Start vvith a sterile

test tube with nematodes in sterile water (2 ml). Add 1 ml of 6000 µg
ml- 1 streptomycin sulphate \·vith a sterile pipette. After an incubation
period of 12 h. remove the streptomycin sulphate supernatant from the
nematode pellet with a sterile pipette and add fresh sterile water. \Vait
until the nematodes have settled to the bottom oft he tube and rcmm't~
the supernatant again. Repeat two or three times and prepare ne\\
streptomycin sulphate each time.
3. SURFACE-STERILIZATION OF CARROT DISCS. Use thick C<l!TOts (e.g.

cultivar Nantes) and fresh carrots with foliage. BP- careful to use plastic
tissue cul tu re or glass Petri dishes so that nematodes do not adhere to
dish walls. Cut off the foliage and wash the carrots with tap water and
dry with tissue paper.
Under laminar flow. Dip into or spray the carrot vvith 9:l 01c1 ethanol
and flame until the ethanol is burned off and epidermal tissues are
blackened. Then. using a flame-sterilized vegetable peeler. peel several
layers of eoidermal tissue. Be sure to resterj I j ze the neelPr betwPPD
each layer of tissue. Cut the carrot in discs and put one or two discs in
each Petri dish. Seal the Petri dishes with Parafilm and place the Petri
dishes in a plastic box, to protect against mites, in an incubator at 25°C.
4. INOCULATION OF CARROT DISCS WITH NEMATODES.

Under laminar flow. Use the carrot discs immediately after prepara-
tion (before bacteria and fungi can develop). Be careful to use discs of
different carrots for inoculation of a given nematode population (this
spreads the risk of contamination due to bacteria and fungi in the
carrot). To obtain high nematode densities, use > 75 nematodes as
initial inoculum. For culture maintenance, use 20-50 nematodes.
Transfer with a sterile pipette one drop of the sterilized nematodes
from the sterilized test tube to a sterile Petri dish and aspirate females
(especially thick, gravid females) with the micropipette from the drop
on the sterile Petri dish. Be careful to inoculate the nematodes on the
margin of the carrot disc, not in the middle. After the inoculation, seal
the Petri disqes with Parafilm and incubate in a plastic box at 25°C.
The root-lesion nematodes can be extracted from the carrot discs
either to start a new in vitro carrot disc culture following sterilization
(with streptomycin sulphate, as described above) or as inoculum for
screening experiments, for instance in pots in the glasshouse.
Loss of infectivity of R. similis and Pratylenchus species cultured
on carrot discs has not been reported. The populations seem to main-
tain their reproductive fitness.
Protocol 2: Extraction of root-lesion nematodes from carrot discs

Use only carrot disc cultures where you can see many nematodes on
the Petri dish and/or on the carrot disc. To remove nematodes from
the dish, rinse the Petri dish with distilled water and pour the water
through a 25 ,um aperture sieve. Rinse the nematodes on the sieve \Ni th
tap water (to eliminate bacteria. etc.) and collect the nematodes on the
sieve with distilled water in a beaker. To collect the nematodes on or in
the carrot disc use any of the extraction techniques as described abon~
(see Protocol 1) to extract the nematodes from the carrot discs. Both
fractions can be used for subculturing (i.e. inoculation of fresh carrot
discs) or inoculation of plants for experimental purposes.
Nematode inoculation
Plants can be infected with root-lesion nematodes either by infesting

the soil with nematodes from carrot disc cultures or other similar
sources or by planting the plants in nematode-infested soil. Soil
infestation with 1000-2500 vermiform (mixed life stage) nematodes per
plant is usually used for glasshouse experiments. [noc1d11m can he from
nematodes obtained from cultures or nematodes extracted from roots

collected from an infested field.
Protocol 3: Inoculation of plants

Extract the nematodes from the carrot discs, for example by using the
maceration-sieving technique (see Protocol 1). Rinse the nematodes
from the 25 µm aperture sieve with distilled water in a beaker and bring
the nematode suspension to a known volume with water. Blow in the
solution with a pipette or agitate by stirring to disperse the nematodes
from the bottom and take a sample. Count the nematodes (eggs, juve-
niles and adults). Adjust the concentration of nematodes to approxi-
mately 300-1000 ml- 1 . Make three or four holes around the base of the
stem and add nematodes with a pipette. Close the holes with soil. Be
sure that the soil in the pot is moist before infesting with nematodes
and/or water lightly immediately after infesting.
Assessment of resistance and tolerance
In vitro screening
Usually, screening of crop germ plasm for resistance or tolerance to
Pratylenchus and Radopholus spp. is conducted either under glass-
house or field conditions. However, in vitro plant tissue cultures can
also be used as an early, rapid and reliable method for determining
resistance to these nematodes.
For in vitro screening aseptic nematodes are needed. Pratylenchus
and Radopholus spp. reared on carrot discs are not free of contami-
nants since the carrot tissues are only surface-sterilized. Also surface
sterilization with streptomycin sulphate of the nematodes extracted
from carrot disc cultures is not sufficient. Callus tissue offers a good
alternative to obtain aseptic nematodes. Lucerne callus has proved to
be a good substrate for aseptic culturing of migratory endoparasitic:
nematodes. including R. similis and Pratylenchus species (tv1yers et of ..
1965; Mitsui et al .. 1975; Elsen et al., 2001). The initiation of in vitro
lucerne callus tissue cultures consists of three steps: (i) production
of the callus; (ii) inoculation of the callus \vith nematodes: and
(iii) extraction of the nematodes from the callus.
1. Production of lucerne callus. Lucerne seeds are sterilized by a
15 min soak in H~S0 4 (95-97%) followed by four rinses with sterile.
distilled water, a 15 min soak in HgCl 2 (1000 µg rnl- 1 in :rn(X, ethanol).
followed by four rinses with sterile, distilled water (Riedel and Foster.
1970). Sterile 4-day-old lucerne seedlings germinated from these seeds
on plates of 1 % agar with 10 g sucrose and 2 g yeast extract l- 1 are
o)gcpr~ 011 cJgntc nror>rirod fron:i 1 A mJ 0lio11atc of 't\[J:iit-a'c rXJadi11r=x1
(White, 1963), modified by adding 0.2 µg ml- 1 a-naphthalene acetic

acid (a-NAA) and 2 µg ml- 1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-0).
Seven to 10 days later, after allowing the callus to develop, then trans-
fer the calluses to Petri dishes containing the same medium.
2. Nematode inoculation of lucerne callus. Root-lesion nematodes
cultured on carrot discs are surface-sterilized for 2 min in 0.01 % HgCl2,
followed by two rinses with sterile, distilled water. With a sterile
micropipette, 25 females are transferred to each lucerne callus. The
Petri dishes are incubated at 28°C in the dark. After 5 weeks, the
nematodes start moving out of the callus. To maintain stock cultures
of aseptic root-lesion nematode populations, subcultures can be made
by aseptically transferring small pieces of infected call us to fresh
call us.
3. Nematode extraction from lucerne callus. To extract the root-lesion
nematodes, the callus is chopped and put on a sterile 70 µm aperture
sieve. The sieve is placed on a sterile watch glass containing sterilized
water. Within 48 h. living nematodes migrate through the sieve into the
water. Prior to inoculation the nematodes are collected from the bottom
of the watch glass. The extraction process is carried out under sterile
conditions at room temperature.
In addition to lucerne callus, root-lesion nematodes have also been
cultured on banana fruit callus (Brown and Vessey, 1985), callus from
citrus leaves (Inserra and O'Bannon, 1975), okra callus (Feder, 1958)
and on excised root culture (Huettel, 1990). Elsen et al. (2001) and
Hogger (1969) did not observe changes in infectivitv of R. similis and
P. penetrans on. respectively. banana and potato. after culturing on
lucerne callus. fn contrast, Stoffelen (2000) reported that after culturing
on carrot callus a n. similis population lost its abilitv to reproduce on
banana roots grown in soil in pots.
Developing an in 1·itro screening procedure for nematode resistance
requires basicalh· three steps. Firstly. establish in vitro propagation
and aseptic culturing of the host plant and the nematode. Second I~.
demonstrate the ability of the nematode to infect and n~produce on a
susceptible variet~ of the host plant. Finally. validate the procedure b\
checking the host response of a knovvn nematode-resistant variet~ of
the host plant gro\\·11.
Significant differences in reproduction of n. si111ilis vn~re obsen-ed
in vitro on resistant and susceptible Anthurium c:ultivars. Differences
in plant damage betvveen tolerant and sensitive cultivars were also
found. Basi!d on these results. this nwthod was succ:essfull\' used for
evaluation of resistance and tolerance of 17 Anthuriu111 cttltivars (Wang
et al., 1997). Significant differences in reproduction of /1 similis \Nerc
also observed in 1·itro on resistant and susC:Cf)tible i\1uso "(Jf~notvi)es
~
(0(~
Waele, 1998).
The in vitro screening procedure has several advantages compared

to glasshouse screening. The experiments can be performed under con-
trolled conditions. Further, a small quantity of inoculum is sufficient
and can be prepared precisely by manually picking nematodes. Less
space and time is needed for plant maintenance and harvest. The
experimental time is also reduced. A disadvantage is the extraction of
nematodes from the medium by maceration and sieving since this is
rather difficult and therefore time consuming. Also, the procedure can
only be used when resistance to nematodes is expressed in host plants
grown in vitro, which is not always the case (De Waele, 1998; Stoffelen,
2000).
Glasshouse screening
The size of the pots or bags in which to grow plants will depend on
plant species and type of planting material (for instance in A!fusa
in vitro tissue cultured plants or suckers) and the objective of the
screening. When investigating nematode reproduction or early visual
symptoms such as necrosis, data can be obtained after 2-3 months and
15 cm diameter pots are sufficient. The soil should be representative of
the soil type in which the plants are cultivated in the region. Moisture
and fertilization regimes should be optimal for plant growth.
Field screening
For field screening. a potential site should be sampled to determ i nP the

spectrum of nematodes present. Ideally. select a site either infested
with only the nematode species of interest or a site where the nematode
species composition is representative of the species uirnrnunit\·
occurring in the region. The nematode infestation level <1t the sitC'
should be determined bv examining soil samples and roots of host
plants growing at the site. If the nematode population densitv present
is large enough. the infested field can be used imrnedi<1tl~h. If the
nematode population density present is too small. the site c:c111 lw
either planted \vith a good host of the species of interest to i11c:n~as(~
population densities or nematode-infected roots can be Cldded whC'n
the plants are planted (using chopped or macerated infectt~d roots).
Evaluation of resistance
There is no general agreement on the best parameter tu cstim<1k

population densities of Pratylenchus and Radopholus in the roots. The
number of nematodes g- 1 fresh roots has been broadly used, even when
root growth rate can be variable among genotypes. Examining the
whole root system appears to be a more accurate parameter but
is not always possible, especially under field conditions. To avoid
restrictions of one or other method the numbers of nematodes should
be determined both per plant (that is per whole root system) and per g
fresh roots.
Protocol 4: Estimation of migratory endoparasitic nematodes

