Beruflich Dokumente
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1
References
2
Chapter 1
Theory Of Operation & Construction
1. Introduction
2. Electromechanical Energy Conversion
3. DC Machines Theory of Operation
4. Construction
5. Classification of DC Machines
6. Armature Voltage and Developed Torque
3
Electric Machine
Faraday’s law or e N e
flux cutting rule e=Blv
v v
S
B
5
Principle of Operation
i N i
F F
F=Bli B
B S
6
Induced e.m.f e N e
v B v
e=Blv
S
B
Right hand rule
Electromagnetic Force i N i
F F
F=Bli B
B S
S S S
8
Generated Voltage (EMF)
9
DC Machines
4 Pole DC Machine
11
4 Pole DC Machine
12
2 Pole DC Machine
Shaft
Armature
Commutator
Stator pole
Field
coil
13
DC Machine
14
Construction Of DC Machine
Armature
The armature (rotor) is made up of cylindrical steel
structure. However, it cannot be fabricated from
solid steel, since eddy and hysteresis losses may
reach prohibitive values and damage the armature
windings insulation. Reduction of eddy current
losses can be achieved by fabricating armature core
of insulated laminated silicon steel. Sheets of silicon
steel of 0.35 mm thick are punched to form the
shape of armature slots and teeth, then insulated on
both sides and assembled to form armature core.
Hysteresis loss can be reduced by adjusting the
amount of silicon in the steel such that the
hysteresis loop area of the alloy is kept as low as
possible.
15
The Armature
Slots Teeth
17
Eddy Currents (cont.)
18
Hysteresis Loop
19
Hysteresis Loss
21
The Commutator
Commutator 22
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
The Brushes
Brushes are fitted to collect or conduct
current from or into the armature. They
are made of graphite with high hardness
to ensure long life time during service.
Brushes are usually fitted in brush box
(holder) are pressed on commutator
segments by virtue of spring. The brush
holder is fixed in the machine frame and
insulated from it. Details of brush holder
are shown in figure.
1. Brush holder box
2. Brush
3. Pressure spring
4. live pigtail
23
The Brushes
24
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Field System
The magnetic flux in a DC machine is established by
electromagnets shaped in the form of salient poles
attached to a cylindrical yoke. The pole itself is made
from two main parts, shank and shoe. The shank
may be of circular or rectangular cross section while
fabricated from cast steel, wrought iron or cast iron.
There is no need for laminating it since flux flow is
unidirectional. As for the shoe, it keeps field
windings in place and distributes flux lines over
larger area and thus avoids saturation of flux lines in
armature teeth. Pole shoe is essentially laminated to
keep iron loss in it to a minimum. Iron loss in pole
shoe is produced by tooth pulsations. Field windings
are made by concentric number of turns of insulated
copper wire wound on a former. The former is made
of Bakelite and is shaped as shown in figure.
25
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Armature Windings
Armature windings are made of the shape of
pre-wound coils as shown in figure. The
armature is wound in a double layer fashion
to avoid irregular shape of end connections.
Moreover, coil pitch should be as near as
possible to pole pitch to ensure voltage
summation around the coil. On the other
hand, to obtain a reasonable value of
collected voltage, the coils are connected in
series maintaining that their voltages are in
the same sense. This is achieved in two
alternative methods of windings; namely, Lap
and Wave types of windings.
26
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
The turn, coil, and the winding are shown schematically as:
End connection
Conductors
27
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Lap Windings
In this type of windings, the successive coils of the
armature overlap each other as shown in figure.
Successive coils are connected in series with their ends
connected to successive commutator segments. The
pitch of the coil as viewed from commutator end is
termed as the front pitch while that measured from
other end is called the back pitch. These pitches should
not be equal to ensure winding progression.
If an armature is wound with C coils and having 2p
number of poles, then the back pitch should be equal to
the number of coils occupying one pole pitch, i.e.
