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CHAPTER 3

GROUND WATER MOVEMENT

Groundwater in its natural state is invariably moving. This movement is governed


by established hydraulic principles. The flow through aquifers, most of which are
natural porous media, can be expressed by what is known as Darcy's law. Hydraulic
conductivity, which is a measure of the permeability of the media, is an important
constant in the flow equation. Determination of hydraulic conductivity can be made by
several laboratory or field techniques. Applications of Darcy's law enable groundwater
flow rates and directions to be evaluated. The dispersion, or mixing, resulting from
flows through porous media produces irregularities of flow that can be studied by
tracers. In the zone of aeration, the presence of air adds a complicating factor to the
flow of water.

3.1 DARCY’S LAW


More than a century ago Henry Darcy,* a French hydraulic engineer, investigated
the flow of water through horizontal beds of sand to be used for water filtration. He
reported 24
in 1856:
I have attempted by precise experiments to determine the law of the flow of
water through filters.... The experiments demonstrate positively that the volume
of water which passes through a bed of sand of a given nature is proportional to
the pressure and inversely proportional to the thickness of the bed traversed;
thus, in calling s the surface area of a filter, k a coefficient depending on the
nature of the sand, e the thickness of the sand bed, P – H0 the pressure below
the filtering bed, P + H the atmospheric pressure added to the depth of water on
the filter; one has for the flow of this last condition Q = (ks/e)(H + e + H0),
which reduces to Q = (ks/e)(H + e) when H0 = 0, or when the pressure below
the filter is equal to the weight of the atmosphere.
This statement, that the flow rate through porous media is proportional to the
head loss and inversely proportional to the length of the flow path, is known
universally as Darcy's law. It, more than any other contribution, serves as the basis for
present-day knowledge of groundwater flow. Analysis and solution of problems relating
to groundwater movement and well hydraulics began after Darcy's work.
3.1.1 Experimental Verification
The experimental verification of Darcy's law can be performed with water flowing
at a rate Q through a cylinder of cross-sectional area A packed with sand and having
piezometers a distance L apart, as shown in Figure 3.1.138. 52
Total energy heads, or
fluid potentials, above a datum plane may be expressed by the energy equation.

where p is pressure. Ƴ is the specific weight of water, v is the velocity of flow, g


is the acceleration of gravity, z is elevation, and HL, is head loss. Subscripts refer to
points of measurement identified in Figure 3.1.1. Because velocities in porous media
are usually low, velocity heads may be neglected without appreciable error. Hence, by
rewriting, the head loss becomes.

Therefore, the resulting head loss is defined as the potential loss within the sand
cylinder, this energy being lost by frictional resistance dissipated as heat energy. It
follows that the head loss is independent of the inclination of the cylinder.
Now, Darcy's measurements showed that the proportionalities Q ~ HL and Q ~
1/L exist. Introducing a proportionality constant K leads to the equation.

Expressed in general

or simply
Figure 3.1.1. pressure distribution and headloss
in flow through a sand column

where v is the Darcy velocity or specific discharge; K is the hydraulic


conductivity, a constant that serves as a measure of the permeability of the porous
medium; and dh/dl is the hydraulic gradient. The negative sign indicates that the flow
of water is in the direction of decreasing head. Equation 3.1.5 states Darcy's law in its
simplest form, that the flow velocity v equals the product of the hydraulic conductivity
and the hydraulic gradient.

Example 3.1.1
A field sample of an unconfined aquifer is packed in a test cylinder (see Figure
3.1.1). The length and the diameter of the cylinder are 50 cm and 6 cm, respectively.
The field sample is tested for a period of 3 min under a constant head difference of
16.3 cm. As a result, 45.2 cm3 of water is collected at the outlet. Determine the
hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer sample.
Solution
The cross-sectional area of the sample is
The hydraulic gradient, dh/dl, is given by