1. Determination of root fresh weight. Take the plant out of the pot
and wash the roots with tap water. Cut off the roots and weigh them.
After chopping the roots in 1 cm pieces, take a sample. The sample size
depends on/varies with the size of the root system (but for banana is
15 g). The roots can be stored in a refrigerator until time of anal vs is. if
distilled water is added.
2. Nematode extraction (see Protocol 1, in which different extraction
techniques are described).
3. Determination of final nematode population. Dilute the nematode
solution with distilled water in a graduated cylinder to 200 ml. Blow
in the suspension with a pipette or agitate by stirring and take a
subsample of 6 ml. Count the nematodes in a counting dish and
calculate the final nematode population per plant and nematodes per g
of root.
In the screening experiments, replications should range betivveen 8
and 15. To minimize variation in ambient conditions, the replications
should be arranged in either a complete! y randomized des rgn. a
randomized complete block design or a split plot design.
Guidelines for screening of Musa germplasrn for resistance and
tolerance to root-lesion nematodes have been described in Speijc:r and
De Waele (1997).
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the Notionol Agriculture FfesP.orch R. cilrophilus as a junior svnonvn1 of
Centre 19. 17-37. R. similis. Fu11dume11tnl Uf1(! Applier/
Thies. J.A . Basigalup. LJ. and Barnes. D.K Nemotolog121. 1:19-14(1
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(Protdcndws thornei) in 1\egilo11s 1·drictics. ,·\ustrn/1u11 /ournul u/ l:.\f)('I
touschii Coss .. the D-gcnornc donor u n c n to I Fl <.; m u It u n · :rn. IH l -- liH\
to 1Nlical ,·\ustrnlinn fournul n/ 1\,~ri Verdejo-LttCdS S .rnd l'irHH hct. I (I lJlJ2)
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Tiwari. S.P. \lddhcra. l.. ShukL1. B N. cndoparasrtic 111:111<1trni!'s i11 c<1rrot
and Bhdtl. J (I ~JCJ2) Studies <in the cl is k cu I t u r t ! s f(J 11 r 11 u I o / :\' t '111oIoIo.~1
patl10genic:it\ and rcldti1·r! rr!ac:l1ons 24. l)()-lJ!I
of chickpea lines to flroll'll'nchus ViC1crw. N .. Dtw1·1<1s. I dIHl lk \\la!'lc. I)
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1\llen. l 9'."d [11(/ion foumol of Mvcnl tvpcs for rcs1sl<111c:r! <1nd tolr~r<11H:c to
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Turuan-Mathius. N .. Pancoro. 1\ .. Sudar- cofj{?<W. 1V£'11111lmpiu1 27. l 2:l.
madji. D .. Mawardi. S. a11d llutubarat. Viac1w. N .. !Jue1-1;is. I and Lk \V;wlc. D.
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molecular polvrnorphisrns associated tolerance to flu1fopho!us siinilis ancl
Pratylenchus coffeae in banana and Wicks. Z.W., Smolik, J.D .. Carson, M.L.
plantain. Proceedings of the 24 11i and Scholten, G.G. (1990a) Registra-
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Scotland, p. 125. Wicks. Z.W., Smolik. J.D .. Carson, M.L.
Vrain, T.C. and Daubeny, H.A. (1986) Rela- and Scholten. G.G. (1990b) Registra-
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related genotypes to the root lesion lines of maize. Crop Science 30,
nematode. HortScience 21, 1435-1437. 242-243.
Vrain, R.C., Daubenv. H.A., Hall, J.W .. Wiryadiputra. S. (1996) Resistance of
De Young, R.M. and Anderson, A.K. Robusta coffee to coffee root lesion
(1994) Inheri ta nee of resistance to nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae.
root lesion nematode in red rasp- Pe/ita-Perkebunan 12. 137-148.
berry. HortScience 29. 1340-1341. Yamakawa, 0 .. Kukimura. H .. Komaki. K..
Waeyenberghe. L.. Rvs. A .. Moens. M .. Hidaka, M., Yoshinaga. M .. Yoshida.
Pinochet. J. and Vrain. T.C. (2000) T.. Tabuchi. S. and Kumagai. T.
Molecular characterisation of 18 (1995) Joy White: a nev; sweet potato
Pratylenchus species using rDNA cultivar. Bulletin of the Kyushu
Restriction Fragment Length Poly- National Agricultural Experiment
morphism. Nenwtolog_v 2. 135-142. Station 28. 297-316.
Wang. K.. Kuehnle. i\ R. and Sipes. B.S. Yamakawa, 0 .. Yoshinaga. M .. Kumagai.
(1997) In vitro screening for T.. Hidaka. M.. Komaki. K..
burrowing m~rn<itode. Radopholus Kukimura, H. and Ishiguro. K. (1998)
citrophilus. tolf~rance and resistance '/-Red': a nevv sweet potato cultivar
in commercial ,-\nihurium hvbrids. In Bulletin o( the Kvushu ,Vntionol Agri-
\litro Cellulor nnd Oeve/opmentol cultural Experiment Stotion :n.
Biology-Plant :n. 205-208. 49-72.
Webb. R.M. (1996) In 1'ifro studies of six Yamakawa. 0 .. Kumagai. T.. Yoshinaga.
species of Prn/1 lt'nchus (Nematoda: M .. Ishiguro. K . Hidaka. M . Komaki
Pratylenchidaf') on four cultivars of K. and Kukimura. H. (1999) ·sunl1\
oilseed rape (Urussico nopus var. Red': a new sweet potato culti,·ar
oleifera) :Ve11wtnlogicn 42. 89-95. for pm·vder. Bulletin of the KFushu
Wehunt. E.J.. Hutchinson. D.J. and Notional Agncultuml ExperinJPnl
Edwards. DI ( 1<178) Reaction of Station J5. 19--Hl
banana c:ulti\ ;irs to the liurrovvino,-, Young. T.\V. (1q54) .\11 incubation method
nematode (ffrH!opholus simil1s) for collecting migrdton cndoparasitil
Journal of .\fen111!0/og,1 10. 368-3 70 nematodes P/0111 n1seose Heporter
White. P.R i 1'Hi:l) The Cultirntion of :rn. 7q4_7q-,
Animnl (]II(/ f'/1111t C:!'!ls. 2nd l~cl11
Ronald P.•:ss. \;~·11 York.
APPENDIX A
Combine ingredients and autoclave.

General Media
Malt Extract Agar (MEA) (Tuite, I969)
Tl_ie culture media listed below may be used for the growth
of a Wide range of fimgi. Variants of these media are listed in Malt extract 25 g
the following sections treating specific genera. Agar 20 g
Water IL
Corruneal Agar (CMA) (Tuite, I969)
Cornmeal 60 g
Agar I2 g Oabneal agar (OMA) (Tuite, I969)
Water IL
Rolled oats 60 g
Place cornmeal in a cloth bag and steam for 0.5 hr in I L Agar I2 g
water. Combine the extract (brought to I L with additional Water 1L
-water as necessary) with the agar and autoclave.
I Blend oats in 600 ml of the water for 5 min. Add
Corruneal Agar (dehydrated) remaining 400 ml of water in which the agar has been melted.
Mix thoroughly and autoclave 200 ml aliquots for 30 min.
Difeo Cornmeal agar 17 g
Water IL Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) See Fusarium below.
Combine ingredients and autoclave. Potato Dextrose Agar (dehydrated)
Czapek's Solution Agar (Tuite, 1969) Difeo potato dextrose agar 39 g

Water IL
NaN03 3.0 g
K 2HP04 1.0 g Combine ingredients and autoclave.
MgS04 ·7H20 0.5 g
KCl 0.5 g V-8 Juice Agar See Pythium and Phytophthora below.
FeS04 • 7H20 O.OI g
Sucrose 30.0 g Water Agar
Agar 15.0 g
Water lL Difeo Bacto agar I5-20 g
Water IL
tzapek's Solution Agar (dehydrated)
Mounti112 Media and Stains for Lil;!ht Microscopy
Difeo Cz.apek's solution agar 49 g
Water IL Amann's Mounting Fluid - Lactophenol (Tuite, 1969)
Combine ingredients and autoclave. Phenol crystals 20 g

Lactic acid (sp. gr. 1.2) 20 g
Lima Bean Agar (LBA) (Tuite, 1969) Glycerine (sp. gr. 1.25) 40 g
Distilled water. 20 g
Very fine ground dry lima beans 15 g
Dissolve the phenol crystals by gentle heating. Combine
Dextrose 10 g
Agar 10 g with the other ingredients. Stains are frequently added to this
Yeast extract 2g mounting medium. For example cotton blue or acid fuchsin
may be added at 0.0I % to 0.1 %.
Suspend the bean powder in 800 ml water (I2I C) for 45
min. Add other ingredients and autoclave for 30 min. KOH-Phloxine (Tuite, 1969)
Lima Bean Agar (dehydrated) Alcohol 70%

KOH 5%
Difeo Lima bean agar 23 g Aqueous phloxine 0.5%
Water 1L
243
Make up each of the solutions separately. Add one drop add 10 mg benomyl before autoclaving and add 150 mg
of the alcohol to the fungal structures on a glass microscope streptomycin sulfate just before pouring the medium.
slide in order to remove air bubbles. Then, remove most of
the alcohol by blotting or by evaporation. Add one drop of the
KOH and phloxine solutions. Add a cover slip. Annillaria
Modified Weinhold's Mediwn (Moody and Weinhold, 1972).
Defined medium for Armillaria. Good rhizomorph production
Specific Media with the addition of ethanol 9r other stimulants.
glucose 10 g
asparagine 2g
Aphanomyces KH2P04 1.75 g
KCl 500 mg
Homogenized Oatmeal Broth (0.5%) (Schneider, 1978). For MgS04 • 7H20 750 mg
production of oospores by Aplumomyces euteiches and A. thiamine 1 mg
cochlioides. distilled water 1L
rolled oats 5 g Agar and a suitable amount of ethanol may be added.

distilled water 1L Generally, 3 ml of 95 % ethanol is added after autoclaving fA
maximum rhizomorph stimulation. •
Comminute rolled oats in 300 ml water in a Waring
blender for 5 min. Add the remaining 700 ml water and heat OPP Agar (Rishbeth, 1972; Modified from Russell, 1956).
to 50 C. Adjust to pH 6.6 with HCl before autoclaving. Semi-selective medium for Armillaria and other
hymenomycetes.
Metalaxyl-Benomyl-Vancomycin Mediwn (MBV) (Pfender
et al, 1984) malt extract 30 g
Selective medium for isolation of Aphanomyces from infected agar 15 g
plant tissue. 2.5 N (18.7%) lactic acid 6.6 ml
orthophenylphenate (1 %) 4.0ml
Difeo Bacto agar 10 g distilled water lL
Difeo cornmeal agar 10 g
distilled water lL Add the acid and phenol solutions after autoclaving.
metalaxyl 30 mg (E.C. dissolved in 95%
ethanol at 10 mg a.i./ml) BDS - Benomyl dichloran streptomycin as described under
benomyl 5 mg (wettable powder) Heterobasidion
vancomycin 200 mg
amphotericin B 0.5 mg (include only if Alternaria, Orange Fruit Mediwn (Guillaumin, 1986; Guillaumin et al,
Rhiwpus, or Mucor are common 1989). For basidiome production by Annillaria species.
contaminants)
Oranges are sliced in quarters and two quarters are placai
Add the antimicrobials after autoclaving. in a 500-ml Erlenmeyer flask with 50 ml of 2 % malt extra~
The flask is plugged with cotton, covered with aluminum foil
Mitchell and Yang Salts Solution (Mitchell and Yang, 1966) and autoclaved for 1 hr.
A rinsing solution for production of zoospores by Aphanomyces
euteiches. Shaw and Roth Mediwn (Shaw and Roth, 1976). For
rhizomorph production and clonal determinations of Annillaria.
CaC1 2 192 mg
KCl 74mg malt extract 40 g
MgS04 •7H20 246 mg dextrose 20 g
distilled water lL bacto-peptone 5g
agar 19 g
Adjust pH to 6.5. Autoclave. distilled water lL
Radish Agar (Humayden and Williams, 1978)

For growth and isolation of Aphanomyces raphani.
Scarlet Globe radish roots 250 g

distilled water 1L
agar 20 g
Steep radish roots in water for 45 min at 100 C. Filter.

