UNIT-IV

OPTICAL SOURCE, DETECTORS AND AMPLIFIERS

LED

Principle of action:

Fig: Light radiation by the pn junction of semiconductor

 The forward bias voltage V causes the electrons and holes to enter the depletion region
and recombine.
 In terms of energy band diagram, the external energy V excites electrons at conduction
band. From there they fall to the valence band and recombine with holes
 Recombination results in the release of radiation in the visible (or) light part of the
spectrum

POPULAR SEMICONDUCTORS USED FOR LED FUBRICATION

Material Energy band Wavelength(nm)

Se 1.17 1067
Ge 0.775 1610
GaAs 1.424 876
InP 1.35 924
InGaAs 1.75-1.24 1664-1006
Al GaAs 1.42-1.92 879-650
InGaAsp 0.75-1.35 1664-924
Types of LED:

(i) Homostructure LED (or) Homojunction LED:

 The n-type and p-type semiconductors are made from the same substrate. BY& adding
various dopans to make either n-type with excessive electrons (or) p-type with
excessive holes.
 Both semiconductor have the same energy gap. The pn junction of such
semiconductors are known as “homo structure LED”
 A typical wavelength of light emitted from the construction is 940 nm, and a typical
output power is 2MW at 100MA of forward element
 Light emitted from Homo structure led spreads equally in all directions. Therefore,
only a small amount of light is coupled in to the fiber.
 Homo junction devices are often called surface emitters.

Disadvantage

Because of the non-directionality of their light emission,which makes them a poor

choice as light source for optical fiber system.

(ii) Heterojunction LED:

 In Hetero junction LED, both p-type and n-type semiconductor have the different
energy gap. The p-n junction of such semiconductors are called as “heterosturucture
LED”
 This devices, continues the emitted light in to much smaller area.
 With hetero junction devices, light is emitted from the edge of the material and are
often called edge emitters

Advantage:

 The increase in current density generates a more brilliant light spot.

 The smaller emitting area makes it easier to couple its emitted light in to a fiber.
 The small effective area has a smaller capacitance, which allows the planer
heterojunction LED to be used at higher speed.

LED Structure:

The requirement of an LED to be used for fiber transmission are

(i) High radiance output
(ii) High quantum efficiency
(iii) Fast omission response time
(i) High radiance output
 Radiance (or) brightness is a measure in watts of the optical power radiated in to a
unit solid angle Pe, unit area of emitting surface. High radiances are necessary to
couple sufficiently high optical power levels in to a fiber

(ii) High quantum efficiency

The quantum efficiency is related to fraction of injected electron hole pairs
that recombine relatively

(iii) Fast emission response time

It is the time delay between the application of a current pulse and the
emission of optical pulses. This time delay factor limit the band width of the
source.

 The two basic configurations being used for fiber optics are
(i) Surface emitters
(ii) Edge emitters

Surface emitter LED (Suitable for multimode fiber):

 The plane of the active light emitting region is oriented perpendicularly to the axis of
the fiber.
 Here, a well is etched. Through the substrate of the device, in to which a fiber is then
cemented in order to accept the emitted light.
 The circular active area in practical surface emitter is nominally 50 Um in diameter
and up to 2.5 Um thick. The emission pattern is essentially Iso tropic with a 120 half
power beam width.
 This Iso tropic pattern from a surface emitter is called a lambertian pattern. In this
pattern source is equally bright when viewed from any direction. But the power
diminished as cos θ, where θ is the angle between viewing direction and the line
orthogonal to the radiating surface.
P=po, when ce=0, half power of the lambertian source is concentrated in a 120 cone.

 Edge Emitter LED (suitable for single mode fiber)

 Edge emitter LED consists of an active function region., which is the source of the
incoherent light and two guiding layers.
 The guiding layers both have a refractive index which is lower than that of the active
region but higher than the index of the surround material. This structure forms a wave
guide channel that directs the optical radiation towards the fiber core.
 To match the typical fiber core diameter (50-100hm)
(i) The contact stripes width should be 100-150hm
(ii) The length of the active region should be 100-150hm)

The emission pattern of edge emitter is more directional than that of the surface emitter.

Quantum efficiency and LED power:

Let excess densities of electrons is n
Let excess densities of holes is p
At equilibrium state, density ef electron is equal to density of holes
In general, the excess carrier density decays exponentially with time according the
relation
N=no exp(-t/c)____________(1)
No= Initial injected electron density (by biasing)
T= carrier life time (ranges from milliseconds to nanoseconds)
The excess carriers injected by the external source can recombine either radiatively (or)
nan-radiatevely
 Due to radiatively recombination, energy is released is the form of photon hu, which
approximately equal to energy band gap.
 Due to non-radiative recombination, released energy is transformed is to another
camer in the form of kinetic energy.
 When there is a constant current flow in the LED, an equilibrium condition is
established.
Let j/qd is externally supplied rate of carries
Where j=current density a/cm2
Q=charge of electrom
D=thickness of recombination region
Let n/Ʈc is thermal generation rate.