And the average flow rate is

Apply Darcy’s law, equation 3.1.4, to obtain the hydraulic conductivity as

Example 3.1.2

A confined aquifer with a horizontal bed has a varying thickness as shown in


Figure 3.1.2. The aquifer is inhomogeneous with K= 12 +0.006x, where x = 0 at
section (1), and the piezometric heads at sections (1) and (2) are 14.2 m and 18.8 m,
respectively measured above the upper confining layer. Assuming the flow in the
aquifer is essentially horizontal, determine the flow rate per unit width.
Solution
Darcy’s law for a constant thickness aquifer is given by Equation 3.1.4,

Figure 3.1.2. Aquifer for example 3.1.2

Since the aquifer thickness is variable in this problem, we must also write the
cross-sectional area and the hydraulic gradient as a function of the distance x.
(𝑏2 — 𝑏1)𝑥
Assuming a unit width, A = b1 + , where b1= 30 m, b2 = 75 m, and L=
𝐿
(75−30)𝑥
3.600 m, then we have A = 30 + = 30=0.0125x
3.600
Substituting the expressions for A and K into Darcy's equation yields the
𝑑ℎ
expression for Q in following form: Q =-(12=0.006x)(30+0.0125x)
𝑑𝑥
Rearranging this equation and integrating from section (1) to section (2) yields

This equation is integrated using partial fraction decomposition to obtain

The minus sign implies that the flow is from section (2) to (1).

3.1.2 Darcy Velocity


The velocity v in Equation 3.1.5 is referred to as the Darcy velocity because it
assumes that flow occurs through the entire cross section of the material without
regard to solids and pores.
Actually, the flow is limited only to the pore space so that the average interstitial
𝑄
velocity 𝑣= (3.1.6)
𝛼𝐴

Where 𝛼 is the (effective) porosity. This indicates that for a sand with a porosity
of 33 percent, va = 3v. To define the actual flow velocity, one must consider the
microstructure of the rock material. In water flowing through a sand, for example, the
pore spaces vary continuously with location within the medium. This means that the
actual velocity is nonuniform, involving endless accelerations, decelerations, and
changes in direction. Thus, the actual velocity depends on specifying a precise point
location within the medium. For naturally occurring geologic materials, the
microstructure cannot be specified three-dimensionally; hence, actual velocities can
only be quantified statistically.
3.1.3 Validity of Darcy’s Law
In applying Darcy's law it is important to know the zange of validity within which
it is applicable. Because velocity in laminar flow, such as water flowing in a capillary
tube, is proportional to the first power of the hydraulic gradient (Poiseuille's law), it
seems reasonable to believe that Darcy's law applies to laminar flow in porous media.
For flow in pipes and other large sections, the Reynolds number, which expresses the
dimensionless ratio of inertial to viscous forces, serves as a criterion to distinguish
between laminar and turbulent flow. Hence, by analogy, the Reynolds number has
been employed to establish the limit of flows described by Darcy's law, corresponding
to the value where the linear relationship is no longer valid.
Reynolds number is expressed as

where ρ is the fluid density, v the velocity, D the diameter (of a pipe), and µ the
(dynamic) viscosity of the fluid. To adapt this criterion to flow in porous media, the
Darcy velocity is employed for v and an effective grain size (d10) is substituted for D.
Certainly a grain diameter represents only an approximation of the critical flow
dimension for which it is intended; however, measuring pore size distribution is a
complex research task.
Experiments show that Darcy's law is valid for NR < 1 and does not depart
seriously up to NR = 10.1 This, then, represents an upper limit to the validity of Darcy's
law. A range of values rather than a unique litnit must be stated because as inertial
forces increase, turbulence occurs gradually.85.92- 106 The irregular flow paths of eddies
and swirls associated with turbulence occur first in the larger pore spaces; with
increasing velocity they spread to the smaller pores. For fully developed turbulence the
head loss varies approximately with the second power of the velocity rather than
linearly.
Fortunately, most natural underground flow occurs with NR< 1, so Darcy's law is
applicable. Deviations from Darcy's law can occur where steep hydraulic gradients
exist, such as near pumped wells; also, turbulent flow can be found in rocks such as
basalt and limestone17 that contain large underground openings.*
Example 3.1.3
The following additional information is given for the aquifer sample in Example
3.1.1. The sample has a median grain size of 0.037 cm and a porosity of 0.30. The test
is conducted using pure water at 20°C. Determine the Darcy velocity, average
interstitial velocity, and assess the validity of Darcy's law.
Solution
𝑑ℎ
𝑣 = −𝑘 = −(23.54 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦)(−0.326) = 7.67 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑙
The average linear velocity is computed using equation 3.1.6

v 𝛼= 𝛼𝐴
𝑄
=
𝑣
𝛼
=
7.67 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
0.30
= 25.6 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦

In order to asses yhe validity of Darcy’s Law we must determine the gretest
𝜌𝑣𝐷
velocity for which Darcy’s law is valid using Eqation 3.1.7, NR = , knowing darcy’s
µ
Law is valid for NR < 1. For water at 20OC, µ = 1.005 x 10-3 Ns/m2 and ρ = 998.2
kg/m3, so that for NR = 1,
µ 1.005 𝑥 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌𝐷
= (998.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3)(0.00037 𝑚)
= 0.00272 𝑚/𝑠 = 235 m/day

Then Darcy’s Law will be validfor Darcy velocities equalto or less than 235 m/day
for this simple. Thus, the answer we have found in example 3.1.1 is valid since v =
7.67 m/day < 235 m.day
3.2 Permeability
3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability
The permeability of a rock or soil defines its ability to transmit a fluid. This is a
property only of the medium and is independent of fluid properties. To avoid confusion
with hydraulic conductivity, which includes the properties of groundwater, an intrinsic
permeability k may be expressed as
𝐾µ
𝑘= − (3.2.1)
𝜌𝑔
where K is hydraulic conductivity, µ is dynamic viscosity, ρ is fluid density, and g
is acceleration of gravity. Inserting this in Equation 3.1.5 yields
µ𝑣
𝑘= − (3.2.2)
𝜌𝑔(𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑙)
Which has unit of
(𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠) (𝑚/𝑠)
𝑘= − = 𝑚2 (3.2.3)
(𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )(𝑚/𝑠 2 )(𝑚. 𝑚)
Thus, intrinsic permeability possesses units of area. Because values of k in
Equation 3.2.3 are so small, the U.S. Geological Survey expresses k in square
micrometers (µm)2 = 10-12m2.
In the petroleum industry the value of k is measured by a unit termed the darcy,
defined as
(1 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒)(1 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠)
1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 = 1 𝑐𝑚2 (3.2.4)
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒/𝑐𝑚
By substitution of appropriate units its can be shown that66.
1 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 = 0.987 (µ𝑚)2 (3.2.5)
So the darcy corresponds closely tothe intrinsic permeability unit adopted by U.S.
geological survey.
3.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity
For practical work in groundwater hydrology, where water is the prevailing fluid,
hydraulic conductivity K is employed. A medium has a unit hydraulic conductivity if it
will transmit in unit time a unit volume of groundwater at the prevailing kinematic
viscosity* through a cross section of unit area, measured at right angles to the
direction of flow, under a unit hydraulic gradient. The units are
v m/day
𝐾= − = − = m/day (3.2.6)
dh/dl m/mα
Indicating that hydraulic conductivity has units of velocity.
3.2.3 Transmissivity
The term transmissivity T is widely employed in groundwater hydraulics. It may
be defined as the rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted
through a unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It follows that

𝑇 = 𝐾𝑏 = (𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦)(𝑚) = 𝑚2 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 (3.2.7)


Where b is teh saturated thickness of the aquifer.
Example 3.2.1
A leaky confined aquifer is overlain by an aquitard that is also overlain by an
unconfined aquifer. The estimated recharge rate from the unconfined aquifer into the
confined aquifer is 0.085 rn/year. Piezometric head measurements in the confined
aquifer show that the average piezometric head in the confined aquifer is 6.8 m below
the water table of the unconfined aquifer. If the average thickness of the aquitard is
4.30 in, find the vertical hydraulic conductivity, Kv of the aquitard. What type of
material could this possibly be?
Solution
Given v = 0.085 m/year = 2.329 x 10-4 m/day, Equation 3.2.6 is used to compute
the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the aquitard:

𝑣 2.328𝑥10−4 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐾= − =− = 1.437𝑥10−4 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑙 (6.8𝑚/4.30𝑚)
From the table 3.2.1, the aquitard is composed of clay.
3.2.4 Conductivity of Geologic Materials
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil or rock depends on a variety of physical
factors, including porosity, particle size and distribution, shape of particles,
arrangement of particles, and other factors.63.79 In general, for unconsolidated porous
media, hydraulic conductivity varies with particle size; clayey materials exhibit low
values of hydraulic conductivity, whereas sands and gravels display high values.
An interesting illustration of the variation of hydraulic conductivity with particle
size is shown by data in Figure 3.2.1. Here conductivities were measured for two
uniform sieved sands. These two sands were then mixed in varying proportions, and
the corresponding hydraulic conductivities were again determined. Results show that
any mixture of the two sands displays a conductivity less than a linearly interpolated
value. The physical explanation lies in the fact that the smaller grains occupy a larger
fraction of the space around larger grains than do uniform grains of either size.
Table 3.2.1 contains representative hydraulic conductivities for a variety of
geologic materials. It should be noted that these are averages of many measurements;
clearly, a range of values exists for each rock type depending on factors such as
weathering, fracturing, solution channels, and depth of burial.

Figure 3.2.1 Hydraulic conductivity of


various proportions of two uniform sands
(courtesy Illinois State Water Surve)
Table 3.2.1 Representative Values of Hydraulic Conductivity (after Morris and
Johnson75)

Figure 3.2.2. Range of values of hydraulic conductivity and permeability (Freeze, R.


A. and Cherry, J. A., Gmundwater, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1979.)
Magnitudesof hydraiulic conductivity for various classes of unconsolidated and
consolidated rocks are shown in figure 3.2.2.
3.3 Determination Of Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity in saturated zones can be determined by a variety of
techniques, including calculation from formulas, laboratory methods, tracer tests,
auger hole tests, and pumping tests of wells.
3.3.1 Formulas
Numerous investigators have studied the relationship of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity to the properties of porous media. Several formulas have resulted based
on analytic or experimental work. Most permeability formulas have the general form.

𝑘 = 𝑐𝑑 2 (3.3.1)
Where c is adimensionless coefficient, or

𝑘 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝛼 𝑑 2 (3.3.2)
Wherefs is a grain (or pore) shape factor, f𝛼, is a porosity factor, and d is
characteristic grain diameter30. 62. 68
Few formulas give reliable estimates of results
because of the difficulty of including all possible variables in porous media. For an ideal
medium, such as an assemblage of spheres of uniform diameter, hydraulic conductivity
can be evaluated accurately from known porosity and packing conditions.
Because of the problems inherent in formulas, other techniques for determining
hydraulic conductivity are preferable.
3.3.2 Laboratory Methods
In the laboratory, hydraulic conductivity can be determined by a permeameter, in
which flow is maintained through a small sample of material while measurements of
flow rate and head loss are made.107 The constant-head and falling-head types of
permeameters are simple to operate and widely employed.
The constant-head perrneameter shown in Figure 3.3.1a can measure hydraulic
conductivities of consolidated or unconsolidated formations under low heads. Water
enters the medium cylinder from the bottom and is collected as overflow after passing
upward through the material. From Darcy's law it follows that the hydraulic
conductivity can be obtained from
𝑉𝐿
𝐾= (3.3.3)
𝐴𝑡ℎ
where V is the flow volume in time t, and the other dimensions, A, L, and h, are
shown in Figure 3.3.1a. It is important that the medium be thoroughly saturated to
remove entrapped air. Several different heads in a series of tests provide a reliable
measurement.

Figure 3.3.1. Permeameters for measuring hydraulic conductivity of


geologic samples. (a) Constant Head. (b) Falling Head.

A second procedure utilizes the falling-head permeameter illustrated in Figure


3.3.lb. Here water is added to the tall tube; it flows upward through the cylindrical
sample and is collected as overflow.
The test consists of measuring the rate of fall of the water level in the tube. The
hydraulic conductivity can be obtained by noting that the flow rate Q in the tube.