Add agar to filtrate, autoclave. If isolating from plant tissue,
244
K 2HP04 250 mg
Bipoklris MgS04 •7H20 250 mg
FeC12 trace
D-R (Dodman and Reinke 1982) CaC03 3-4 g
For direct isolation of C. sativus from soil. Agar 20 g
distilled water lL
soluble starch 10 g
NaN03 3g Adjust pH to pH 4-6 with &P04
K2HP04 lg
MgS04 500mg
KCI 500mg
FeS04•7H20 50mg Ceplzalosporium
agar 15 g
dist. water lL Cephalosporium gramineum #l selective mediwn (Wiese and
Ravenscroft, 1973).
Add after autoclaving: 100 mg streptomycin sulfate, 20 mg
chlortetracycline HCl, 50 mg kanamycin sulfate (in the US 100 g fresh leaf blades of 10- to 30-day-old wheat
neomycin is more readily available), 700 mg rose bengal*, 10 seedlings boiled 10 min in 1 L distilled water and poured
mg benomyl, lmg captafol, and 3 mg dichloran. through 2 layers cheese cloth. Mixture adjusted to 1 L with
distilled water and 20 g agar added and autoclaved. Prior to
Different chemical lots of rose bengal vary in activity. If solidification, CuSq • 5Hp added at 0.8-1.2 g/L. Addition of
problems occur try changing the amount of rose bengal used in 1-10 mg/L of pentachloronitrobenzene is optional.
the medium.
Cephalosporium gramineum #2 selective medium (Specht and
Minimal mecliwn (finline et al, 1960) Murray, 1989).
Glucose mineral salts medium (Harding 1975b)
lh strength com meal agar (8 .5 g Difeo cornmeal agar + 7 .5
For 1 liter: g agar/L)
KN03 3.12 g
K 2HP04 750mg 25 % lactic acid 1.25 ml
KH2P04 750mg dichloran 0.5 mg
MgS04 •7H20 500mg tolclofos-methyl 1.0 mg
NaCl lOOmg triphenyltin hydroxide 0.5 mg
CaCl 2 ·2H20 lOOmg
ZnS04 •7H20 0.396 mg pH should be 4.0. Acid and fungicides are added after
CuS04 •5H20 0.079 mg cooling the sterile, molten medium to about 48 C.
MnS04 •4H20 0.0405 mg
Mo0:J 0.0175 mg
Ferric citrate 0.5355 mg
glucose 5.0 g Ceratocystis
agar 20.0 g
Barnett's Medium (BM), a sporulation medium for production
Harding (1975b) added 0.375 mg of N3iB 40 7 • 10H20 to
of conidia of C. fagacearum (Barnett, 1953)
this medium and reduced agar to 15 g.
Glucose 3g
Reis (Reis 1983)
Phenylalanine 0.5 g
For direct isolation of C. sativus from soil.
KH2P04 1g
114 strength PSA (cooking water from 35 g sliced potatoes)
MgS04 •7H20 0.5 g
sucrose 5 g
Micro element solution* 2 ml
agar 15 g
Biotin 5 µg
Thiamine hydrochloride 100 µg
to each liter add after cooling:
Agar 20 g
streptomycin 5000 mg
Distilled water lL
neomycin 3000 mg
benomyl 250 mg
* A stock solution is made by dissolving 723 mg
dichloran 50 mg
Fe{N0:J) • 9H20, 440 mg ZnS04 • 7Hp, and ~03 mg
captan 30 mg
MnS04·4H20 in 600 ml of distilled water. Add sufficient C.P.
sulfuric acid to yield a clear solution and add distilled water to
Sach's Agar (finline and Dickson 1958)
For production of Cochliobolus.
make 1 L.
Ca(N03)2 1.0 g
KC! 250 mg
245
Ceratocystis piceae Sporulation Medi\DD (CPSM), a Glucose Yeast Agar (GYA) (Tuite, 1969)
sporulation medium for production of synnemata of C. piceae
(Fries, 1975) Glucose 10 g
Yeast extract 3g
Ammonium tartrate 100 mg KH2HP04 2g
H 2P04 1000 mg MgS04 • 7H20 0.2 g
MgS04 • 7H2 0 500 mg Agar 20 g
NaCl 100 mg Distilled water 1L
eaa2 100 mg
Glucose 10 g Liquid Shake Culture Medi\DD (LSCM), for C. ips and C.
Agar 15 g mirwr (Mathre, 1964)
Distilled water 1L
Vitamin mixture 1 ml* MgS04 • 7H20 3.0 g
*consisting of 100 µg/ml each of thiamine, pyridoxine, KH2P04 3.0 g
riboflavin, nicotinic acid, calcium pantothenate, p-aminobenz.oic DL-asparagine 5.0 g
acid; and 25 µg/ml of biotin, and 10 mg/ml of m-inositol. D-glucose 20.0 g
FeEDTA 20.0 mg
Hexanol is added in measured quantities to a small cup ZnC12 5.0 mg
placed inside the culture dish. H3B03 0.06 mg
CuC12 0.05 mg
Ceratocystis wageneri Selective Medi\DD (CWSM), for MnC12 0.04 mg
isolation of C. wageneri from forest soil (Hicks et al, 1980) NaMo04 0.03 mg
Thiamine 0.10 mg
PDA (2%) is prepared and acidified to pH 4 by the Pyridoxine 0.08 mg
addition of three drops of concentrated sulfuric acid per 200 ml Biotin 0.008 mg
of agar. When the agar bas cooled to below 60 C, 8 ml of a Distilled water 1L
stock cycloheximide-streptomycin solution is added to 200 ml
of medium. Leptographiwn procera Selective Medium (LPSM), for
The stock solution of 2 % cycloheximide and 0.5 % isolation of L. procera from wood and root chips (McCall and
streptomycin sulfate is prepared by first dissolving 2 g of Merrill, 1980)
cycloheximide in 100 ml of sterile water, assisted by beating to
90 C. After cooling to room temperature, 0.5 g of Agar 15 g
streptomycin sulfate is added. Difeo malt extract 20 g
Distilled water 1L
Ceratocystis ubni Sporulation Mediwn (CUSPOR), a
sporulation medium for production of synnemata of C. ulmi Add 1 ml of concentrated lactic acid and 500 mg
(Hindal and MacDonald, 1978) cycloheximide after autoclaving and partial cooling of the
medium.
Glucose 2.0 g
L-asparagine 80mg Modified Malt Extract Agar (MMEA), a general sporulation
KH2P04 1.0 g medium for most Ceratocystis spp. (Upadhyay, 1981)
MgS04 •7H20 0.5 g
Fe++ 0.20 mg Malt extract 20 g
0.20 mg Com meal 10 g
Mn++ 0.10 mg Yeast extract 10 mg
Pyridoxine 0.08 mg Agar 15 g
Difeo Bactoagar 15.0 g Distilled water lL
Linoleic acid 0.50 g added after other components
are dissolved
Distilled water lL
Cylindrocarpon
Elm Extract Agar (EEA), for isolation of Ceratocystis ulmi
(Tidwell and Sava, 1982) Carnation Leaf Agar (CLA). (Tio et al, 1977). Used to
enhance sporulation in recalcitrant Cylindrocarpon strains.
Elm branches 2-3 cm in dia. are chipped, and 400 g of the
chips are boiled in 1 L of distilled water for 30 min. The Healthy Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) leaves, free
resulting broth is maintained at 80 C for an additional 2 hr. from fimgicide or inse.cticide residues, are cut into 5-mm pieces
Distilled water is added to bring the volume to 3.2 L. After immediately after collection and then dried at approximately 70
straining through cheesecloth, Bactoagar is added to a 2 % level C for 2 hr. They are then sterilized either by gamma
(w/v) and the mixture is autoclaved. irradiation or using propylene oxide vapour (Hansen and
Snyder, 1947). Sterile leaf pieces are then placed aseptically
into petri dishes of 2 % water agar. About one leaf piece per 2
ml of agar is adequate.
246
Potato Sucrose Agar (PSA). Used to obseive colony K 2HP04 1g
morphology and pigmentation for identification of Fusarium MgS04 •7H20 soo mg
and Cylindrocarpon strains. KCl . SOO mg
distilled water IL
potato extract SOO ml
sucrose 20 g Microelemental solution consisting of manganese, zinc, and
agar 20 g iron is added in I ml of a stock solution containing IO ml of
distilled water SOO ml concentrated HCl to prevent the precipitation of iron. The
hydrogen ion concentration of the, medium is adjusted to pH
The water and potato extract are mixed together and the 6.5 with either SN KOH or HCl as required. The vitamins,
sucrose and agar added. The mixture is heated slowly until the biotin (5 µg) and thiamine (100 µ.g) can be added when
agar is dissolved and the pH adjusted if necessary to 6.S. It is required. When a solid medium is needed, add 20 g of agar
then dispensed into suitable bottles and autoclaved at 121 C for after medium is adjusted for pH. Combine ingredients and
20 min. Potato extract is prepared from 1800 g of mature main autoclave.·
crop potatoes peeled, diced and suspended in muslin in 4500
ml water and boiled for 10 min. The potatoes are then Glucose Asparagine (GA). An excellent medium for precise
discarded and the liquor placed in large glass containers and taxonomic and biochemical studies of species of
autoclaved at 121 C for 20 min. It can be stored in a Cylindrocladium and other microfungi.
refrigerator for use as required.
glucose IO g
kA (Spezieller Nahrstoffanner Agar) (Nirenberg, 1976). asparagine 2g
Used for identification and maintenance of Fusarium and K 2HP04 I g
Cylindrocarpon isolates. It has the advantage of limiting MgS04 •7H20 SOO mg
cultural degeneration. KCl soo mg
distilled water IL
KH2P04 1.0 g
KN03 1.0 g Microelemental solution consisting of manganese, zinc, and
MgS04 •7H20 SOOmg iron is added in 1 ml of a stock solution containing IO ml of
KCl SOOmg concentrated HCl to prevent the precipitation of iron. The
glucose 200mg hydrogen ion concentration of the medium is adjusted to pH
sucrose 200mg 6.S with either SN KOH or HCl as required. The vitamins,
agar 20 g biotin (S µg) and thiamine (100 µg) can be added when
distilled water IL required. When a solid medium is needed, add 20 g of agar
after medium is adjusted for pH. Combine ingredients and
Autoclave and pour into 90-mm Petri dishes. Two pieces autoclave.
(ca. I cm2) of sterile filter paper are placed onto the agar
surface when set in order to enhance sporulation. Glucose-Lima Bean Agar (GLBA) A general purpose
medium for growth and sporulation of species of
SNAY (SNA plus yeast extract). Used for identification and Cylindrocladium.
maintenance of Cylindrocarpon isolates. Enhances sporulation
l Cylindrocarpon strains without causing cultural degeneration. glucose 10 g
Difeo lima bean agar 23 g
Same as SNA previously described plus: distilled water 1L
yeast extract 1.0 g Combine ingredients and autoclave. To increase

sporulation increase the amount of glucose by I0-20 g
The use of yeast extract low in NaCl (e.g. Beta Lab, East (increases the carbon/nitrogen ratio).
Molesey, Surrey, UK) is recommended. Autoclave and pour
into 90-mm Petri dishes. Two pieces (ca. I cm2} of sterile Glucose-Lima Bean Rose Bengal Agar (GLRBA) (Hunter et
filter paper are placed onto the agar surface when set in order al, 1980). A selective medium for isolating most species of
to enhance sporulation. Streptomycin sulfate may be added as Cylindrocladium from diseased plant tissue and/or soil.
a sterile solution at a rate of O.OS% (w/v) after autoclaving.
glucose 100 g
Difeo lima bean agar 23 g
rose bengal soo mg
Cylindrodadium aureomycin SO mg or any other tetracycline
antibiotic
Fructose Casein Hydrolysate (FCH) Excellent growth and chloramphenicol SO mg
sporulating medium for species of Cylindrocladium and other distilled water IL
soil microfungi.
Combine all ingredients, excluding antibiotics, and
glucose 10 g autoclave. The bacterial antibiotics are not to be added until
casein hydrolysate 2g the medium is tempered to 75 C.
247
Glucose-Yeast Extract Tyrosine (GYET) (Hunter and Inoculate sterilized broth with a conidial suspension (2
Barnett, 1976.) Medium for producing large, dark brown ml/L) and incubate for 72 hr at 28 C. Shake flasks three to
microsclerotia (little submerged or aerial hyphae) of most four times daily
species of Cylindrocladium.
Carboxymethylcellulose Mediwn - (Cappellini and Peterson,
glucose 30 g 1965)
yeast extract 200mg For stimulating sporulation in Fusarium graminearum.
tyrosine 80mg
Difeo agar 20 g carboxymethylcellulose, 15 g (CMC 7 MP - Hercules
distilled water lL Powder Co.)
Combine ingredients and autoclave. NILN03 1.0 g

KH2P04 1.0 g
Sucrose Tyrosine Mediwn (Griffin, 1977 .) A selective MgS04 •7H20 0.5 g
medium for isolating Cylindrocladium crotalariae from soil. yeast extract 1.0 g
distilled water lL
sucrose 70 g
DL tyrosine 400 mg Used for shake cultures.
KH2P04 1g
MgS04 •7H20 500 mg Carnation Leaf Agar (CLA) - (Burgess et al, 1988; FisheJiil
oxgall 4g al, 1982) •
streptomycin sulfate 50 mg For identification of Fusarium species; isolation from plant
chlortetracycline 50 mg tissue; induction of perithecia of Gibberella zeae (Schw.) Petch
pentachloronitrobenzene 75 mg (= F. graminearum Group 2).
2-(4-thiazolyl)-benzimidamle 2.3 mg
dimethyldicoco ammonium chloride 750 mg agar 15-20 g
water 1 L
methyldodecy lbenzyltrimethyl carnation leaf pieces*
ammonium chloride 400 mg
Prepare water agar. Place a few sterile carnation leaf
trimethyl ammonium chloride lOOmg pieces (about one piece/2 ml agar) per dish (3.5-5 cm diam)
agar 20 g and add cooled (45 C) WA. Leave medium at room
water IL temperature for 3-4 days and check for growth of contaminants
from the leaf pieces before use.
Combine ingredients, adjust to pH 4.0, and autoclave. * Harvest leaves of young carnations from actively
growing, disbudded plants free from pesticide residues. Cut
leaves in pieces about 5 mm2 and dry in an oven at 45-55 C
for 2 hr. Leaf pieces also can be dried in a microwave oven.
Dipwdia-none Leaves should be green and crisp. Leaf pieces are placed in
aluminum or polycarbonate canisters 5 cm deep and 9 cm in
diam and sterilized with 2.5 megarads of gamma irradia-
from a Cobalt 60 source. Sterilized leaf pieces can be s t -
at 2-5 C for up to 12 mo. Propylene oxide fumigation may be
Fusarium substituted (Hansen and Snyder, 1947), but sterilization of
green leaves is not as thorough as with gamma irradiation and
Annstrong Fusariwn Mediwn - (Armstrong and Armstrong, fumigation may have to be repeated.
1948; Booth, 1971) •
Cerelose Ammoniwn Nitrate Mediwn - (Scheffer and
For increasing inoculum of Fusarium oxysporum for Walker, 1953)
pathogenicity tests. For increasing inoculum of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
lycopersici.
sucrose or glucose 20 g
MgS04 •7H20 400mg Cerelose 50 g
KCl 1.6 g NILN03 10 g
KH2P04 1.1 g KH2P04 5g
Ca(N03)2 5.9 g MgS04 • 7H20 2.5 g
FeCl3 0.2 µg/ml FeCl3 • 6H20 20 mg
MnS04 0.2 µglml water 1 L
ZnS04 0.2 µglml
water lL Grow fungus in 946-cc pharmaceutical bottles (placed on
side) containing 100 ml of the sterile liquid medium at 28 C
until a fungal mat develops. Discard fluid, wash fungus mat,
place mat in tap water, and mince in a Waring Blendor.
248
Chaff-Grain Mediwn (CGM) - (Burgess et al, 1988) to medium to produce a final concentration of 0.2 % before
For mass production of inoculum of Fusarium species. pouring. Inoculate and incubate plates at 25 C for 10 days.
Race 1 forms spider-like colonies with light pink centers and
cereal chaff 50 g (barley, wheat, oats) or ground com plumose margins. Race 4 colonies are compact, white, and
husks with closely appressed margins (reverse side of colony may
cereal grain 10 g ground have a red center, occasionally with an orange margin).
Soak the chaff-grain mixture overnight at 5 C, drain

