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Therefore, the resulting head loss is defined as the potential loss within the sand
cylinder, this energy being lost by frictional resistance dissipated as heat energy. It
follows that the head loss is independent of the inclination of the cylinder.
Now, Darcy's measurements showed that the proportionalities Q ~ HL and Q ~
1/L exist. Introducing a proportionality constant K leads to the equation.
Expressed in general
or simply
Figure 3.1.1. pressure distribution and headloss
in flow through a sand column
Example 3.1.1
A field sample of an unconfined aquifer is packed in a test cylinder (see Figure
3.1.1). The length and the diameter of the cylinder are 50 cm and 6 cm, respectively.
The field sample is tested for a period of 3 min under a constant head difference of
16.3 cm. As a result, 45.2 cm3 of water is collected at the outlet. Determine the
hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer sample.
Solution
The cross-sectional area of the sample is
The hydraulic gradient, dh/dl, is given by
Example 3.1.2
Since the aquifer thickness is variable in this problem, we must also write the
cross-sectional area and the hydraulic gradient as a function of the distance x.
(𝑏2 — 𝑏1)𝑥
Assuming a unit width, A = b1 + , where b1= 30 m, b2 = 75 m, and L=
𝐿
(75−30)𝑥
3.600 m, then we have A = 30 + = 30=0.0125x
3.600
Substituting the expressions for A and K into Darcy's equation yields the
𝑑ℎ
expression for Q in following form: Q =-(12=0.006x)(30+0.0125x)
𝑑𝑥
Rearranging this equation and integrating from section (1) to section (2) yields
The minus sign implies that the flow is from section (2) to (1).
Where 𝛼 is the (effective) porosity. This indicates that for a sand with a porosity
of 33 percent, va = 3v. To define the actual flow velocity, one must consider the
microstructure of the rock material. In water flowing through a sand, for example, the
pore spaces vary continuously with location within the medium. This means that the
actual velocity is nonuniform, involving endless accelerations, decelerations, and
changes in direction. Thus, the actual velocity depends on specifying a precise point
location within the medium. For naturally occurring geologic materials, the
microstructure cannot be specified three-dimensionally; hence, actual velocities can
only be quantified statistically.
3.1.3 Validity of Darcy’s Law
In applying Darcy's law it is important to know the zange of validity within which
it is applicable. Because velocity in laminar flow, such as water flowing in a capillary
tube, is proportional to the first power of the hydraulic gradient (Poiseuille's law), it
seems reasonable to believe that Darcy's law applies to laminar flow in porous media.
For flow in pipes and other large sections, the Reynolds number, which expresses the
dimensionless ratio of inertial to viscous forces, serves as a criterion to distinguish
between laminar and turbulent flow. Hence, by analogy, the Reynolds number has
been employed to establish the limit of flows described by Darcy's law, corresponding
to the value where the linear relationship is no longer valid.
Reynolds number is expressed as
where ρ is the fluid density, v the velocity, D the diameter (of a pipe), and µ the
(dynamic) viscosity of the fluid. To adapt this criterion to flow in porous media, the
Darcy velocity is employed for v and an effective grain size (d10) is substituted for D.
Certainly a grain diameter represents only an approximation of the critical flow
dimension for which it is intended; however, measuring pore size distribution is a
complex research task.
Experiments show that Darcy's law is valid for NR < 1 and does not depart
seriously up to NR = 10.1 This, then, represents an upper limit to the validity of Darcy's
law. A range of values rather than a unique litnit must be stated because as inertial
forces increase, turbulence occurs gradually.85.92- 106 The irregular flow paths of eddies
and swirls associated with turbulence occur first in the larger pore spaces; with
increasing velocity they spread to the smaller pores. For fully developed turbulence the
head loss varies approximately with the second power of the velocity rather than
linearly.
Fortunately, most natural underground flow occurs with NR< 1, so Darcy's law is
applicable. Deviations from Darcy's law can occur where steep hydraulic gradients
exist, such as near pumped wells; also, turbulent flow can be found in rocks such as
basalt and limestone17 that contain large underground openings.*
Example 3.1.3
The following additional information is given for the aquifer sample in Example
3.1.1. The sample has a median grain size of 0.037 cm and a porosity of 0.30. The test
is conducted using pure water at 20°C. Determine the Darcy velocity, average
interstitial velocity, and assess the validity of Darcy's law.