Then the rate equation for carrier recombination in an LED can be written as

dn/dt= (j/qd)-(n/Ʈ) ________________(2)

At equilibrium condition dn/dc=0

0= j/qd – n/Ʈ j/qd= n/Ʈ => n= jƮ/9d____________(3)

Internal quantum efficiency(η int):

η int= no. of radiated photon/ no. of injected charge carrier

If Rr is radioactive recombination rate, Rnr is non-radiative recombination rate, then η int is

given by

η int= Rr/Rr+Rm___________4

Let Tr is the radioactive recombination life time and it is given by

Tr= n/Rr= Rr=n/Tr__________5

Tnr is the non-radioactive recombination life time and it is given by

Tnr= n/Rnr => Rnr=n/tnr__________6

ηint= (n/tr)/((n/tr)+(n/tnr)) = (1/tr)/(1/tr+1/tnr)

Total recombination time is t then

1/t= 1/tr+1/tnr__________7

η int= 1/tr/1/t= t/tr_________8

 In homostructure LED, Rr & Rnr are similar in magnitude ηint is 50%

 But in double Hetero simutune LED, Rr & Rnr are different in magnitude. ηint is 60-
80%

LED power
If the current Injected in to the LED is I, then the total no. of recombination for second
is
Rr+Rnr=I/q_____________9

w.k. that ηint = Rr/Rr+Rnr(equation4)

ηint= Rr/I/q (i.e). Rr=ηint I/q_____________10

Rr= radioative recombination rate i.e. it represent total no. of Photons generated per second and
that each photon has an energy hu

Optical power generated internally to the LED is

P int= Rr.hu__________11
= ηint I/q.hu
= ηint I/q h.c/λ
 P int= ηint Ihc/qλ_______12

External Quantum efficiency

Ext= No. of Photons escaping from a semi conductor/ No. of charge carrier Injected

Fig:

The external quantum efficiency can be calculated from the expression

η ext=1/4Πʃ T(ϕ) 2Π (sinϕ) dϕ

T(ϕ) is Fresnel transmission co-efficient Δϕ=sin^-1(n2/n1)

If ϕ=0 , then T(0) = 4n1n2/n1+n2

From the Fig

n1=R.I of semiconductor material

n2= R.I of axis =1

Consider n1as n

T(0)=4n/(n+1)2
ηext=1/n(n+1)2

Optical power emitted from LED

P=ηext Pint= Pint/ n(n+1)^2 =ηint Ihc/ qλn(n+1)^2

Laser diode:
 The term laser, actually is an acronym for the phrase Light Amplication by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Thus laser is a source whose radiation has high
intensity, high coherence, high monochromacity and high directionality.
 A laser diode consists of an active medium to produce optical amplification and
optical reason to provide the necessary optical feed back.
  Laser action means the amplification of light by stimulated emission of radiation. To
get laser action
(i) The stimulated emission is necessary
(ii) There should be population inversion of atom
(iii) There should be stimulation photon

Absorption and emission of radiation

(a) Absorption

By this absorption process, an atom in level E, absorbs photon of frequency (E2-E1)/h and
goes to upper energy level E2.

The rate of absorption depends upon the no. of atoms present in the level E1 and density of
photons present in the system.

(b) Spontaneous emission

An atom in the energy level E2 can make transition to lower energy level E1
Spontaneously, and emitting a photon whose energy is equal to (E2-E1) (or) energy band gap
Eg.
The rate of emission depends on the no. of atoms present in the higher energy level (or)
executed level. The higher level atom can undergo different transitions and finally it can
reach the ground level E1 (results more spectral width)
Characteristics:

(1) It produces poly Chromatic

(2) It‟s intensity is always small
(3) It is not colerent->(generated photon has random phase & frequencies
(4) It has large divergence
(5) IT takes place without getting any external aid.

(c) Stimulated emission

An atom in an excited level (or) high energy level E2 can make a transistion to lower energy
level E1 by an external photon of energy (E1-E1). The stimulating (or) inducing

photon and emitted photon are in same phase with same energy and they travel in the same
direction.

The photon emitted in this process has same energy (i.e. the same wave length) as
incident photon, and is in phase with it. Also their amplitudes add to produce brighter level.