thoroughly, autoclave, add to polyethylene bags sterilized by Dichloran Chloramphenicol Peptone Agar (DCPA) -
gamma-irradiation, and close opening around a large sterile (Andrews and Pitt, 1986)
cotton-wool plug. Inoculate with a suspension of conidia or For selective isolation of . Fusarium species and
mycelium and mix the contents of the bag thoroughly. dematiaceous hyphomycetes from cereal grains.
Incubate the bag under standard light and temperature
conditions and shake regularly until medium is thoroughly peptone 15 g
colonized. Air dry the medium, crush, and sieve to the desired K 2HP04 1g
size for addition to soil. MgS04 •7H20 500mg
chloramphenicol 200mg
Chlamydospore lnoculwn - (Locke and Colhoun, 1974) dichloran 1.0 ml (0.2 % solution in
For mass production of inoculum of Fusarium oxysporum ethanol; equivalent to 2 mg/L)
f. sp. elaeidis. agar 20 g
distilled water IL
malt extract 90 g
agar 12 g Autoclave at 121 C for 15 min and cool to 55 C before
distilled water 1L pouring.
Grow fungus on medium at 27 C for 14 days under black Gelatin Glue - (Snyder and Hansen, 1946)
light illumination on a 18/6 hr cycle. Light intensity should be For sealing test tubes to exclude culture mites and
about 116 µW/crrr at surface of the culture. Prepare conidial microbial contaminants.
suspensions by flooding the culture surface with water and
scraping the agar surface with a scalpel. Cut agar into small gelatin 20 g
pieces and the entire content of the dish is filtered through lens CuS04 5g
tissue in a Buchner funnel. Collect the filtrate and mix it sterile distilled water 100 ml
immediately with talc at the rate of 1 ml of conidial suspension
per 2 g of talc. Place the thick paste on a tray to air-dry for Heat water on a hot plate to dissolve gelatin, add the
2 to 3 days. Grind the hardened mixture with a mortar and CuS04 , and pour medium into dishes. Dishes sealed with
pestle to a powder fine enough to pass through a 500-µm sieve parafilm can be stored for months in the refrigerator.
(this also ensures complete mixing of talc and conidia). After
40 days, most of the macroconidia have converted to Grass Clipping Mediwn - (Fulton et al, 1974)
chlamydospores and the microconidia are dead. Populations of
chlamydospores can be determined on a selective medium. For mass production of inoculum of Fusarium species
causing turf blight.
~ormneaJ-Sand Mediwn - (Tuite, 1969)
For mass production of inoculum of Fusarium species for Merion Kentucky bluegrass clippings placed in 500-ml
dilution with soil. glass jars
Propylene oxide (1.0 ml/jar per 24 hr)
cornmeal 2-5 g
sand 98-95 g Inoculate sterilized clippings with conidia of Fusarium and
incubate medium for 5 days.
Moisten and autoclave for 1 to 2 hr on 2 successive days.
Ground Cornstalk Mediwn (GCM) - (Nelson et al, 1986)
Defined Basal Mediwn plus Glucose (DBG) - (Wong, 1988)
For differentiation of Fusariwn oxysporum f. sp. cubense For mass production of inoculum of Fusarium
Race 1 and 4. moniliforme.
Collect mature cornstalks from field. Remove leaves and
~H 2P04 1.0 g dry stalks at 45 C for 24 hr. Grind dried stalks in a hammer
KCI 200mg mill fitted with a 6.4-mm screen and store at 2 C in a plastic
MgS04 •7H2 0 200mg bag until used. Soak ground cornstalks (GCS) in water
distilled water IL overnight, drain, and autoclave for 15 min at 121 C. Add 0.2
bromothymol blue 8 mg ml of a conidial suspension of F. monilifonne to the equivalent
agar 14 g of 1 g GCS (use 10 ml of sterile distilled water to wash conidia
from a 2-wk-old culture grown on a slant of potato dextrose
Adjust pH to 6.8 with 1 N NaOH. Autoclave for 20 min agar). Mycelium should cover the medium in 5-7 days.
at 121 C. Add a membrane-filtered (0.2 nm) glucose solution Incorporate 200 g inoculum/35L soil before planting.
249
NOTE: GMS inoculum should be used within 3 wk of KCl 500 mg
inoculation with F. monilifonne. Autoclaved, noninoculated Oxgall 500mg
GMS can be added at the same rate to potting medium used for PCNB 375 mg (a.i.)
plants grown in noninfested soil. pentachloronitrobenzene
silicone 1.0 ml antifoaming emulsion FC
Komada's Mediwn - (Komada, 1975) distilled water lL
For isolation of Fusarium oxysporum from soil and plant
tissue - not recommended for other Fusarium species. Autoclave at 121 C for 15 min, cool to 45 C, add the
following and then adjust pH of medium to 9.0-9.2 using lM
K 2HP04 1.0 g HCl or NaOH. ,
KCI 500mg streptomycin sulfate ()00 mg
MgS04 •7H20 500 mg aureomycin 50mg
Fe-Na-EDTA lOmg 2-aminobutane 0.99 ml (a.i.)/L (Butafume,
L-asparagine 2.0 g BASF UK Ltd., 99% vlv)
D-galactose 20.0 g
agar 15.0 g Peptone PCNB Agar - Nash-Snyder Medium (Nash and
water 1.0 L Snyder, 1962; modified by Nelson et al, 1983)
For direct isolation of Fusarium species from soil and plant
Autoclave, cool, add the following supplements, and mix tissue.
medium thoroughly before pouring:
Difeo peptone 15.0 g
pentachloronitrobenzene 1.0 g (PCNB, 75% WP) KH2P04 1.0 g
ox gall 500mg MgS04 ·7H20 500mg
NaiB407 • 10H20 1.0 g agar 20 g
streptomycin sulfate 300 mg pentachloronitrobenzene 1.0 g (PCNB, 75% WP)
water 1.0 L
Adjust pH to 3.8 .± 0.2 with a 10% phosphoric acid
solution. Mix ingredients, adjust to pH 5.5-6.5 and autoclave. Add
streptomycin sulfate (20 ml/L) and neomycin sulfate (12 ml/L)
Modified Potato Dextrose Agar (MPDA) - (Burgess et al, from sterile stock solutions when medium cools to 45 C just
1988) before pouring into dishes. The two stock solutions are
For isolation of Fusarium graminearum Group 1. prepared by adding 5g and lg of streptomycin sulfate and
neomycin sulfate, respective}y, to 100 ml sterile water.
potatoes 125 g (baking grade, white-skinned, Allow medium to dry in a cool, dark place 3-5 days so
unpeeled) water in diluted soil suspensions is rapidly absorbed. Incubate
water 500 ml medium under lamps, but avoid direct sunlight.
dextrose 10 g
water 500 ml Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) - (Nelson et al, 1983)
For cultural characters in identification of Fusarium
Prepare as for regular potato-dextrose agar. Autoclave, species; isolations from aboveground portions of woody plants.
cool to 55 C and add the following to the basal medium:
potatoes 250 g (baking grade, white-s~
streptomycin sulfate 160 mg unpeeled)
aureomycin sulfate 60mg water 500 ml
dichloran 6.5 mg agar 20 g
(2, 6-dichloro-4-ni troanaline water 500 ml
added as 0.013 g Allisan®). dextrose 20 g
Streptomycin sulfate and dichloran are added in 10 ml Slice potatoes (avoid red potatoes) into 500 ml of water;
sterile water. Aureomycin sulfate is dissolved in 10 ml of 95 % add agar to 500 ml of water in another flask. Place both
ethanol before addition to the medium. containers in autoclave operated on steam bypass for 45 min at
0.56 kg/cm2 pressure. Strain potato broth through several
Pentachloronitrobenzene Aminobutane (PAB) Mediwn - layers of cheesecloth into flask containing melted agar.
(Jeffries et al, 1984) Squeez.e the remaining potato pulp through several layers of
cheesecloth until ca. 140 cm3 of potato pulp is obtained; this
For isolation of Fusarium solani var. coeruleum and F. pulp then is added to the melted agar and potato water; add the
sulphureum from soil and potato tubers. dextrose. The total volume is adjusted to 1 L by adding water.
Mix all ingredients thoroughly, dispense into test tubes,
Davis agar 20 g autoclave, and lay tubes on an incline for agar slants. Each
sucrose 20 g tube should have a small "button" of sediment at the base.
KN03 2g
KH 2P04 1g
MgS04 500 mg
250
Selective Fusariwn Agar (SFA) - (Burg~ et al, 1988; Tio et
al, 1977) Gaeumannomyces
For isolation of Fusarium species from plant tissue and
debris. Gaeumannomyces graminisvar. tritici Semi-selective medium
(SM-GGT3). (Juhnke et al, I984). For isolation from
dextrose 20 g infected host tissues.
KH2P04 500mg
NaN03 2.0 g Difeo Potato Dextrose Agar 39 g
MgS04 ·7H20 500mg Dichloran lOmg
yeast extract 1.0 g ('Vegemite' or 'Marmite' are Metalaxyl lOmg
substitutes) HOE 00703 25 mg (I-(3,5-
I% FeS04 • 7H20 I ml solution dichlorophenyl)-3-
agar 20.0 g methoxymethyl-
water IL pyrrolidin-2 ,4-dion)
(Available from D. E.
Autoclave, cool medium to 48 C and add the following Mathre, Montana State
from sterile stock solutions: University, Bozeman)
Streptomycin sulfate IOO mg
Dichloran* 5.00 ml [I% suspension (0.05 L-DOPA 500 mg (L-B-3,4-
g/L); (50% w/w; d i hydroxyl ph eny I
2,6-dichloro-4-nitroanaline)] alanine)
streptomycin sulfate 0.10 g distilled water IL
aureomycin sulfate 0.01 g
*Fentachloronitrobenzene can be substituted for dichloran Combine the potato dextrose agar with water and
(1 g of 75 % WP/I.. agar). Streptomycin sulfate is added in 10 autoclave. When the medium has cooled to 50-55 C, add the
ml of sterile water, and the aureomycin sulfate is added in 10 anti-microbials and the L-DOPA. The addition of a small
ml of 95 % ethanol. Allow medium to dry in a cool, dark amount of acetone to the anti-microbial solutions will aid in the
place. complete dissolution of these compounds.
Soil Agar - (Klotz et al, I988) Revised version of the semi-selective mediwn for
For induction of chlamydospores of Fusarium species for Gaeumannomyces graminis var. triti.ci and related species.
identification. (Elliott, I989)
dry soil 250 g (passed through a 2.36-mm mesh Difeo Potato Dextrose Agar 39 g
sieve) L-DOPA 500mg
agar 7.5 g Streptomycin sulfate 100 mg
water 500ml Metalaxyl 10 mg
dichloran lOmg
Autoclave for I5 min at I2I C, agitate to mix thoroughly, flutolanil lOmg
and dispense into petri dishes. vincloz.olin 10 mg
I CGA-449 1 mg (Ciba-Geigy
fwo-Salt Solution - (Qureshi and Page, I970) Cotp)
For mass production of chlamydospore inoculum of
Fusarium oxysporum. Combine the Potato Dextrose Agar with water and
autoclave. When the medium has cooled to 50-55 C, add the
KH2P04 1.0 g anti-microbials.
MgS04 •7H20 500mg
glucose .Q!: magnesium carbonate 0.125-2.0 mg
twice distilled water 1.0 L Heterobasidion
Cultures of F. oxysporum are grown on the above solution BDS - Benomyl dichloran streptomycin (Modified from Hunt
(but without the glucose or magnesium carbonate amendment) and Cobb 1971; Rizzo and Harrington 1988)
for 7 days, and after being subcultured on the solution the
second time, are then added to the amended medium. malt extract 15 g
Chlamydospores form within 3-4 days. agar 15 g
stock solution 10 ml
streptomycin 100 mg
water IL
For stock solution, dissolve 40 mg benomyl 50% W.P. in 50

ml warm 95% ethanol. Dilute to 100 ml with water and add 20
251
mg dichloran (2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline). Streptomycin is Isolation from roots: Place on D-V-8 agar amended with
added to the medium after autoclaving. 200 µg/ml streptomycin or 5 µg/ml chlortetracycline and 5
µglml tergitol NPX.
PCNB mediwn (Kuhlman and Hendrix 1962, Kuhlman 1966)
bacto peptone 5g
agar 20 g Macrophomina
MgS04 250mg
KH2P04 500mg Macrophomina, semiselective mediwn (MP) (Modification of
1
PCNB 200mg Mihail and Alcorn, 1982).
penicillin G 50mg
85 % lactic acid 1.3 ml For soil samples < 5 g or for
ethanol 20 ml isolation from host tissue:
Na desoxycholate 130 mg
water lL Difeo potato dextrose agar 39 g
Difeo Bacto agar 10 g
Add lactic acid and ethanol after autoclaving. Swirl while distilled water 1L
pouring to suspend PCNB.
Combine ingredients and autoclave. When the medium
Leptographium has cooled to 50-55 C add the antimicrobials:
CSMA (Cycloheximide-streptomycin-malt agar)- For chloroneb 160mg

isolation of Leptographium and Ophiostoma species. streptomycin sulfate 250mg
Malt extract 10 g For soil samples > 5 g, increase chloroneb to 230 mg,
agar 15 g and increase streptomycin to 370 mg.
cycloheximide 200mg
streptomycin sulfate 100 mg
Cycloheximide and streptomycin are added after autoclaving. Magnaporlhe

PINE TWIG MEDIUM (Pl'M)- For production of Gaewnannomyces selective mediwn (Juhnke, et al 1984)
conidiophores and ascocarps of Leptographium species.
Autoclave 39 g Difeo PDA in 1 L distilled water. Add
Pine twigs the following compounds to 10 ml sterile distilled water:
1.5 % water agar
streptomycin sulfate 100 mg
Pinus strobus L. or other species of pine can be used. L, B 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine 500 mg (L-
Living twigs of 1-2 cm are clipped to 3-cm lengths, split DOPA)
longitudinally, autoclaved in water for 30 min and placed in 50- metalaxyl (Subdue) 0.04 ml
cm-diam petri dishes with the split surface of the twig facing dicloran 13.3 mg ~
up. Pieces of inner bark may also be used. Molten, sterile HOE 00703 50 mg 1-(3, __
water agar is added so that the depth of the agar is about the dichlorophenyl)-3-
height of the split surface of the twig. Cycloheximide at 200 methoxymethy l
to 500 µg/ml and streptomycin at 100 µg/ml may be added to pyrroliden-2,4-
the water agar (after autoclaving) to minimize contamination of dion
the plates during prolonged incubations of 4 to 6 wk.
Pour this mixture into autoclaved PDA medium when
cooled (50 C) and mix by swirling.
Rabbit Food Agar (Jong and Gantt, 1987)