Back pitch y b= C/2p coils
and hence, Front pitch yf = yb ± 1 coils
Positive sign is used for winding retrogression while the
negative sign is for winding progression.
Commutator pitch is then given by : yc = 1
Number of Commutator Segments = C
28
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Example
Design a suitable armature winding for an
armature with 12 slots each containing two coil
sides. The winding is double layer and number
of poles is 4.
Solution
C = 12 x 2 / 2 = 12 coils
yb = C/2p = 12/4 = 3 coils
yf = 3 + 1 = 4 for retrogressive winding
or yf = 3 - 1 = 2 for progressive winding
yf is taken equal to 2 to ensure less end
connection length.
29
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
30
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
31
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
In a lap winding, the number of parallel paths (2a) is always equal to
the number of poles and also to the number of brushes.
Bottom coil sides
2
Commutator 1 3
Brush
Elements of Lap Winding
32
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
33
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Wave Windings
In this type of windings, the coils connected in series
are either progressing or retrogressing all the way. The
figure show schematic representation for a partially
wound armature with wave windings. The distance
between successive coils sides occupying
nearly the same location under similar poles is termed
the resultant pitch “ y “ and is equal to;
y = yb + yf
where y and y are the back and front pitches of the
winding .b f
35
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
36
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
37
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
In a wave windings, the number of parallel paths (2a) is always two.
N S N S
1 2
Brush
38
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
From the previous example, it is clear that:
a) There is only two parallel circuits whatever the number of poles is.
b) Two brushes arms can only be used for voltage collection ( A & B ). However,
extra brush arms are used to limit the current in each brush arm ( C, D, E & F ).
Therefore number of brush arms = number of poles as in the case of Lap windings.
c) Again brush location is decided relative to position of poles and best location is
such that brushes should be in contact with coil sides in the neutral zone.
D) Number of parallel circuits in this type of windings whatever the number of poles
is always equal to TWO.
i.e. For wave windings 2a = 2
39
Classifications of DC Machines
Field
Armature
Separately excited
Field Field
Armature Armature
A f f A fs
ff 1
1
s f
F1 D1 D2 F F2 D1 D2
1
F
2
A A2
2
ii-Long-shunt
i- Short-shunt
Cumulative Cumulative
f A
1 fs
ff A1 f
s f
F2 D1 D
F1 F2 D1 D2 F1
2
A2 A2
iv-Long-shunt
iii- Short-shunt
Differential Differential
41
Armature Voltage
Let
Z = total number of armature conductors
N = total number of turns in the armature winding =
Z/2 2p = number of poles
2 for wave winding
2a = number of parallel paths = 2 p for lap winding
f = flux per pole Weber
2 2p .2a
a
The total torque developed is Te Z.2 p.Ia KaIa Ea Ia
2p.2a wm
43
Example 1
Determine the induced voltage induced in
the armature of a dc machine running at
1750 rpm and having four poles. The flux
per pole is 25 mWb, and the armature is
lap-wound with 728 conductors.
44
Solution
Ea Kafwm
Nm 1750rpm
2p4
pZ fw
2 pa m
f 25mWb pZ fn
m
2a 2 p 60a
3
4 Z 728
728 25 10 1750
60
530.83V
45
Example 2
A lap-wound armature has 576 conductors
and carries an armature current of 123.5A.
If the flux per-pole is 20 mWb, calculate
the electromagnetic torque.
46
Solution
2a 2 p Te KafIa
2 p.Z
f p fI a
20mWb Z 2 .2a
3
576 20 10 123.5
576 2p
Ia 123.5A 226.43Nm
47
Magnetization Curve of a DC Machine
The magnetizing curve is obtained experimentally by rotating the dc-
machine at a given speed and measuring the open-circuit armature
terminal voltage as the current in the field winding is changed.