𝑄 = 𝜋𝑟𝑡2 𝑑ℎ/𝑑𝑙 (3.3.4)


must equal that through the sample, which by Darcy's law is

𝑄 = 𝜋𝑟𝑐2 𝐾 ℎ/𝐿 (3.3.5)


After equating and integrating,

𝑟𝑡2 𝐿 ℎ1
𝐾 = 2 𝑙𝑛 (3.3.6)
𝑟𝑐 𝑡 ℎ2

where L, rt, and rc are shown in Figure 3.3.1b. and t is the time interval for the
water level in the tube to fall from hl to h2.
Perrneameter results may bear little relation to actual field hydraulic
conductivities. Undisturbed samples of unconsolidated material are difficult to obtain,
while disturbed sarnples experience changes in porosity, packing, and grain
orientation, which modify hydraulic conductivities. Then, too, one or even several
samples from an aquifer may not represent the overall hydraulic conductivity of an
aquifer. Variations of several orders of magnitude frequently occur for different depths
and locations in an aquifer. Furthermore, directional properties of hydraulic
conductivity may not bc recognized.
Example 3.3.1
A field sample of medium sand with a median grain size of 0.84 mm will be
tested to determine the hydraulic conductivity using a constant-head permeameter.
The sample has a length of 30 cm and a diameter of 5 cm. For pure water at 20°C,
estimate the range of piezometric head differences to be used in the test.
Solution
The maximum allowable Darcy velocity (assuming NR = 1) for d = 0.84 mm is

Thus, the Darcy velocity in the test must be equal to or less than 03.6 m/day so
that Darcy’s law will be valid, so that

For the representative value of hydraulic conductivity for medium sand given in
the Table 3.2.1,

It should be noted that the K value for clean sand ranges approximately from 0.1
m/day to 4,320 m/day. See Figure 3.2.1. Therefore, the early series of tests must be
conducted with relatively low piezometric head differences if possible. After analyzing
the results of early test data, a better estimate of the maximum allowable piezometric
head difference can be made using the above inequality.
Example 3.3.2
If the field sample in Example 3.3.1 is tested with a head difference of 5.0 cm
and 200 ml of water is collected at the outlet in 15 min, determine the hydraulic
conductivity of the sample. What should the maximum allowable piezornetric head
difference be for a series of tests?
Solution
Equation 3.3.3 is used to compute the hydraulic conductivity in a constant-head
permeameter test:

Based upon this estimate and referring to Example 3.3.1, the maximum allowable
piezometric head difference for tests should be approximately

Example 3.3.3
A 20-cm long field sample of silty, fine sand with a diameter of 10 cm is tested
using a falling-head perrneameter. The falling-head tube has a diameter of 3.0 cm and
the initial head is 8.0 cm. Over a period of 8 hr, the head in the tube falls to 1.0 cm.
Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of the sample.
Solution
Equation 3.3.6 is used to compute the hydraulic conductivity in a falling-head
permeameter test:
aa

Figure 3.3.2. Cross section of an unconfuted aquifer


illustrating a tracer test for deterntining hydraulic
conductivity

3.3.3 Tracer Test


Field determinations of hydraulic conductivity can be made by measuring the
time interval for a water tracer to travel between two observation wells or test holes.18,
25, 40, 57, 72, 73, 109
For the tracer, a dye, such as sodium fluorescein, or a salt, such as
calcium chloride, is convenient, inexpensive, easy to detect, and safe. Figure 3.3.2
shows the cross section of a portion of an unconfined aquifer with groundwater flowing
from hole A toward hole B. The tracer is injected as a slug in hole A after which
samples of water are taken from hole B to determine the time of passage of the tracer.
Because the tracer flows through the aquifer with the average interstitial velocity va,
then.
𝐾ℎ
𝑣𝑎 = (3.3.7)
𝛼𝐿
where K is hydraulic conductivity, 𝛼 is porosity, and ℎ and L are shown in Figure
3.3.2. But 𝑣𝑎 also is given by

𝑣𝑎 = 𝐿/𝑡 (3.3.8)
where t is the travel time interval of the tracer between the holes. Equating these
and solving for K yields

𝐾 = 𝛼𝐿2 ⁄ℎ𝑡 (3.3.9)