Characteristics:

(i) It produces mono chromatic radiation

(ii) It is intenoity is very high
(iii) IT is coherent
(iv) It has high directionality
(v) If takes place with the aid from an external photon having the same energy of
emitted photon.

Semiconduction injection laser diode (ILD):

Stimulated emission by the recombination of the injected carrier is encouraged in the

semiconductor injection laser (often called injection laser diode) by the provision of optical
cavity in the crystal structure in order to provide the feedback of photons.

Injection laser diode has several advantages other semi conductor surces (eg . LED)
 (i) High radiance due to the amplifying effect of stimulated emission
(ii) Narrow line width of the order of 1 nm (or) less which is useful in minimizing the
effect of material dispassion
(iii) Modulation capabilities extend up to gigalength range
(iv) Relatively temporal coherence whoch ius considered essential to allow hetenodyne
detection in high capacity system
(v) Good spatial coherence this allows efficient coupling of optical power in to the fiber
even for fibers with low NA.

Structure of GaAS homo-junction Injection laser diode with Fabry-Perot

cavity:
 Homo-junction laser means that a P-N junction formed by a single crystalline
material such that the basic material has been the same on both sides of the function.

For example in GaAS laser, both the P-layer and n-layer are made up of GaAS only

Principle of operation:

 The crystal mirror act as light reflection mirrors. The photons generated in the pn
junction will be reflected by the mirrors
 Since the fabryt-perot cavity is fairly long, the laser will osculate simultaneously in
several frequencies (happened in left side facet)
 When these resonant frequencies are transmitted through the right hand facet, they add in
phase. This results in a greatly increased amplitude(or) brighter light beam, with a broad
spectrum.

Draw back:

1. Threshold current density is very large(400 A/mm2)

2. Only pulse made output is obtained
3. Laser output has large beam divergence
4. Coherence and stability are very poor
5. Electromagnetic field continement is poor.

Structure of Double heterojunction injection laser diode:

Hetero junction mkeans that the material one side of the function differs from that on
other side othe function. For example, heterofunction is formed between GaAS and leaAlAS.

Mostly the heterojunction laser diodes are used as optical sources in the optical source in
the optical fiber communication because they have so many advantages
 (1) Threshold current density is small (10A/mm2)
(2) Continous wave operation can also be possible
(3) Due to efficient waveguide structure, the beam divergence is small, high coherence and
monochronaticity are obtained
(4) High output power
(5) Highly stable with longer life

Hetero junction laser divided into two types

1. Edge emitting laser injection(gives laser output through mirror and)

2. Surface emitting injection laser (gives laser output through surface of the diode)

Edge emitting injection lasers are divided in to two types

1. Gain guided lasers

2. Index guide laser

Gain guided laser diode:

 A marrow metallic stripe runs along the length of the diode. The refractive index of
active area is greater than the refractive index of n-doped and p-doped region for
providing waveguide structure in the case of gain guided laser.
 The structure of aluminium galliam arsinide (AlGaAs) oxide stripe DH laser is as
shown in the figure

 Optical light confinement method of Grain guided laser diode as shown in the figure.
 In the above structure, a narrow electrode stripe (less than 8 um wide) runs along the
length of the diode. The injection of electrons and holes in to the device alters the
refractive index of the active layer, directly below the stripe. The profile of these
injected carriers creates a weak, complex waveguide that continues the light laterally.
This type of device is commonly reformed to as gain guided laser.
  Although these lasers can emit optical powers exceeding 100 MW, they have strong
instabilities and can have highly astigmatic, two peaked beams. So these structure are
not used in practice.

Index-guided laser diode:

 These are most stable structures. Here the di electric waveguide structures are
fabricated in the lateral direction
 The variations in the real refractive index of the canaes materials in these structures
control the lateral modes in the laser/ Thus these device are caller index guded laser.
 Index guided lasers can have either +ve index (or) –ve index wave contining
structure. In +ve index waveguide fig(a), the central gegion has a high refractive
index than outer regions. Thus all of the guided light is reflected at dielectric
boundary (active region) just as it is at the core-claddding interface in an optical fiber.
 By proper choice of the change in refractive index and width of the high index region,
one can make a device that supports only fundamental latter mode.
 In a –ve index guidefig(b), the central region of the active layer has a lower
repractive index than the outer refions.
 At the dielectric boundaries, part of the light is reflected and rest is refracted in to the
surrounding material and thus cost.
 This radiation loss appears in the far dield radiation pattern as narrow side lobes to
main beam.
 The +ve index laser is more popular than the gain guided laser and –ve index laser
structure.