Ea K a w m
Saturation Ea
w >w
Field m1 m2
Linear
Ea w
m2
If
If N f I
Flux-mmf relation in fp
a dc machine Magnetization curve
The magnetization curve is of great importance because it represents the
saturation level in the magnetic system of the d.c. machine.
48
Chapter 2
DC Machines on Load
1. Armature reaction
2. L di/dt Voltages
3. Commutation in DC Machines
4. Methods Of Improving Commutation
49
Armature Reaction
50
Armature Reaction (cont.)
51
Armature Reaction (cont.)
52
Armature Reaction (cont.)
53
Armature Reaction (cont.)
54
Armature Reaction (cont.)
55
Armature Reaction (cont.)
56
Armature Reaction (cont.)
57
Armature Reaction (cont.)
58
Armature Reaction (cont.)
59
Armature Reaction (cont.)
60
Armature Reaction (cont.)
61
Armature Reaction (cont.)
62
Armature Reaction (cont.)
63
Armature Reaction (cont.)
64
L di/dt Voltages
65
L di/dt Voltages (cont.)
66
L di/dt Voltages (cont.)
67
Commutation in DC Machines
68
Commutation in DC Machines (cont.)
69
Methods Of Improving Commutation
70
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
71
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
72
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
73
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
74
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
75
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
76
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
77
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
78
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
79
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
80
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
81
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
82
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
83
Armature Reaction
It is the effect of armature ampere-turns upon the value and the distribution of the
magnetic flux in the air gap.
Fluxes oppose each other Fluxes added each other
N S N . . + S
. +
+
. +
. +
. . ++
If Fluxes added each other Fluxes oppose each other
At No-Load AT Load
Saturation B (resultant)
Near one tip of a pole, the net flux density
increases while it decreases near the other pole effect
B f+ B a B
tip, as a result the zero flux density shifts from f
the brush-axis. Ba
If the increased flux density causes magnetic
saturation, the flux per pole decreases. This
magnetizing effect of armature current
increases as the armature current increases. 84
Compensating Winding
The armature mmf distorts the flux density distribution and also produce
demagnetizing effect as a result the zero flux density shifts from the
brush-axis, and this causes poor commutation leading to sparking.
Much of the armature mmf can be neutralized by using a compensating
winding, which is fitted in slots cut on the main pole faces
MMF produced by compensating winding opposes the armature mmf.
The compensating winding is connected in series with the
armature winding so that its mmf is proportional to armature mmf.
Compensating
windings
Field
Armature
85
Commutation
The purpose of the commutator and brushes is to reverse the current in
the conductor when it goes from one pole to the next.
y x y Coil undergoing
x commutation
.. + S N S N
.. ++
N
+
. +
.. ++
+
Commutator
Brush
Brush
Reactance voltage: segments
commutation. vr = L(di/dt) t
87
Chapter 3
DC Generators
1. Basic Principles
2. Classification of DC Generators
3. Voltage Build Up
4. Generator Characteristics
5. Efficiency
88
Principle of Operation
Faraday’s law or e N e
flux cutting rule e=Blv
v v
S
B
89
Classification Of DC Generators
1- Separately Excited DC Generator
Ia IL V (Rfw Rfc )I f Rf I f
+
f
ra E Vt Ia ra
wm + VtRL
a
E
a EK
w
a a m
R
fw
V IL RL
t
R
fc I
If + Vf
a IL
90
External Characteristic Curve
It is a curve between terminal voltage and load current at
constant field current and constant rotor speed
V
t
E RaIa Terminal characteristic
a
100 with no armature reaction
80 DVAR
% rated voltage
60
Terminal characteristic
with armature reaction
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 I
t
% rated current
External characteristic of a separately excited dc generator
91
2- Self-Excited DC Generators
1- Shunt generator (Voltage build-up)
If Ia IL If
R Ia
fc
r
R
fw a
wm +
E
a
V f R f I f Vt
E V t I a ra
a
E a K a wm
V I L RL
t
E Field resistance line
IL a2 IfRf versus If
+ E E
a1
a
(emf due to E I
ar
Vt RL f
residual flux( 0 I I
f1 f2
Voltage build-up
92
Shunt generator (Cont.)