Leptosphaeria
Rabbit food pellets 25 g
D-V-8 agar (Erwin et al, 1987). For isolation of L. pratensis agar 17 g
from stems. distilled water 1L
Campbell V-8 juice 20 ml(clear by centrifugation) Boil rabbit food pellets in 112 distilled water for about 15
CaC03 0.2 g min. After boiling, pour contents of flask through double layer
agar 17 g of moistened cheesecloth. Bring up to 1 L volume with
distilled water, add agar and autoclave.
After autoclaving add 30 µg/ml streptomycin.
252
Rice Polish Agar KH2P04 1.0
MgS04 • 7H20 0.5
rice polish 20 g NaCl 0.1
agar 17 g CaCI 2 • 2H20 0.13
distilled water lL Yeast extract (Difeo) 1.0
Distilled water to 1 liter
Mix the rice polish with 112 of the water in a flask large
enough to allow steeping in the autoclave. Steam in autoclave Dissolve components one at a time in ca. 900 ml of DW.
for 15 min (without p~). Blend the steep in a waring Add calcium last to avoid fonnation of insoluble precipitate.
blender for several minutes. Mix steep and melted agar The salts can be prepared as individual 20X stock solutions and
thoroughly. After autoclaving swirl the flask during cooling to added to a solution of sucrose and yeast extract. Adjust volume
prevent the rice polish from settling. to 1 liter, dispense into flasks or bOttles, and autoclave for 15
min.
Sach's Agar (Herbert, 1971)
calcium nitrate 1.0 g Phoma

dipotassium hydrogen phosphate 25 mg
MgS04 25 mg Selective medium for isolating and identifying Phoma betae
ferric chloride trace from soil and seed (Bugbee, 1974).
CaC03 4.0 g
Agar 20 g Difeo Bacto Agar 17 g
distilled water lL distilled water lL
K 2HP04 4g
KH2P04 1.5 g
Periconill soil extract 25 ml (1 kg soilfL water,
steamed at 104-110 C for 30
Defined Modified Fries' Mediwn min)
This medium can be used for host-specific toxin production boric acid 200mg
by Periconia circinata to aid toxin purification without streptomycin sulfate 100 mg
interference from components in yeast extract. chlortetracycline lOOmg
benomyl lOOmg
Component glL sucrose 10 g
Sucrose 10.0
~ tartrate 5.0 Combine the first six ingredients, adjust pH to 7.0 with
~N0 3 1.0 HCl, and autoclave. When medium cooled to 50-55 C, add
KH2P04 1.0 remaining ingredients.
MgS04 ·7H20 0.5
NaCl 0.1
CaC1 2 •2H20 0.13
ZnS04 •7Hp 3 mg Phymatotrichum
Inositol 5 mg
Thiamine 0.1 mg Bonner-Addicott Mediwn
Distilled water to 1 liter
Dissolve components one at a time or add' necessary KN03 0.008M

volumes of 20X stock solutions. Add calcium last. Autoclave MgS04 •7H20 0.00015M
for 15 min. Ca(N03h • 4H20 O.OOlM
KH2P04 0.00008M
KCI 0.0087M
Glucose 20.0g
Modified Fries No. 3 Basal Mediwn (Pringle and Scheffer,
1963) Cultures of Phymatotrichum omnivorum are reported to
sporulate on this medium when grown under a 16-hr
This is a commonly used medium to promote production photoperiod under white or blue light.
of host-specific toxins by pathogenic fungi, including Periconia
circinata.
Comoonent g!L
Sucrose 30
N~ tartrate 5.0
NH4N0 3 1.0
253
Phytophthora Pseudocercosporella
Clarified V-8 Juice Broth WA + rifampicin

For sporangium production.
Dissolve rifampicin in methanol at the rate of 25 mg/mL
V-8 Juice 350 ml of methanol. Autoclave medium and allow to cool to about 60
CaC03 5g C, then add 2 ml rifampicin solution per liter of agar.
Centrifuge V-8 juice and CaC03 at 4,000 rpm for 20 min.

Dilute the supernatant 1:4 with distilled or deionized water
prior to autoclaving for 20 min. A 1: 1 dilution is used for Pyrenochaeta
chlamydospore or oospore production. Clarified V-8 juice agar
is prepared by the addition of 20 g of agar per liter of broth Acidified Potato Dextrose Agar (APDA) pH is adjusted with
prior to autoclaving. three to five drops of 25 % lactic acid/L.
Lima Bean Broth

For sporangium production. Corky Root Media (CRM) (Grove and Campbell, 1987).
Semi-selective medium for isolating P. lycopersici from soil or
frozen lima beans 250 g (Phoseolus lunatus L.) root tissue.
deionired water 1L
mg/L
Steam lima beans in water for 30 min, and filter the cbloroneb* 100
suspension through two layers of cheesecloth. Bring the triadimefon* 100
volume to 2 L with distilled or deionized water, and autoclave streptomycin sulfate 100
for 20 min. Lima bean agar is prepared by adding 20 g of penicillin 100
agar per liter of lima bean broth prior to autoclaving. tetracycline 100
cbloramphenicol 100
Phytophthora Selective Mediwn (PAR) (Kannwischer and rose bengal 50
Mitchell, 1978).
* these are 50% wettable powders to give 0.05 g a.i./L.
Difeo cornmeal agar 17 g Add the above ingredients to molten cooled PDA (50-55 C)
Deionired water 1L just prior to pouring.
Combine the ingredients and autoclave. Cool the medium to Czapek-sand agar (Shishkoff and Campbell, 1990b; McGrath,
45C and add the following antibiotics as active ingredients: personal communication). Encourages formation of
microsclerotia by P. lycopersici.
pimaricin 10 mg (20 mg of 50% a.i.)
rifampicin 10 mg (Rifampcin SV, 100% a.i.) Flint-shot sand (Ottawa Industrial Sand Co., Ottawa, IL
ampicillin 250 mg (100% a.i.) 61350) is added to petri dishes to cover the bottom of the dish
and sterilired on 2 consecutive days for 45 min.
The antibiotics may be procured from the following Approximately 20 ml of molten sterile Difeo Czapek a g 4
distributors: pimaricin, Delvocid, Gist-Brocades N.V., Delft, poured into each dish. Dishes are gently agitated after pouring
Holland; rifampicin, Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO to ensure an even layer of sand.
63178; ampicillin, Sigma Chemical Co.
Double strength V-8 Agar (2xVSA) (McGrath, personal
For isolations from soil or roots, modified PAR medium communication). Isolates of P. lycopersici transferred from
(PARPH) may be prepared by reducing the pimaricin to 5 mg WA to 2x VSA and illuminated will often sporulate.
and adding 50 mg of hymexazol (99.4% a.i., Sankyo Co.,
LTD., Tokyo, Japan) plus 100 mg of pentacbloronitrobenz.ene V-8 juice 400ml
(134 mg of 75 % a.i. Terraclor; Olin Mathieson Chemical CaC03 2g
Corp., Little Rock, AR 72203) per liter of medium (Jeffers and Difeo agar 15 g
Martin, 1986; Mitchell et al, 1986). Distilled Water 600 ml
Due to the light sensitivity of pimaricin, store unused Combine ingredients, sterilize. Adjust pH to 5.5 with HCI
media and incubate culture plates in the dark. Substitutions for or NaOH. Stir well when pouring.
these antibiotics are discussed in the text.
Hoagland's agar (Last and Ebben, 1966) Used to incubate
tomato seedlings inoculated with P. lycopersici.
g/L
KN03 1.02
Ca{N03)2 0.49
254
N"4H 2P04 0.23 Martin and Kistler (1990)
MgS04 ·7H20 0.49
Agar 10 Solution A
glucose 10 g CaC1 2 ·2H20 0.2 g
asparagine 1.2 g thiamine HCI 1.0 mg
K2S04 0.5 g cholesterol 2.5 mg (added in
Pythium 0.5ml EtOH)
MgC12 .6H20 0.6 g
Clarified V-8 Juice Cholesterol Broth (Ayers and Lumsden,
I975) Solution B
KH2P04 0.5 g K 2HP04 0.5 g
To 200 ml V8 vegetable juice, add 2.5g CaCD,i and
clarify by centrifugation at 13,200 g for 30 min. Bring to IL Bring each to 500 ml, adjust to pH 6.2. After
with distilled water. Add cholesterol (30µg/ml) from a 1.5 % autoclaving, mix solution A and B together
solution (2ml) in 95 % EtoH. Autoclave. Add I5 g agar to
make solid medium. Medium for tank fermentation of Pythium spp.
Dilute salts solution for zoospore discharge (Roberson and For each liter of medium add:
Howard, I987) MES buffer O. I95 g
V-8 juice 100 ml non-clarified
~tock solution #I - cholesterol 5 µglml (added from EtOH stock
(in 500 ml) solution)
Adjust to pH 6.2, bring to volume and autoclave. After
(N"4) 2HP04 66.04 g cooling add 50µg/ml rifampicin (for rifampicin stock solution,
KH2P04 68.05 g dissolve first in IOO% EtOH, then dilute to 50% EtOH to give
K 2HP04 87.09 g appropriate concentration; store at 4C). If fermentation goes
MnC12 •4H20 1.80 g for more than 8 days, add fresh rifampicin.
ZnS04 •7H20 0.44 g If foaming of medium is a problem, reduce aeration and
H 3B03 2.86 g add 200 µI sunflower seed oil lL medium prior to autoclaving.
Depending on the species, the amount of V-8 juice may
Stock solution #2 - nood to be adjusted for optimum sporulation. For P.
(in 250 ml) aphanidennatum, 100 ml/I allows for good growth and
sporulation, however, for P. oligandrum only mycelial growth
CaCI 2 •2H20 I8.38 g is observed; reducing the amount to 50ml/L allows for
MgCI2 •6H20 25.42 g sporulation as well.
To make full strength dilute salts solution, add 0.5ml MPVM - Modified Pimaricin Vancomycin with Minor
solution I and O. I ml solution 2 to IL deionized water. elements (Mircetich, 1971)
EANA (Conway, I985) agar 23 g

To IL autoclaved PDA (2% Difeo) cooled to 45C add: Cornmeal agar 17 g
sucrose 20 g
etaconazole I7 µg a.i./ml (Vangard, 1.125 EC) ZnC1 2 1 mg
sodium ampicillin 300 µg/ml FeS04 •7H20 0.02 mg
CuS04 •5H20 0.02 mg
Gallic Acid Medium (Flowers and Hendrix, I%9). MgS04 •7H20 IO mg
MoO:i 0.02 mg
Sucrose 30 g yeast extract 0.5 g CaCl 2 IO mg
NaN03 2g thiamine HCI 2mg MnC12 0.02 mg
MgS04 7Hp 0.5 g rose bengal 0.5 g thiamine HCI O.I mg
KH2P04 1.0 g
Bring to IL with distilled water, autoclave. After cooling
Bring to IL with distilled water, adjust to pH 4.5. Add 20 to 45C, add the following as sterile suspensions:
g agar and autoclave. When cooled to 45C, add the following
as sterile suspensions: rose bengal lOmg
pimaricin 5 mg
PCNB 25 mg PCNB IOOmg
penicillin G 80,000 units vancomycm 300 mg
nystatin 100,000 units
Store dishes in the dark after cooling
After pouring dishes, store in the dark for no more than
2 wk.
255
P 10VP (Tsao and Ocana, 1969)
To 1 L autoclaved cornmeal agar (17g Difeo CMA to lL) Rhizoctonia
cooled to 45C, add:
Ethanol-potassiwn nitrate mediwn (Trujillo et al, 1987).
pimaricin 10 µg/ml Use: For isolating Rhiwctonia solani and other species of
vancomycin HCl 200 µ.g/ml Rhiwctonia from soil.
PCNB 100 µg/ml
KN03 200 mg
95% ethanol 53 ml
P 5 ARP (Jeffers and Martin, 1986) distilled water 947 ml
agar . 30 g
Same as P 10VP except, use 5µ.g/ml pimaricin. Instead of Ridomil 2E 0.38 ml (metalaxyl)
vancomycin, add: prochloraz 0.02 ml (as a 40EC)
250 µ.g/ml ampicillin (sodium salt) tobramycin lOOmg
10 µ.g/ml rifampicin streptomycin 300 mg
Mix ethyl alcohol completely with media cooled to 50 C

Pythium aphanidennatum medium (Burr and Stanghellini, before adding antibiotics and fungicides. Selectivity of media
1973) decreases after 15 days. Media should be used soon after it is
To lL autoclaved CMA (17g Difeo CMA to lL) cooled prepared. -
to 45C, add:
Gallic acid and gallic acid plus benomyl media (Ferris and
pimaricin 100 mg(of 92 % a.i.) Mitchell, 1976). Use: For isolating Rhizactonia from soil.
streptomycin sulfate 200mg
rose bengal 150 mg gallic acid 400mg
benomyl 5 mg NaNGi 200 mg
Dexon 90mg
Store dishes in the dark after pouring. After dilution streptomycin sulfate 50 mg
plating of soil, incubate at 35C chloramphenicol 50mg
distilled water lL
Pythium ollgandrum medium (Martin and Hancock, 1986)
To 1 L autoclaved CMA (17g Difeo CMA to 1 L) add To prepare gallic acid plus benomyl medium, add one mg
0.1 % Tween 20 benomyl to the above list of ingredients.
After cooling to 45C add: Ko and Hora agar (Ko and Hora, 1971). Use: For isolating
penicillin 100 µ.g/ml rose bengal 50 µ.g/ml Rhiwctonia solani from soil.
vancomycin HCl 200 µ.g/ml pimaricin 20 µ.g/ml
(50% a.i.) NaN02 200 mg
benomyl (50% a.i.)20 µ.g/ml K 2HP04 1.0 g
MgS04 ·7H20 500mg
Store dishes in the dark for no more than 1 week. KCl 500mg
Ampicillin (250µ.g/ml) and rifampicin (10µ.g/ml) may be FeS02 ·7H20 10 mg
substituted for vancomycin. gallic acid 400mg
Dexon, 70WP) 63 mg sodium p-(dimethyl-
Schmitthenner (1972) amino) benzenediazosulfonate
sucrose 2.4 g ZnS04 • 7H20 4.4 mg chloramphenicol 50mg
asparagine 0.27 g FeS04 • 7H20 • 1.0 mg streptomycin sulfate SO mg
KH2P04 0.15 g MnC12 • 4H20 0.07 mg agar 20 g
K 2HP04 0.15 g thiamine HCl 2 mg distilled water lL
MgS04 •7H20 0.10 g ascorbic acid 10 mg
cholesterol 10 mg (add as EtOH stock solution) After autoclaving, and cooling to SOC, add gallic acid,
sodium p-(dimethyl-amino) benzenediazosulfonate, and
Bring to lL and autoclave. Add 15 g agar to make solid antibiotics before pouring.
medium
Modifications:
Yang and Mitchell (1965)
Gangopadhyay and Grover, 1985 (GG) - delete
Solution 1 Solution 2 fenaminosulf, and add 250 mg/L fosetyl-Al. Stock solutions
glucose 6.0 g KH2P04 0.5 g are prepared in sterile distilled water and added to the sterilized
L-asparagine 1.5 g K2S04 0.5 g medium. Use: To recover R. solani in soils heavily infested
MgC12 • 6H20 0.6 g with Macrophomina phaseolina.
Bring solution 1 and 2 to 500 ml each, adjust to pH 6.5.
After autoclaving, mix together.
256
Castro et al, 1988 - amend soil with 5 ul/kg and medium Glucose nitrate agar (GNA)
with 5 ul/L prochloraz. Use: To aid in isolating R. solani AG- STA plus:
3, AG-4, AG-5 and R. fragariae from soil.
D-glucose 10 g
Kataria and Gisi, 1989 - modify GG by adding 50 mg/L NaN°-3 250 mg
pencycuron and 5 mg/L triadimefon to isolate R. cerealis at
22C and 5 mg/L imaz.alil to isolate R. solani at 27 C. Stock GNA and STA are poured into separated areas of
solutions in 10 % ethanol are added to the sterilized medium. subdivided petri dishes. Inoculation occurs on GNA and the
Use: To selectively isolate R. cerealis or R. solani when both fungus grows onto the STA where it sporulates.
are present in soil.
Tannie acid benomyl agar (Flowers, 1976; Ferris and
Potato Mannite Agar (PMA) (Flentje, 1956; Whitney and Mitchell, 1976; Sumner and Bell, i982). Use: For isolating
Parmeter, 1963) Use: For inducing sporulation by isolates of Rhizoctonia solani and other Rhizoctonia spp. from soil and
Rhizoctonia. host tissues.
agar 20 g tannic acid 120 mg