Fig(a) fig(b)

Types of index guide laser

(1) Buried hetero structure

(2) a selectively diffused construction
(3) a varying thickness structure
(4) bent layer configuration

Buried hetero structure (BH) laser

Fig (a) Shost wave length (800-900nm) GA Al AS-buried heterostructure laser diodes
Fig (b) long wave length (1300-1600nm) InGaASP-Buried heterostructure laser diodes

To maked buried hetero

structure laser, one etches a narrow mesa stripe (1-2 Um wide) in double heterostructure
material.
 The mesa is then embedded in high resistance lattice matched m-type material with
an appropriated bund gap and low repractive index (contining layer)
 This material GaAlAS in 800-900nm laser with a GaAS active layer, and is Inp for
1300-1600nm laser with an In GA Asp Active layer
 This configuration strongly traps generated light in a lateral waveguide.

Injection laser diode has several advantages other semi conductor surces (eg . LED)

(i) High radiance due to the amplifying effect of stimulated emission

(ii) Narrow line width of the order of 1 nm (or) less which is useful in minimizing the
effect of material dispassion
(iii) Modulation capabilities extend up to gigalength range
(iv) Relatively temporal coherence whoch ius considered essential to allow
hetenodyne detection in high capacity system
(v) Good spatial coherence this allows efficient coupling of optical power in to the
fiber even for fibers with low NA.
PIN
The first element of the receiver is a photodector. The photodetector senses the light signal
falling on it and covens the variation of optical power to a correspondingly varying electric
current

Performance requirements for Photodetector

(1) A high sensitivity to the emission wavgelength range of the received signal
(2) High quantum efficiency
(3) A minimum addition of noise to the sigtnal
(4) A fast response speed to handle the desired data rate
(5) Be sensitive to temperature variations
(6) Be compatible with the physical dimensan of the fiber
(7) Have ak reasonable cost
(8) Have a long operating life time

PIN photodiode & Avalanche Photodiode (APD) satisfy the above set of requirements

Operation of a PIN Photodiode

 The device structure consists of P and N semiconductor region separated by a veryt

lightly n-doped intrinsic (i) region. In normal operatrion a reverse beas voltage is
applies access the devuice so that no free electrons on holes exist in the intrinsic
region
 Electrons in the semiconductor materials are allowed to reside in only two specific
band (i.e. valance band & conduction band). These bands are separated by a
forbidden gap region called an energy gap.
 Suppose an Incident Photon comes along that has an energy greater than or equal to
the abdgap energy of the semiconductor material.
  This photon can give up its energy and excite an electron from the valance band to
conduction band. This process which occurs in the intrinsic region, generates free
electron hole pairs. These charge carriers are known as photocarriers. Silnce theyt are
generated by a photon.
 The electric field access the device causes the photocarriers tot b swept out of the int
rinsic region, thereby giving rise to ta current thow in an external circuit. This current
flow is known as photo current.
 An incident photon is able to boost an electron to the conduction band only if it has
an energy that is greater than (or) equal to energy band gap. Energy is inversely
proportional to wavelength
The longest wavelength at which the photodetector absorb light signal is calledwet
of wavelength (λC)
λC=Hc/Eg = 1.,240/Eg Where H=6.6256*10-34 T C=3*105 m/s
A photodetector has a certain wavelength range overwhich
 Generated Photocarriers are immediately collected it may used by the external limit
before they recombine.

Analysis of PIN diode:

(i) Quantum efficiency

η= no. of electrons-hole pairs generated/No. of incident photons =
(Ip/q)/(Po/hu)
Q= electron charge
Po= incident optical power
Ip= photocurrent
V= Light frequery
h= planks constant Quantum efficiency ranging from 30to 95 %
(ii) Responsivity specifies the Photocurrent generated per unit optical power

R= generated Photo current/ incident optical power

=Ip/Po =ηq/hu
 Responsivity of 900 nm silicon is 0.65
Responsivity of 1300 nm germanium is 0.45 A/W
Responsivity of 1550nm InGaAS isw 1.0A/w
 Responsivity depends upon the function of wave length and photodetecor material
(iii) Speed of response.
Photodiodes needs to have fast response speed in order to properly interpret light
data rate signals. The detector response speed is measured in terms of
(i) Rise (time takes the output signal to rise 10% to 90% of its peak value when an
input to photodiode turned on instantaneously)
(ii) Fall time (Time takes the O/P signal to fall 90% to10% of its value)

(iv) Bandwidth

The 3-dB bw is defines the receiver bandwidth, which is the range of frequencies that a
receives can reproduce the signal. If rise time & fall time are equal, then the 3dB BW is