Critical field circuit resistance
R R R
Ea f3 f2 f1
V
t4
0
I
f
93
External Characteristic Curve
(without Armature Reaction effect)
The external characteristics of the self excited shunt generator
can be obtained from the magnetization curve and the field
resistance line, as illustrated in the following Figure.
94
2- Series Generator
I IL
a
+ V Ea Ia (ra Rs )
ra
t
+ Rs I Ia I f
L
Vt
K a sw m
RL
E
Ea a
Magnetization Curve Vt External Characteristic
Ea
Vt Slope =(Ra+Rs)
Ia(Ra+Rs)
I =I =I
a f L IL 95
3- Compound DC Generator
If I
I
f IL L
+ Ia +
Ia
Ra Ra
R
Rfc fc
Rs + Rs
+
V E V
t
Ea t a
R
fw
R
fw Long Shunt
Short Shunt
Vt Ea Ia Ra I L Rs Vt Ea Ia (Ra Rs )
I Ia I f E Ka (sh s ) wm I Ia I f
a
L L
I E a I a Ra I V
f R R
f
t
fw fc
Cumulative R R
Ea Ka (sh s )wm fw fc
Differential
External Characteristic Curve
Vt
Over compound
V
t(rated)
Flat compound
Under compound
Differential
(Useful as a welding generator)
Ia
I
a(rated)
F F FF I I Ns I F A
effsh s A f (eff ) fs
f Nf Nf
NI N f I f Ns I fs FA
f f (eff )
97
Graphical relationships for shunt generator without armature reaction
98
Graphical relationships for shunt generator with armature reaction
99
Graphical relationships for a series generator
100
Graphical relationships for a cumulative generator
101
Example: A 172-kW, 430-V, 400-A, 1800-rpm compounded dc generator
shown in figure. The magnetization curve is given at 1800-rpm. The
generator has compensating windings which eliminate armature reaction.
102
Solution
(a): RF + Radj = 75-Ω, From the (c): With armature reaction present in
magnetization curve the no-load voltage this case, the equivalent shunt field
is VT = 445-V. ampere is given by:
(b): If the load current IL = 400-A, then
IA ~ 400-A too, and I A(RA + RS) = 24-V.
And the effect of the series field mmf in The load triangle thus has a horizontal
terms of equivalent shunt field amperes length of 0.7-A and a vertical length of
is : 24-V. From figure, the output terminal
voltage will be: VT = 425-V
and the voltage regulation will be:
The load triangle thus has a horizontal
length of 1.2-A and a vertical length of
24-V. From figure, the output terminal
voltage will be: VT = 440-V
and the voltage regulation will be:
103
Solution
104
Example: If the generator in the previous example has compensating
windings and is connected differentially compounded, what will its
voltage be when it is supplying 200-A?
Solution
In this circumstances , the equivalent shunt current due to the series windings
and without armature reaction is:
105
Power Flow and Efficiency
DC Generators
If IL
R Ia Ra Rs +
fc
+ V
Ea t
R
fw
Poutput P
output
P =
input E a Ia Va Ia Va I L V P output = P P Losses
P = L input output
mech I
t P electrical
Vt I L
P
Vt I L I 2 R RotationalLosses
shaft Ia2 Ra I 2f R f I 2 R
Rotaional losses Vt I L
L s
E aI a RotationalLosses 106
Chapter 4
DC Motors
1. Basic Principles
2. Classification of DC Motors
3. Motor Characteristics
4. Efficiency
5. Speed Control
6. Starting
107
Principle of Operation
i N i
F F
F=Bli B
B S
108
D.C. Motor Characteristics
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Vt E a Ia ra w VIr
Ea K a wm m
Ka
ta a
T Ka Ia wm
Vt
Ka
V r r
Therefore , wm t a T Slope a
(Ka )2
Ka (K ) 2
a
T
109
Torque-Speed Characteristics
2- Series motors
Ea Vt I a (Ra Rs )
Ea Kaf wm
Neglecting saturation f K1 I f K1 Ia
Ea Ka K1 Iawm Ks Iawm
w Vt Ra Rs
m
K Ia Ks
s
But T Kaf I a Ka K1 I a2 K s I a2
w m V
t
R a Rs
Ks T Ks
110
Torque-Speed Characteristics
2- Compound motors
Cumulative Compound
AT AT AT
t shunt series
Differential Compound
f f f
t shunt series
V r Shunt motor
w t a T
m
K ft (K f )2
a a t
111
Example 3
A 250V shunt motor has an armature
resistance of 0.25W and a field resistance
of 125W. At no-load the motor takes a line
current of 5.0A while running at 1200
rpm. If the line current at full-load is
52.0A, what is the full-load speed?