Solution
𝑑ℎ
𝑣 = −𝑘 = −(23.54 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦)(−0.326) = 7.67 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑙
The average linear velocity is computed using equation 3.1.6
v 𝛼= 𝛼𝐴
𝑄
=
𝑣
𝛼
=
7.67 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.30
= 25.6 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
In order to asses yhe validity of Darcy’s Law we must determine the gretest
𝜌𝑣𝐷
velocity for which Darcy’s law is valid using Eqation 3.1.7, NR = , knowing darcy’s
µ
Law is valid for NR < 1. For water at 20OC, µ = 1.005 x 10-3 Ns/m2 and ρ = 998.2
kg/m3, so that for NR = 1,
µ 1.005 𝑥 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌𝐷
= (998.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3)(0.00037 𝑚)
= 0.00272 𝑚/𝑠 = 235 m/day
Then Darcy’s Law will be validfor Darcy velocities equalto or less than 235 m/day
for this simple. Thus, the answer we have found in example 3.1.1 is valid since v =
7.67 m/day < 235 m.day
3.2 Permeability
3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability
The permeability of a rock or soil defines its ability to transmit a fluid. This is a
property only of the medium and is independent of fluid properties. To avoid confusion
with hydraulic conductivity, which includes the properties of groundwater, an intrinsic
permeability k may be expressed as
𝐾µ
𝑘= − (3.2.1)
𝜌𝑔
where K is hydraulic conductivity, µ is dynamic viscosity, ρ is fluid density, and g
is acceleration of gravity. Inserting this in Equation 3.1.5 yields
µ𝑣
𝑘= − (3.2.2)
𝜌𝑔(𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑙)
Which has unit of
(𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠) (𝑚/𝑠)
𝑘= − = 𝑚2 (3.2.3)
(𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )(𝑚/𝑠 2 )(𝑚. 𝑚)
Thus, intrinsic permeability possesses units of area. Because values of k in
Equation 3.2.3 are so small, the U.S. Geological Survey expresses k in square
micrometers (µm)2 = 10-12m2.
In the petroleum industry the value of k is measured by a unit termed the darcy,
defined as
(1 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒)(1 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠)
1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 = 1 𝑐𝑚2 (3.2.4)
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒/𝑐𝑚
By substitution of appropriate units its can be shown that66.
1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 = 0.987 (µ𝑚)2 (3.2.5)
So the darcy corresponds closely tothe intrinsic permeability unit adopted by U.S.
geological survey.
3.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity
For practical work in groundwater hydrology, where water is the prevailing fluid,
hydraulic conductivity K is employed. A medium has a unit hydraulic conductivity if it
will transmit in unit time a unit volume of groundwater at the prevailing kinematic
viscosity* through a cross section of unit area, measured at right angles to the
direction of flow, under a unit hydraulic gradient. The units are
v m/day
𝐾= − = − = m/day (3.2.6)
dh/dl m/mα
Indicating that hydraulic conductivity has units of velocity.
3.2.3 Transmissivity
The term transmissivity T is widely employed in groundwater hydraulics. It may
be defined as the rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted
through a unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It follows that
𝑣 2.328𝑥10−4 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐾= − =− = 1.437𝑥10−4 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑙 (6.8𝑚/4.30𝑚)
From the table 3.2.1, the aquitard is composed of clay.
3.2.4 Conductivity of Geologic Materials
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil or rock depends on a variety of physical
factors, including porosity, particle size and distribution, shape of particles,
arrangement of particles, and other factors.63.79 In general, for unconsolidated porous
media, hydraulic conductivity varies with particle size; clayey materials exhibit low
values of hydraulic conductivity, whereas sands and gravels display high values.
An interesting illustration of the variation of hydraulic conductivity with particle
size is shown by data in Figure 3.2.1. Here conductivities were measured for two
uniform sieved sands. These two sands were then mixed in varying proportions, and
the corresponding hydraulic conductivities were again determined. Results show that
any mixture of the two sands displays a conductivity less than a linearly interpolated
value. The physical explanation lies in the fact that the smaller grains occupy a larger
fraction of the space around larger grains than do uniform grains of either size.
Table 3.2.1 contains representative hydraulic conductivities for a variety of
geologic materials. It should be noted that these are averages of many measurements;
clearly, a range of values exists for each rock type depending on factors such as
weathering, fracturing, solution channels, and depth of burial.
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑑 2 (3.3.1)
Where c is adimensionless coefficient, or
𝑘 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝛼 𝑑 2 (3.3.2)
Wherefs is a grain (or pore) shape factor, f𝛼, is a porosity factor, and d is
characteristic grain diameter30. 62. 68
Few formulas give reliable estimates of results
because of the difficulty of including all possible variables in porous media. For an ideal
medium, such as an assemblage of spheres of uniform diameter, hydraulic conductivity
can be evaluated accurately from known porosity and packing conditions.
Because of the problems inherent in formulas, other techniques for determining
hydraulic conductivity are preferable.