BW1(MHZ)= 350/rise time, (NS) nanoseconds

Avalanche Photodiodes
Avalanche Multiplication Process:

 An avalanche photodiode internally multiplies the photocurrent before it enters the

input circuitry of the following amplification. The multiplication effect is achieved by
applying a very high electric field across the photodiode.
 When photo generated electron encounters this high electric field, it can acquire
sufficient energy to kick more electrons from the valence to the conduction band,
thereby creating secondary electron-hole pairs.
 These secondary pairs as longer accelerated to high energies and therefore can
generate even more electron-hole pairs. This increases receiver sensitivity since the
photo current is multiplies prior to encountering the electrical noise associated with
the receiver circuiting.
 The process is called avalanche multiplication, and hence the device is called an
avalanche photodiode. This carrier multiplication mechanism is known as „Impact
conization‟
  A commonly used structure for achieving carrier multiplication is the” reach through
construction” (RAP)

 Reach trough APD is composed of a high resistivity p-type material, heavily doped
p+ substrate, heavily doped n+ layer and II layer (or) intrinsic layer

Operation:

 The term „Reach through‟ arises from the photodiode operation. When a low reverse
bias voltage is applies, most of the potential drop is across the Pn+ function
 The depletion layer widens with increasing bias until a certain voltage is reaches. (
That voltage is known as peak electric field) and this voltage is 10-15% below the
avalanche break down voltage
 At this point, the depletion layer just “reaches through” to nearly intrinsic II region.
Now high electric field is across the depletion layer.
 Light enters the device through the p+ region and is absorbed in the II-material (or)
intrinsic layer
 Due to incident of light some carriers will be generated in the intrensic region.
Because of high electric field across the intrinsic region, generated photo carrier kick
more electrons from valance band to conduction band, there by igniting secondary
electro hole pairs. IN this way more no. of carriers generated and causes more photo
current. This increases the receiver sensitivity
 The mean no. of electron-hole pairs created is a measure of the carrier multiplication.
This is called the gain and is designated by M.
M= Im/Ip

Where Im=average value of the total multiplied output element

Ip= Primary un multiplies photo current. (before carrier multiplication take place)
  Performance of an APD is characterized by its responsivity RAPD, which is given by
Rapd= ηq/hu M=RoM
Where Ro= unity gain responsivity

Performance requirements for receiver.

(1) A high sensitivity to the emission wavgelength range of the received signal
(2) High quantum efficiency
(3) A minimum addition of noise to the sigtnal
(4) A fast response speed to handle the desired data rate
(5) Be sensitive to temperature variations
(6) Be compatible with the physical dimensan of the fiber
(7) Have ak reasonable cost
(8) Have a long operating life time

PIN photodiode & Avalanche Photodiode (APD) satisfy the above set of requirements

Optical receiver

An optical receiver converts an optical input signal in to an appropriately formatted electric

output. During this conversion process various noises and distortics will be introduced due to
imperfect component response. This can leads to error in the interpretation of received signal

(i) Photodetector(PD): It converts light in to photo current

(ii) Preamolifier: It converts the photocurrent in to voltage, amplifies the signal and present
in to a quantizer
(iii) Quantizer: A typical quantizer includes three components

(a) A noise filter: This improves the signal to noise ratio (or) receivers‟s sensitivity
(b) Amplifier/ limiter: Amplification (performed by amplifier) is necessary to attain a
signal with enough power to drive the decision circuit.
If the amplified signal is high enough the limiter circuit clips the signal (larger
the amplitude lesser the gain)
(c) Decision circuit: This unit determines the logical meaning of the received signal.
When the received signal above the threshold, the comparator output is high. This
means the decision is made that the received signal carriers logic high (or)
When the received signal below the threshold, the comparator output is low.
This means the decision is made that the received signal carries logic low (or) „o‟
(iv) Buffers:
A buffer transfers a logical signal from the input to output unchanged but
reshapes the electrical form of this signal. Typically, this is an emitter follower
circuit.
(v) Clock Recovery:
Clock Recovery extracts timing information from the data stream and helps
the decision circuit to generate clean and reshaped differential DATA and
NON-DATA outputs.
(vi) Signal Detector:
Signal detector is an essential alarm circuit. It monitors the level of the
incoming signal and generation a logic low signal when the SNR is not
sufficient.
(vii) Monitoring circuits:
Input monitoring circuit is used to monitor the voltage drop produced by
photo current flowing through a resistor, allows engineer to keep tabs on input
power.
The flag signal from a signal detector circuit watches for a possible SNR lost
situation