112
Solution
If It
At no-load: Ia +
R R
It 5A fc R a
fw
1200 2 + V
n m 1200 rpm w m p 125 .66 rad / sec
t
wm
60
V 250
I t 2A , Ia _ NL It _ NL I f 5 2 3A
f R 125
f
Ea _ FL 237.5
wm _ FL 119.71
rad/sec Kaf 1.984
n wm 60 1142.4 rpm
m_
FL
2p
114
Power Flow and Efficiency
DC Motors
If IL
R Ia R
fc a
+
+ R
s
Ea
Vt
R
fw
Pinput = V I
L
VI L
V Ia EaIa P = P P Losses
output output input
P
electrical
t a a
P
mech
= P P
input input
P
shaft Vt I L I 2 R RotationalLosses
2
I
R I 2f R f 2
Ra Rotational Vt I L
L s Ia losses
Ea I a RotationalLosses Vt I L
115
Example 4
The field and armature resistance of a
220 V series motor are 0.2Ω and 0.1Ω,
respectively. The motor takes 30 A of
current while running at 700 rpm. If
the rotational losses are 350W,
determine the motor efficiency.
116
Solution
I
a
I
L
+
Ra
P V I
in t t 220 30 6600W R
P I 2 R f 302 0.2 180W +
s
f f Ea Vt
2 2
P I a R 30 0.1 90W
a a
Rotational losses 350W
Kf
m
a
119
SPEED CONTROL (Cont.)
3- Armature resistance control
In this method, the armature terminal
voltage Vt and the field current If are kept
constant at their rated values. The speed is
controlled by changing the resistance in the
armature circuit. Armature resistance
If Control: The field current control is used to obtain speed above the base speed. In this
mode, Vt remains constant and If is decreased to obtain higher speeds. The armature
current can be kept constant, thereby operating the motor in a constant horsepower
mode.
121
SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES
2- Solid-State Control
In Recent years, solid-state control have been used as a replacement of
rotating (M-G) set. Both armature control and field control can be achieved
using controlled rectifier or choppers.
Controlled Rectifiers
If the supply is ac, controlled rectifiers
can be used to convert it to a variable
voltage dc supply by changing the firing
angle a of the rectifier thyristors.
122
SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Chopper
A chopper converts a fixed-voltage dc
supply into a variable voltage dc supply.
The switch S can be a thyristor , a GTO or a
power transistor.
When the switching device S is on , Vt = V
(supply voltage) and motor current increases.
When S is off Vt = 0 and motor current decays
through the diode.
Vt ton V
The average Vt is
T
123
Starting
If a d.c. motor is directly connected
to a d.c. power supply, the starting
current will be dangerously high.
V
I a t Ea at starting w 0 Ea
0
ra Vt
I
a Starting
ra
Since ra is small, the starting current
is very large.
The starting current can be limited by
the following methods:
1- Use a variable-voltage supply.
2- Insert an external resistance at
start, as shown in the Figure.
124