dextrose 20 g casein hydrolysate 800 mg (vitamin- and
marmite 1.0 g (yeast extract) salt-free)
water 100 ml glycerol 2.0 ml
potato 250 g MgS04 500 mg
KHiJ>04 1.0 g
Steep potatoes in the water for 1 hr at 60 C, strain through CuS04 20 mg
cheesecloth, then add other ingredients and autoclave. Dishes Neomycin sulfate 700 mg (Mycifridin
of PMA are inoculated and incubated for 2-3 days at room may be substituted for
temperature. A small block of agar is then removed from the neomycin sulfate)
edge of a colony and placed on a water agar medium. These pyroxychlor 95 mg (metalaxyl may
dishes are incubated at room temperature until sporulation be substituted for
occurs. pyroxychlor)
benomyl 2.0 mg
Potato Yeast Dextrose Agar (PYDA) (Flentje, 1956; Ogoshi, agar 20 g
1975; Oniki et al, 1985). Use: For inducing sporulation by distilled water 1L
isolates of Rhizoctonia.
Combine first three ingredients with 200 ml water in one
potato extract 4.0 g flask, and the next three ingredients with 800 ml water and
yeast extract 5.0 g agar in a separate flask and autoclave both flasks. Cool to 50
dextrose 5.0 g C and blend, adjust pH to 6.5, add the last three ingredients,
bacto agar 17.0 g stir, and pour plates. Store in a cool (5 C) dark area up to 4
distilled water 1000 ml wk before using.
Medium is acidified to pH 4.5 with 10% lactic acid after

lutoclaving. Petri dishes are inoculated and incubated at 27 C
,-itil hyphae reach the edge of the dish. Cultures are then Rosellinw
covered with soil, and kept moist with distilled water. Dishes
are left uncovered to ensure good aeration. Hymenia apperu; in Malt Extract Agar (!\IBA) (C.M.I., Plant Pathologists
3-14 days. Pocketbook, 1983).
This medium is used for maintenance and growth of R.
Salt thiamine agar (SfA) and Glucose nitrate agai- (GNA) necatrix.
(Adams and Butler, 1983a). Use: For inducing sporulation by
isolates of Thanatephorus cucumeris. Difeo malt extract 20 g
Difeo agar 20 g
Salt thiamine agar (STA) distilled water 1L
K2HP04 1.00 g Combine ingredients and autoclave.

KH2P<l4 780mg
MgS04 ·7H20 750mg Potato Dextrose Agar (PDAcl) (C.M.I., Plant Pathologists
CaCl 2 ·2H20 37 mg Pocketbook, 1983).
FeCl3 ·6H20 1.0 mg
ZnS04·7H20 0.9 mg This medium is primarily used for storage and isolation of
CuS04·5Hp 0.8 mg R. necatrix from host tissues:
N8iMo04·H20 0.3 mg
thiamine-HCI 0.15 mg potato extract 200 g
Difeo bacto agar 20.0 g glucose 20 g
distilled water 1000 ml Difeo agar 20 g
257
distilled water 1L C and blend, adjust pH to 6.5, add the last three ingredients,
chloramphenicol 250 mg (cl - optional) stir, and pour into petri dishes. Store in a cool (5 C) dark area
up to 4 wk before using.
Boil potatoes in 1 L distilled water witil soft, mash and
squeeze through fine sieve. Add agar and stir to dissolve. Add
glucose, chloramphenicol, make up to 1 L and then autoclave.
Thie"laviopsis
Carrot Agar
Sclerophthora- none.
Carrot juice 50-150 ml (from fresh carrots* or
canned juice)
Agar 20 g
Sclerotinia- none. Deionized water to lL
* Fresh carrots are weighed and blended in an equal

amowit (w/v) of H.zO. The extract is then passed through 4
Sclerotium- none. layers of cheesecloth to remove large particles. The filtrate
(50% carrot juice w/v) is added prior to autoclaving, for
example, 100 ml of 50 % carrot juice to equal 5 % carrot ag-
Sterile White Basidiomycete TB - CEN - selective mediwn for recovery of 1hielaviopsis
basicola (Chalara elegans) from soil and host tissue (Specht
Potato Yeast Dextrose Agar (PYDA) (Flentje, 1956; Ogoshi, and Griffin, 1985).
1975; Oniki et al, 1985; for citations see wider Rhiwctonia
media). Use: For inducing sporulation by isolates of Carrot juice 40-60 ml (fresh or canned, add
Rhiioctonia spp. before or after autoclaving)
potato extract 4.0 g Etridiaml 400mg

yeast extract 5.0 g Nystatin 250,000 units
dextrose 5.0 g Streptomycin Sulphate 500 mg
bacto agar 17.0 g Chlortetracycline HCl 30 mg
distilled water IL CaC03 1g
Agar 15-20 g
Medium is acidified to pH 4.5 with 10% lactic acid after Deionized water to lL
autoclaving. Petri dishes are inoculated and incubated at 27 C
until hyphae reach the edge of the dish. Cultures are then Add all ingredients to molten water agar at 42-45 C just
covered with soil, and kept moist with distilled water. Dishes prior to use. See text for assay methods.
are left wicovered to ensure good aeration. Hymenia appear in
3-14 days.
Tannie acid benomyl agar (Ferris and Mitchell, 1976; Verticillium

Flowers, 1976; Sumner and Bell, 1982). Use: For isolating
Rhizoctonia solani and other Rhizoctonia spp. from soil and Verticillium minimal medium (Francl et al, 1988).
host tissues.
KH2P04 1.4 g
tannic acid 120 mg K 2HP04 1.7 g
casein hydrolysate 800 mg (Vitamin- and salt-free) Naz S04 3.2 g
glycerol 2 ml Ca(N03}z • 4H20 100 mg
MgS04 500 mg KN03 4.6 g
KH2P04 1.0 g MgS04 •7H20 700mg
CuS04 20mg NaCl 500 mg
Neomycin sulfate 700 mg (Mycifridin may be sucrose 20 g
substituted for neomycin sulfate) agar 20 g
pyroxychlor 95 mg (metalaxyl may be
substituted for pyroxychlor) and 1 ml of minor element solution
benomyl 2mg
agar 20 g Zn S04 ·7H20, 1.0 g
distilled water lL MnCl2 ·4H20 1.0 g
H3 B~ 1.0 g
Combine first three ingredients with 200 ml water in one FeC13 •6H20 500 mg
flask, and the next three ingredients with 800 ml water and Cu S04 •5H20 100 mg
agar in a separate flask and autoclave both flasks. Cool to 50 Kl 100 mg
258
NaiMo04 • 2H20 100 mg Nutrient solution used by Adams et.al.(1986) to grow barley
in 1 L of distilled water plants for Polymyxa graminis:
Combine ingredients in 1 L distilled water and autoclave. Major components mg/L
Ca{N03)2 410
KN03 250
Zoosporic Obligate Parasites MgS04 120
KH2P04 140
Hoagland's Solution (Hoagland and Aron, 1950): NaCl 1.5
Stock solution ml/I Minor elements mg/L
1 M KH2P0 4 1 Fe 1.0
1 M KNO:i 5 B 0.25
1 M Ca(N03)2 5 Mn 0.25
1 M MgS04 2 Zn 0.025
Microelement stock solutiorf 1 Cu 0.01
0.5 % Fe tartrate 1 Mo 0.005
Water to make 1L
Nutrient solution used by Jones and Harrison (1969) to
'Microelement stock solution grow host plants for Spongospora subterranea:
mg/L
H 3B03 0.286%
MnCl2•4Hp 0.181 % KN03 150
ZnS04 •7H20 0.022% Ca(N03) 2 • 4H20 70
CuS04 •5H20 0.008% NaH;p04 • 2Hp 160
H 2Mo04 •H20 0.002% MgS04 •7H20 280
Nutrient solution used by Abe (1987) to grow Polymyxa betae

on sugarbeet seedlings in sand culture:
mg/L
KN03 102
KH2P04 136
Ca{N03h 164
MgS04 48
Fe-EDTA 0.001
H 3B03 0.6
MnS04 0.4
259
CIMMYT's APPROACH TO IDENTIFY AND USE RESISTANCE TO
NEMATODES AND SOIL-BORNE FUNGI, IN DEVELOPING SUPERIOR
WHEAT GERMPLASM
1
J.M. NICOL , R. RIVOAL 2, R. M. TRETHOWAN 1, M. VAN GINKEL 1, M. MERGOUM 1
1
AND R. P. STNGH
1
CIMMYT International, Wheat Program, 06600 Mexico, D.F.; Mexico,-
2INRA-Ensa Rennes, UMR Biologie des Organismes et des Popl!-lations Appliquee a la
Protection des Plantes (BJ03P), 35653 Le Rheu, France
Abstract
CIMMYT has recently established a program to screen and breed for resistance
against root lesion nematode (RLN) (Pratylenchus thornei), the cereal cyst nematode
(CCN) Complex (Heterodera spp.),and the soil-borne fungi, crown rot (CR) (Fusarium
graminearum, Group 1) and common root rot (CRR) (Bipolar is sorokiniana (telemorph
Cochliobolus sativus)). Initially, the targeted germplasm for resistance is screened
intensively in the greenhouse, and those lines indicating the most promise are crossed.
At the same time the resistances identified against RLN, CR and CRR are confirmed
under field conditions.
At BC 1F2 generation, 12 single spikes derived from different plants of favorable
types are collected. Their seed (BC 1F3) is then tested in the greenhouse, while at the
same time a sample is also planted in the field. Progenies exhibiting resistance in the
greenhouse test are then backcrossed again in the field and advanced.
To date greenhouse screening has identified new potential sources of resistance
that include landraces, high-yielding CIMMYT wheats and synthetic hexaploid
derivatives. These sources are currently being screened in the field to confirm their
resistances.
Key words: wheat, nematodes, root fungi, resistance, screening, breeding
Introduction
It is known that soil-borne diseases, including root rotting fungi and nematodes,
cause significant losses in wheat (Nicol, 2000, Tinline et al., 1988, Wildermuth et al.,
1992 and Diehl et al., 1983). The four pathogens (RLN, CCN, CR and CRR) attack
various parts of the root and/or crown of the plant, affecting water and nutrient uptake.
Under certain conditions, moisture and nutrient stress can cause significant yield losses
(Piening et al., 1976). However, above ground symptoms are often inconspicuous and
frequently confused with other aliments such as nitrogen deficiency. Furthermore, the
interaction between the nematodes and the root rotting fungi is well known and on many
occasions has been shown to be synergistic (Taheri et al., 1994 ). In many cases the
problem can be defined as a root rotting complex, involving two or more such
pathogens.
In less developed countries biotic and abiotic soil-borne problems receive much
less attention than other types of stresses due to their chronic and endemic nature, and
381
Z. Bedo and L. Lang (eds.); Wheat in a Global Environment, 381-389.
© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
382
difficulty in working with the soil medium. Nevertheless, studies in Nepal suggested
losses up to 10% by CRR and CR (Dubin and van Ginkel, 1991; Dubin and Bimb,
1994), while studies with CCN in Pakistan estimate between 15-20% yield loss
(Maqbool, 1988); in India losses are estimated to be around US$9 million per year (Van
Berkum and Seshadri, 1970). More recently, in Saudi Arabia Ibrahim et al., (1999)
observed that Heterodera avenae caused yield losses between 40 92% on wheat, and 17-
77% on barley. As reviewed by Nicol (2000) RLN has been documented to cause losses
of 32% in Mexico, 38-85% in Australia and 70% in IsraelJThese four pathogens are well
known to have a global distribution and are particularly evident in West Asia and North
Africa (W ANA). .
Resistance, which is defined as a reduction in the multiplication of the pathogen,
is one of the best methods to control these diseases. Although these nematodes and fungi
have been considered important for several decades in certain countries, little
advancement in breeding has been made. This is due to the difficulties of screening for
these pathogens under field and greenhouse conditions. Currently there are no known
effective sources of resistance against these pathogens available in commercially grown
wheat varieties, with the exception of CCN. Furthermore the current sources of
resistance are generally in unadapted germplasm that will require considerable breeding
investment to produce an adapted variety. Hence a precise laboratory/field breeding
strategy has been established at CIMMYT to identify and incorporate new sources of
resistance, particularly those identified from highly adapted backgrounds.
Materials and Methods
In the greenhouse, pre-germinated seeds are grown in open-ended electrical