3.3.2 Laboratory Methods
In the laboratory, hydraulic conductivity can be determined by a permeameter, in
which flow is maintained through a small sample of material while measurements of
flow rate and head loss are made.107 The constant-head and falling-head types of
permeameters are simple to operate and widely employed.
The constant-head perrneameter shown in Figure 3.3.1a can measure hydraulic
conductivities of consolidated or unconsolidated formations under low heads. Water
enters the medium cylinder from the bottom and is collected as overflow after passing
upward through the material. From Darcy's law it follows that the hydraulic
conductivity can be obtained from
𝑉𝐿
𝐾= (3.3.3)
𝐴𝑡ℎ
where V is the flow volume in time t, and the other dimensions, A, L, and h, are
shown in Figure 3.3.1a. It is important that the medium be thoroughly saturated to
remove entrapped air. Several different heads in a series of tests provide a reliable
measurement.
𝑟𝑡2 𝐿 ℎ1
𝐾 = 2 𝑙𝑛 (3.3.6)
𝑟𝑐 𝑡 ℎ2
where L, rt, and rc are shown in Figure 3.3.1b. and t is the time interval for the
water level in the tube to fall from hl to h2.
Perrneameter results may bear little relation to actual field hydraulic
conductivities. Undisturbed samples of unconsolidated material are difficult to obtain,
while disturbed sarnples experience changes in porosity, packing, and grain
orientation, which modify hydraulic conductivities. Then, too, one or even several
samples from an aquifer may not represent the overall hydraulic conductivity of an
aquifer. Variations of several orders of magnitude frequently occur for different depths
and locations in an aquifer. Furthermore, directional properties of hydraulic
conductivity may not bc recognized.
Example 3.3.1
A field sample of medium sand with a median grain size of 0.84 mm will be
tested to determine the hydraulic conductivity using a constant-head permeameter.
The sample has a length of 30 cm and a diameter of 5 cm. For pure water at 20°C,
estimate the range of piezometric head differences to be used in the test.
Solution
The maximum allowable Darcy velocity (assuming NR = 1) for d = 0.84 mm is
Thus, the Darcy velocity in the test must be equal to or less than 03.6 m/day so
that Darcy’s law will be valid, so that
For the representative value of hydraulic conductivity for medium sand given in
the Table 3.2.1,
It should be noted that the K value for clean sand ranges approximately from 0.1
m/day to 4,320 m/day. See Figure 3.2.1. Therefore, the early series of tests must be
conducted with relatively low piezometric head differences if possible. After analyzing
the results of early test data, a better estimate of the maximum allowable piezometric
head difference can be made using the above inequality.
Example 3.3.2
If the field sample in Example 3.3.1 is tested with a head difference of 5.0 cm
and 200 ml of water is collected at the outlet in 15 min, determine the hydraulic
conductivity of the sample. What should the maximum allowable piezornetric head
difference be for a series of tests?
Solution
Equation 3.3.3 is used to compute the hydraulic conductivity in a constant-head
permeameter test:
Based upon this estimate and referring to Example 3.3.1, the maximum allowable
piezometric head difference for tests should be approximately
Example 3.3.3
A 20-cm long field sample of silty, fine sand with a diameter of 10 cm is tested
using a falling-head perrneameter. The falling-head tube has a diameter of 3.0 cm and
the initial head is 8.0 cm. Over a period of 8 hr, the head in the tube falls to 1.0 cm.
Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the sample.
Solution
Equation 3.3.6 is used to compute the hydraulic conductivity in a falling-head
permeameter test:
aa
𝑣𝑎 = 𝐿/𝑡 (3.3.8)
where t is the travel time interval of the tracer between the holes. Equating these
and solving for K yields
Note that the tabulated values cover the following conditions below the hole: a
shallow imperrneable iayer, an infinite homogeneous stratum, and a shallow, highly
permeable (gravel) layer. The value y should correspond to that when dy/dt is
measured.
Several other techniques similar to the auger hole test have been developed in
which water level changes are measured after an essentially hastantaneous removal or
addition of a volume of water. With a small-diameter pipe driven into the ground, K
can be found by the piezometer, or tube, method.103 For wells in confined aquifers, the
slug method can be employed.22.26 Here a known volume of water is suddenly injected
or removed from a well after which the decline or recovery of the water level is
measured in the ensuing minutes. Where a pump is not avallable to conduct a
pumping test on a well, the slug method serves as an alternative approach.
3.3.5 Pumping Test Of Wells
The most reliable method for e,stimating aquifer hydraulic conductivity is by
pumping tests of wells. Based on observations of water levels near pumping wells, an
inkgrated K value over a sizable aquifer section can be obtained. Then, too, because
the aquifer is not disturted, the reliability of such determinations is superior to
laboratory methods. Pump test methods and cornputations are described in Chapter 4.