Although this procedure is simple in principle, results are only approximations
because of serious limitations in the field.
1. The holes need to be close together; otherwise, the travel time interval can be
excessively long.
2. Unless the flow direction is accurately known, the tracer may miss the
downstream hole entirely. Multiple sampling holes can help, but these add to the
cost and complexity of conducting the test.
3. If the aquifer is stratified with layers with differing hydraulic conductivities, the
first arrival of the tracer will result in a conductivity considerably larger than the
average for the aquifer.
An altemative tracer technique, which has been successfully applied under field
conditions, is the point dilution method.28, 45, 53
Here a tracer is introduced into an
observation well and thoroughly mixed with the contained water. Thereafter, as water
flows into and from the well, repeated measurements of tracer concentration are
made.
Analysis of the resulting dilution curve defines the groundwater velocity; this,
together with the measured water table gradient and Darcy's law, yields a localized
estimate of the hydraulic conductivity and also the direction of groundwater flow.85
Additional references on tracer tests include Barth et al.7 on heterogeneous porous
media; Mull et al.76 on carbonate aquifer systems; and Novakowski77 on divergent
radial flow fields. A new Efficient Hydrologic Tracer-test Design (EHTD) has been
developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).33-36
Example 3.3.4
A tracer test is conducted to determine the hydraulic conductivity of an
unconfined aquifer. The water levels in the two observation wells 20 m apart are 18.4
m and 17.1 m. The tracer injected in the first well arrives at the second observation
well in 167 hours. Compute the hydraulic conductivity of the unconfined aquifer given
that the porosity of the formation is 0.25.
Solution
Given 𝛼 = 0.25, L = 20 m, h = 18.4 m - 17.1 m 1.3 m, t = 167 hours = 6.96
days, Equation 3.3.9 is used to compute the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer:
𝛼𝐿2 (0.25)(20 𝑚)2
𝐾= = = 11.1 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
ℎ𝑡 (1.3 𝑚)(6.96 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠)
3.3.4 Auger Hole Test
The auger hole method involves the measurement of the change in water level
after the rapid removal of a volume of water from an unlined cylindrical hole. If the soil
is loose, a screen may be necessary to maintain the hole. The method is relatively
simple and is most adaptable to shallow water table conditions. The value of K
obtained is essentially that for a horizontal direction in the immediate vicinity of the
hole.
Figure 3.3.3 illustrates an auger hole (also refer to Figure 5.2.4) and the
dimensions required for the calculation. It can be shownl10 that hydraulic conductivity
is given by
𝐶 𝑑𝑦
𝐾= (3.3.10)
864 𝑑𝑡
where dy/dt is the measured rate of rise in cm/s and the factor 864 yields K
values in m/day. The factor C is a dimensionless constant listed in Table 3.3.1 and
governed by the variables shown in Figure 3.3.3.
Table 3.3.1 Values of the Factor C for the Auger Hole Test to Determine Hydraulic Conductivity
(after Boast and Kirkham10)
Figure 3.3.3 diagram of
auger hole and dimensions
for determining hydraulic
conductivity.

Note that the tabulated values cover the following conditions below the hole: a
shallow imperrneable iayer, an infinite homogeneous stratum, and a shallow, highly
permeable (gravel) layer. The value y should correspond to that when dy/dt is
measured.
Several other techniques similar to the auger hole test have been developed in
which water level changes are measured after an essentially hastantaneous removal or
addition of a volume of water. With a small-diameter pipe driven into the ground, K
can be found by the piezometer, or tube, method.103 For wells in confined aquifers, the
slug method can be employed.22.26 Here a known volume of water is suddenly injected
or removed from a well after which the decline or recovery of the water level is
measured in the ensuing minutes. Where a pump is not avallable to conduct a
pumping test on a well, the slug method serves as an alternative approach.
3.3.5 Pumping Test Of Wells
The most reliable method for e,stimating aquifer hydraulic conductivity is by
pumping tests of wells. Based on observations of water levels near pumping wells, an
inkgrated K value over a sizable aquifer section can be obtained. Then, too, because
the aquifer is not disturted, the reliability of such determinations is superior to
laboratory methods. Pump test methods and cornputations are described in Chapter 4.

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