conduit tubes (12 .5cm height x 2 .5cm wide) positioned in a tray of sterile soil under
controlled conditions of 22°C, 12 hour day/night. Nematodes are reared on carrots
(RLN),on susceptible wheat (CCN) or extracted from field soil (RLN) and inoculated at
a rate of 90 juveniles for CCN or 400 nematodes (juveniles and adults) for RLN in a 0.5
or I ml aliquot of water per plant, immediately or 1 week after planting germinated
grains, respectively (Nicol et al., 1998; Bekal et al., 1998). The root rotting fungi (CR
and CRR) originally isolated from wheat roots in the field at El Satan (CJMMYT
Headquarters, l 9°N, 2249 mas!), are grown as monosporic cultures on PDA, then
cultured on sterilized oat seed in large glass jars at 20°C under constant light. After
sufficient colonization, the oats are air-dried, ground and sieved (2mm) and small
aliquots (l .0-1.2g) are placed above the pre-germinated seed, which has been planted
and covered with a minimum amount of soil (5mm). Following inoculation additional
soil is added (5mm). Plants are watered with distilled water as necessary.
All greenhouse tests use a randomized complete block design with usually eight
replicates per genotype. For all pathogens a range of known check lines (including the
best known resistant and highly susceptible checks) are included. After one month the
lesioning on the roots is scored for both CR and CRR on a qualitative scale adopted from
the methods developed by Wildermuth (1994) and Wallwork (pers.comm). This score
includes root score (rs), shoot score (ss) and coleoptile score (cs), from which a total
score (ts) is calculated (ts=rs+ss+cs/3). All scores for CR and CRR are based on a 0-5
scale of lesioning; 0- no lesions, 1= 0-25%, 2= 25-50%, 3=50-75%, 4=75-100%, 5=dead
plant. After two months the plants, including their roots, are harvested for nematodes. In
383
the case of CCN number of cysts per plant are counted under a stereomicroscope after
washing the roots and collecting on a 250µm sieve. For RLN, the number of nematodes
per plant is determined by extracting nematodes from the root system and counting them
microscopically and expressing the results as no. RLN per plant. CCN is screened in
France because it has not been found in Mexico. This nematode is a complex group of
several closely related species with varying pathotypes as reviewed by Nicol (2000).
Due to this, a number of different populations have been collected from various locations
globally (Table 3) and screened against a range of known resistances.
Once germplasm with potential resistance has been identified, simple crosses are
made with elite breeding lines at CIMMYT's field station in the northwest of Mexico
(Ciudad Obregon, 27.5 N 40 masl) or in the Central Highlands (Toluca, 19 N, 2640
masl). Furthermore, promising germplasm is also sent to CIMMYT outreach staff for
confirmation under their conditions and subsequent use in their breeding programs.
Promising lines based on greenhouse screening must always be confirmed for field
resistance. Therefore, while the germplasm is revalidated in the greenhouse in Mexico, it
is also screened under field conditions to confirm whether the seedling resistance
identified is expressed in the adult form under natural conditions.
The field resistance screening for CR and CRR is based on the methodology used
by Dodman and Wildermuth (1987), Wildermuth et al., (1992) and Wallwork (pers.
comm.). A split plot is established with the three major treatments (CR, CRR and a
control), and the varieties tested are replicated within the main plots. Forty plants are
sown in each plot and, as with the greenhouse tests, inoculated with oat seed inoculum at
a rate of 3g/m. The seeds are planted and a small amount of soil placed on top (lcm),
followed by the inoculum and more soil (3-5cm). Plants are scored at later stages of
growth, around the milky dough stage. From each plot between I 0-20 plants are scored
for root lesioning (CR, CRR) and sub-crown internode lesioning (CRR). Depending on
the site, the formation of white heads (sterile spikes) may also be recorded. Field
screening to confirm RLN resistance is conducted in replicated trials at CIMMYT's
research station in Obregon, adopting the method developed by Nicol et al. (1999). This
involves the sampling of soil (8 cores from 0-20 and 20-40cm) from each plot (8 rows 20
cm apart by Sm) at the start and end of the season. The multiplication rate (MR) of the
nematode is expressed as the final density per plot in relation to the initial density per
plot, with a MR<l classified as resistant. Unfortunately due to the complexity of CCN
and inadequate funding sources, no field screening has been initiated at this point.
Following confirmation of resistance, two possible approaches are planned; single
plant progenies of BC 1F2 are screened in the greenhouse and only the resistant plant
selections advanced. Double haploid populations may be developed on the best
individuals, which are also selected for plant type and resistance to other diseases;
alternatively the segregating line can be advanced to a higher state of homozygosity
(F5/F6) where selection for performance is possible. Progeny derived from both methods
will be re-screened to confirm resistance.
384
Results and Discussion
A collection of CIMMYT advanced lines (140), synthetics derivatives (40) and

Chinese lines (I 0) have been screened for their resistance reaction against RLN, CRR
and CR. Results, presented in Table 1 indicate lines that have performed as well as or
better than the best resistant check lines for all three pathogens based on the ANOV A. It
is interesting to note that occasionally one line may appear resistant to more than one of
the soil-borne pathogens. Furthermore some of the synthetic derivatives that are useful
sources of fusarium head scab (FHS) resistance (Fusariurn graminearum Group 2), also
appear to offer some resistance against CR (Fusarium grarr{inearum Group 1).
The first few lines evaluated for CR and CRR were rated for all plant variables
(RS, CS, SS and TS); however, in the later lines only the RS is measured. This was done
because the Pearson Correlation Coefficients for the different variables (Table 2)
indicated that the measurement of CS was not very consistent; however, RS and SS were
highly correlated with TS (more so for CRR than CR). It was sufficient to measure one
or two of these variables only. CS was found to be unreliable probably due to the fact
that after one month the coleoptile on many plants had died, thereby confounding
measurement of disease symptoms.
Preliminary attempts have been made to screen germplasm in the field against CR
and CRR at El Batan. To date the resistant reaction of the CR check lines appears
consistent; however, CRR is highly variable (Bailey et al., 1997). Further experiments
are in progress both at El Batan and Obregon and include those lines identified from the
greenhouse screening for validation under field conditions.
As mentioned, CCN is a complex pathogen that includes a number of species and
pathotypes (Nicol, 2000). In France several of these CCN populations have been tested
for their virulence to a range of plant genotypes, most of which have known genes of
resistance. One of the germplasm sources identified for RLN (AUS4930) has been tested
against CCN and found to offer very good resistance to a range of CCN (Heterodera
avenae) populations from different locations, particularly countries in WANA, where it
is a known pathogen (Table 3) and considered difficult to breed for. Furthermore, this
source is in a Triticum aestivum background and can be utilized immediately in breeding
programs, unlike most of the other known sources of resistance identified in wild alien
species. Two exceptions are the Cre3 and Crel sources, available in adapted Australian
spring wheat backgrounds. While these genes are highly effective against H. avenae
pathotype 13 in Australia, they are not nearly as effective as AUS4930 across locations.
Further work on AUS4930 indicated that it has both resistance and tolerance
(avoids yield penalty despite pathogen attack) to RLN (Nicol et al., 1999); however, it is
segregating for phenotype in the field (Nicol et al., 1998). This is not unexpected, as it is
an Iraqi landrace. Therefore further work was conducted by taking 16 re-selections of
AUS4930 based on phenotype (4 selections of each combination with white and red
seed, with and without awns, classified as selections 1... 16). It appeared that two of the
selections, one white and the other red seeded, were still segregating for presence or
absence of.awns, and were further designated as 11.1, 11.2, 14.1 and 14.2, respectively.
These re-selections and the original landrace were then screened against a range of
nematode populations, including H. avenae from France, Israel, Australia, and RLN
from Australia (Figure I). These data indicate that nematode resistance (to both RLN
and CCN) is segregating in relationship to phenotype, with the red seeded selections
385
Table 1: Summary of germplasm identified from preliminary glasshouse screening

portraying resistance to the soil-borne pathogens Root Lesion Nematode (RLN), Crown
Rot (CR) and Common Root Rot (CRR) that is equivalent or better than that of known
check lines.
SOIL-BORNE
PATHOGEN NURSERY PEDIGREE SELECTION Log number (x+l)
HISTORY RLN/plant
IRLN HRWYT WUH1/VEE#5//CBRD ICMSS92MO 1863S-015M-
4.65 ± 0.95
KJY-050M-OY- I 3M-OY-1 SJ- i
KJY
HRWYT SN! CAR-122,ANA 3.KA CG22-099Y-099M-50Y-
5.0 ± 0.95
UZ*FTRAP·KAUZ 5M-4Y-OB
HRWYT THB/KEN/2 *CLC89 CMBW90Y5 I 53-0TOPM-

5.22 ± 0.95
5Y-O I OM- I OAL-OAL-OY-·
IPZ-OY
,._,AND RACES IAUS4930
2.48 ± 0.88
CR !NURSERY PEDIGREE SELECTION HISTORY Root Coleoptil Shoot Total
Score e Score Score Score
(RS) (CS) (SS) (TS)
~WYT RECURRENT 2SCM- I PZ-OY 1.4± 0.83 12 6 ± 0 73 12.0±094 12.0 ±0 76
SELECTION I
HRWYT iaHI 146*3/ALD//BUC/3/ ::::MBW89M3985-2M-OAL- 1.4± 0.83 12.2 ± 0.73 1.2 ± 0.94 1.6 ±0.76
!BAU I OAL-2B-OY-6SJ-OY
HRWYT ICHIRYA 3 :CIGM87 I 16-3Y-IM-4PR- I .6± 0.83 3.0 ± 0.73 122±0.94 2.2 ±0.76
I M-3PR-3B-OPR-OBOL-
IPZ-OY
SYNTHETIC SHE 83- iCIGM92 I 727 kl.25± 0.47 I 0 ± 0.62 j0.75 ± 0.48 /0.60 ± 0.44
DOYl/AESQU. (458)
SYNTHETIC SABUF/3/BCN//CET NA iCASS94Y00043S-5PR-2B- kl.38± 0.47 Kl.63 ± 0.62 l<U l ± 0.48 Kl.44 ± 0.44
DERIVATIVE IE SQ (895) KJM-IY
FHS)
SYNTHETIC ALT AR84/ AE SQ (224)// iCIGH93.58 l-IY-I B-OPR- Kl.56± 0.47 1.57 ± 0.62 p.90± 0.48 1.0± 0.44
IDERIV ATIVE YAC0/6/CROCl/AE SQ JoM-IY
:(205)/5/BR 12*3/4/. .
FHS)
SAWYT ICROC_l/AE.SQ i(;MBW91 Y00935S-80Y- Kl 64± 0.53
:(224)//0PATA I IKBY-IKBY-OIOM-IY- • • •
IM-OY-OSY
SAWYT KAUZ//TRAP# I/BOW CMSS93BOl 330S-132Y-
10 I OM-0 I OSY-0 IOM-IOSY-
'° 75 ±0.53
• • •
OM-OSY
SAWYT ICROC l/AESQ (205)//J
UP/BJY/3/SKAUZ/4/KA
uz
CMSS92M03104T-015M- 10 89± o.53
OY-OY-OSOM-26 Y-2M-OY-
OSY
• • .
CRR HRWYT KAUZ//VEE#S/SARA CMBW90Y I 024-7Y-O I OM- 2.0± 0.51 4.8 ± 0.40 4.6 ± 0.73 ~ 8 ±0.47
p I OM-0 IOY-9M-OY- 7SJ-OY
HRWYT '.::HUM18*3/6/WRM/4/F ICMBW89M74 I 9-0TOPY- 2.8± 0.51 4.2 ± 040 1.6 ± 0.73 12 9 ±0.47
IN/3 *TH//K58/2*N/3/ AU 030M-7Y-O I OM-SY-OM-
S-6869/5/PELOT AS- IKBY-OM
!ARTHUR
HRWYT SN! CAR-122ANA 3 KA ICG22-099Y-099M-50Y- 3.0± 0.51 3.5 ± 0.40 1.8 ±0.73 12.s ±0.47
UZ*2 TRAP.KAUZ 5M-4Y-OB
SAWYT
OPATA
CMBW91Y00935S-80Y-
CROC_ I/ AE.SQ.(224)//
I IKBY-IKBY-OIOM-IY-
12M-OY-OSY
0.91 ± 0.44
• • .
SAWYT PVN//CAR422/ ANN3/B ICG60-099Y-099M-2Y- IM- I 11 ± 0.44
AV92 SY-OB-OSY • • •
SAWYT ALTAR ICMBW89Y3514-4Y-OIOM-
84/AE SQ.(TAUS)//OPA OIOY-IOM-1 Y-OM-OSY
lfA
1.22± 0.44
• • .
Notes:
1. NA - not applicable
2. Italics - lines Identified are common to more than I pathogen.
3. FHS - Fusarium Head Scab.
4. *=no longer measured due to results in Table 2.
5. SA WYT (Semi Arid Winter Yield Trial) and HRWYT (High Rainfall Winter Yield Trial) refer to
advanced lines.
6. RS. CS, SS and TS are explained in Materials and Methods
386
Table 2: Pearson Correlation Coefficients for different scoring variables for Crown Rot
(CR) and Common Root Rot (CRR).
Root Score (RS) Coleoptile Score Shoot Score (SS) Total Score (TS)
(CS)
CR
RS 1.0 0.09* 0.13* 0.85
cs 0.09* 1.0 -0.11 * 0.09*
SS 0.13* -0.11 * 1.0 0.57
TS 0.85 0.09* 0.57 1.0
CRR '
RS 1.0 0.88 0.93 0.98
cs 0.87 1.0 0.84 0.92
SS 0.93 0.84 1.0 0.97
TS 0.98 0.92 0.97 1.0
Notes:
I. All correlations are highly signficant (P<0.0001) with the exception of *which are not significant.
2. Correlation coefficients presented refer to one screening test conducted.
Table 3: The CCN (Cereal Cyst Nematode) populations collected and tested against
cereal genotypes with mostly identified resistance genes
Genotypes with resistance against specific populations
of Heterodera avenae **
AUSJ8913 AUS 10894 Variabilis I CPII 10813 AUS4930 ventricosa 11
Loros
Triticum Triticum Aegilops Triticum Triticum Aegi/ops
tauschii aestivum variabilis tauschii aestivum ventricosa
Resistance 2.enes Cre3 Crel Rkn-Mnl Cre4 ? Cre2
Population Country
no. (and collected
Heterodera Resistance reactions
spp.)
El29 Algeria RI R RI R R R
H.avenae
El42 Algeria * * * R R *
H. avenae
E46 Morocco s s s s R RI
H. avenae
E48 Spain RI R R R R R
H. avenae
El25 Syria R s RI R s R
'H. avenae
EI26 Syria R s RI R R R
H. avenae
E57 Israel s RI R RI s R
H. avenae
FR2 France s RI R RI R R
H. avenae
Ha41 France s R s s R R
H. avenae
E147 France RI R R R R R
H. avenae
Ha12 , France RI R R R R R
H. avenae
E156 Syria RI RI R RI RI RI
H. lativons
*: lacking data; **: Refer to Nicol (2000) for further explanation of plant genotype/CCN resistance reaction.
<I female and cyst: Complete resistance= R; 1-3 females and cysts: intermediate resistance =RI;> 3 females
and cysts: Susceptible= S
387
-- - -·-
30
26 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - - - -
cysts per plant
SED=2.69
22 - - - - - - -
20 1 - - 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - 1
mE57 (H. avenae)
18 - - - -1--l'l--111----- i......___ _ _ _ ~----------~-- ---·---·-- - -------- - ------------ ISRAEL, number
cysts per plant
"l--ll--tl---ll--H--11---11---l~---------ll----l.l---lll-------- SED=2.17
12 1---11--11----11---1
10 l--ll--tJ--ll--l'-- ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 = - - - - - u n - - u - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 CESO(H.avenae)

AUSTRALIA,
mean number
-·-IDl-------IMl---Hll--~111------1~--
cysts per plant
.
-
(tested m France)
~
' SED=1.98
II I II
21-
0 .rll 1
c3 c3
I rl ~ ,h-
I
c3 c3
II
c3 c3 c c c c3 c c c3 c c c
rm 1T1
A
lhJ I DI~ II JHI JI

;::- 0z z c:
I .IL II
l,-ll.Lll,WL..,.U.U..~A,-.A,Ul__,.Jl--.,..JIL,..J-L..., Ia Ha 13 ( H. ave nae)
c:; c:> ~
"~
::>
0
ro
cU
ro
~
~
ro
cU
ro
cU
ro
+
c
3ro
+
ro
_,_ +
3
ro 3 ~
+
3 3 ~
-.:\
ro
-.:\ -.:\
ro ~
-.:\
ro
+
ro
i
+
~
+
ro ro
+ 0
"' "'
UJ UJ ---'
"' "'
0::
---'
0:: :?
~
Q_ Q_ ~ (testec in
AUSTRALIA,
multiplciation rate
"'c E "' "' + "' "' 1J 1J 1J 1J

"' " "' "'"' u ~
ii E
~
E
~ ~
E
~
E E
-~
E E ! ! ! !
,__ ! 1J ! ! ! UJ Iro _c~ _c ~ "' M Australia)
~ ~ ~ ~
:. ""' "'
5i _c
"' "' "' ~ ! N
~ ~ :;; "'u uui u
0-.
~ SED=0.8
Q_
~ N
"' " 0-.
~ ~ N
::: ~ .., ::'- I

ro
"' ! .§_
ui
>
> ;;;
0
~
_c
u "' ig_ _Q
c. ::::i (l._
u
"'
0-. ::: "'u
"'
<(
"' ui::> a; 0en ·o,
_c
_Q ·o,
<(
•RLN
"en
::::i
0 ~ "' "' "'
-fi
l'J <(
<(
(Pratylenchus
<(
"'
::> 'E "'
:? thornei)
~
ro ~ multiplication rate
1J 0
c SED=0.5
E
<
Figure 1: Resistance responses of the AUS4930 landrace and reselections against
populations of Cereal Cyst (CCN- Heterodera avenae) and root lesion (RLN-
Pratylenchus thornei) nematode populations from different locations.
Note : results for Ha 13 from Australia sourced from R. Eastwood (Australia).
providing a higher level of resistance than the white seeded. In particular, red seeded
awnless re-selections 5, 6, and 7 have the highest level of nematode resistance. It is
important to note that the seed color and possible linkage to RLN resistance may be an
artifact of the sample size. Although the original landrace expresses resistance, this has
been found to be highly variable and, based on the resistance response from the re-
selections, would be difficult to use in breeding. Therefore, only the best re-selected
materials have been advanced in the breeding program. Furthermore, doubled haploid
populations are being made with some of the more resistant re-selections in order to
understand the genetic control and possible relationship of the resistance expressed for
the two nematodes, RLN and different CCN (H. avenae) pathotypes.
Work is continuing to re-validate and identify new sources of resistance against
the three pathogens in Mexico (RLN, CR and CRR) from the greenhouse. Lines
identified with promising RLN resistance from the greenhouse are currently being
screened in the field for their resistance and tolerance. The field screening
methodologies used for fungal pathogens (particularly for CRR) are continually being
refined. In addiJion to improvement of the screening techniques, both in the field and
greenhouse, on-going work is examining fungal pathogen variability in Mexico.
Germplasm offering promise for RLN has been sent to France for screening
against a range of CCN populations collected from different locations. Furthermore, the
identified lines have been sent to other countries (developed and developing) for field
388
confirmation and subsequent breeding purposes (e.g. CJMMYT in Turkey and

Australia). It is essential that lines identified to possess resistance to these soil-borne
pathogens are also screened in the field in locations where these diseases are considered
important. In this way the identified resistances can be validated in the presence of
possibly different pathotypes.
Breeding will continue at CIMMYT to incorporate sources of resistance to the
soil-borne pathogens into highly adapted backgrounds for a range of mega-environments
(ME) (van Ginkel et al., 1998). Focus is particularly on ME4 (low rainfall environment),
but also for MEI (favourable, irrigated, low rainfall. environment) and ME2 (high
rainfall). There are two main strategies that have been implemented concurrently.
Identified sources of resistance are crossed with adapted parents and advanced. At
BC 1F2 the bulk is maintained and 12 single-plant progenies selected. At the BC 1F3 the
single-plant progenies are screened in the greenhouse to identify those plants with the
highest resistance. The lines may be crossed again, advanced or perhaps have doubled
haploids made. The plants bulked from the Fl are advanced and selected for
performance under a range of other biotic and abiotic stress factors until a higher state of
homozygosity is reached. Regardless of the strategy the derived progeny should be
evaluated at the F5/F6 generation to confirm resistance.
References
Bailey, K.L., Duczek, L.J. and Potts, D.A. (1997). Inoculation of seeds with Bipolaris
sorokiniana and soil fumigation methods to determine wheat and barley tolerance
and yield losses caused by common root rot. Can. J. Plant. Sci., 77, 691-698.
Bekal, S., Jahier, J., Rivoal, R. (1998): Host responses of Triticeae to species of the
cereal cyst nematode complex in relation to breeding resistant durum wheat.
Fundam. appl. Nematol., 21, 359-370.
Dodman, R.L. and Wildermuth, G.B. (1987): Inoculation Methods for Assessing
Resistance in Wheat to Crown Rot Caused by Fusarium graminearum Group 1.
Aust. J. Agric. Res., 38, 473-486.
Diehl, J .A., Tinline, R.D. and Kochhann, R.A. (1983): Perdas em trigo causadas pela
podridao comum de raizes no Rio Grande do Sul, 1979-1981. Fitopatol. Bras., 8~
507-511.
Dubin, H.J. and van Ginkel M. (1991): Status of wheat diseases and disease research in
the warmer areas of the world. In: D.A. Saunders (ed.), Wheat for the non-
traditional warm areas. CIMMYT, Mexico, 125-145.
Dubin, H.J. and Bimb, H.P. (1994): Studies of soil-borne diseases and foliar blights of
wheat ant the National Wheat Research Experiment Station. Bairahawa, Nepal.
Wheat Special Report No. 36. CIMMYT, Mexico.
Nicol, J.M., Davies, K.A. and Eastwood, R. (1998): AUS4930: A new source of
resistance to Pratylenchus thornei in wheat. In: Proceedings of the 24th
International Nematology Symposium, 4-91h August, 1998, Dundee, Scotland.
Nicol, J.M., Davies, K.A., Hancock. T.W. and Fisher, J.F. (1999): Yield loss Caused by
Pratylenchus thornei on Wheat in South Australia. J. Nematology. 31, 367-376.
Nicol, J.M. (2000): Important Nematode Pests of Cereals. In: F AO (2000): Curtis, B.C.
(ed.) Wheat Production and Improvement. FAO Plant Production and Protection
Series.
389
Ibrahim, A.A.M., Al-Hazmi A.S., Al-Yahya F.A,and Alderfasi A.A. (1999): Damage
potential and reproduction of Heterodera avenae on wheat and barley under
Saudi field conditions. Nematology, 1, 625-630.
Maqbool, M.A. (1988): Present status of research on plant-parasitic nematodes in
cereals and forage legumes in Pakistan. In: M.C. Saxena, R.A. Sikora and J.P.
Srivastava (eds.) Nematodes parasitic to cereals and legumes in temperate semi-
arid regions. !CARDA, Aleppo, Syria. 173-180.
Piening, L.J., Atkinson T.G., Horricks, J.S., Ledingham, R.JJ, Mills, J.T. and Tinline,
R.D. (1976): Barley losses due to common root rot in the prairie provinces of
Canada, 1970-1972. Can. Plant. Dis. Surv., 56, 41-45. .·
Taheri, A., Hollamby, G.J. and Vanstone, V.A. (1994): Interaction between root lesion
nematode, Pratylenchus neglectus (Rensch 1924) Chitwood and Oteifa 1952, and
root rotting fungi of wheat. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Hort. Sci., 22, 181-
185.
Tinline, R.D., Wildermuth, G.B. and Spurr D.T. (1988): Inoculum Density of
Cochliobolus sativus in Soil and Common Root Rot of Wheat Cultivars in
Queensland. Aust. J. Agric. Res., 39, 569-577.
Van Berkum, J.A. and Seshadri A.R. (1970): Some important nematode problems in
India. Xth International Nematology Symposium, Pescara, Italy, 136-137.
Van Ginkel, M., Trethowan, R. and Cukadar, B. (1998): A Guide to the CIMMYT Bread
Wheat Program. Wheat Special Report No. 5. CIMMYT, Mexico, D.F., Mexico.
Wildermuth., G.B., Tinline, R.D and McNamara R.B. (1992): Assessment of Yield Loss
Caused by Common Root Rot in Wheat Cultivars in Queensland. Aust. J Agric.
Res., 43, 43-58.
Wildermuth, G.B. (1994): Testing Wheat Seedlings for Resistance to Crown Rot Caused
by Fusarium graminearum Group 1. Plant Diseas, e 78: 949-953.

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Soil Borne Pathogens of Cereals

Reference material to accompany the "Training Manual of the International Master

Day Date Item Staff

3.30-4.00pm Afternoon Tea

Tuesday 17th 7.30am breakfast

Wednesday 18th 7. 30am breakfast /')~

10. 30-11 . OOpm Morning Tea - I I ' I

12.30-1 .30pm Lunch

Thursday 19th 7.30am breakfast

Friday 20th 6. OOam breakfast

Wednesday 25th 7. 30am breakfast

Thursday 26th 7. 30am breakfast

Friday 27th 7.30am breakfast

Afternoon - visit around Ankara - finalising information

.. AB - Ms Alison Bentley, University of Sydney, Australia

Book. Laboratory Manual for Fusarium Research - 3rd Edition

1. Crown Rot of Wheat

7. Methods for Measurement of Crop Losses Caused by Soilborne

8. Wheat root heath management and environmental concerns

9. Management of wheat and barley root diseases in modern farming

10. Important nematode pests

11. Nematode Pests of Cereals

12. Global Importance of Cyst (Heterodera spp.) and Lesion Nematodes

Book. Advisory Services for Nematode Pests - Operational Guidelines

13. Genetics of resistance and parasitism.

14. Resistance to Plant-parasitic Nematodes: History, Current Use and

15. Concepts and Consequences of Resistance

17. Cyst Nematodes: Globodera and Heterodera Species

18. Ditylenchus Species

19. Migratory Endoparasites: Pratylenchus and Radopholus Species

General Section - Field related

Book - Wheat Diseases and Pests: a guide for field identification.

Book - Common Diseases of Small Grain Cereals - A Guide to

Book - Seed Testing of Maize and Wheat - a Laboratory Guide.

Book - Cereal Root Diseases - Trace Elements and Interactions- Farmer

Book- Guide to Bread Wheat Breeding at CIMMYT.

Book -Practical Guide to the Identification of Selected Diseases of Wheat

Book - Cereal Disease Methodology Manual

20. Appendix A (media for working with soil borne fungi)

21. CIMMYT's approach to identify and use resistance to Nematodes and

CROWN ROT OF \VHEAT

Lester W. Burgess, David Backhouse, Brett A. Summerell

Distribution and economic importance

Infection, colonization and disease development

Persistence and inoculum distribution

Methodology The incidence of infected plants has been used as a key

Soil type, topography and climate

Fig. 1. The progress of infection of wheat plants by F

Fig. 2 Relationship of yield as an indicator of vegetative growth to the

Tillage, stubble management and crop rotation - long-

fundamental studies on the relationships between residue size and

significantly so that the incidence of infected plants in the first winter

61. Oswald, 1. W. 1950. Cultural variation, taxonomy and pathogenicity of

DISTRIBUTION AND IMPORTANCE

disease caused by a pathogen or a collection of pathogens.

referred to in this chapter.

( Gaewnannomyces gram in is) and eyespot (Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides: Teleomorph

Tapesia yalfundae and T. acuformis).

these pathogens should not be understated.

cultivars are significantly more susceptible to infection by F. culmorum and F.

Wildermuth et al., 1992; Klein et al., 1991 ).

sexual stages of B. sorokiniana=Cochliobolus sativus and F. pseudograminearum