THEORIES OF RELIGION

FUNCTIONALIST THEORY (Ref. p. 396-399)

The functionalist perspective studies religion in terms of its contribution to meeting the needs
of society (especially the needs for social solidarity and social order).

EMILE DURKHEIM

Definition: Durkheim argued that all societies divide the world in two categories: the ‘sacred’
(spiritual) and the ‘profane’ (everyday ordinary things). Religion is based upon this division. It
is a ‘unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say things set
apart and forbidden’.

 In order to understand the function of religion in society, Durkheim studied one of the
simplest and most basic forms of religion: Totemism. His study was carried out among
the Aborigines of Australia. Each clan had a totem, usually an animal or a plant. The
totem was seen as sacred, it was the symbol of the god. However, the totem was also
the symbol of the clan, helping to distinguish one clan from another. In brief, the totem
was the symbol of god and society. Durkheim suggested that in worshipping god,
people are in fact worshipping society.

 Durkheim further argued that the relationship between human beings and sacred things
is similar to the relationship between human beings and society. Sacred things are seen
as superior in dignity and power than profane things. In the same way, society is seen as
more important and powerful than the individual.

 One function of religion, according to Durkheim, is to reinforce the collective

conscience. Religion strengthens the values and moral beliefs of society by defining
them as sacred, thus giving them a greater power to direct human action.

 Durkheim also emphasizes the importance of collective worship in reinforcing social

solidarity. Members of society come together in religious rituals, creating a sense of
belonging to the same group or society, that is, social solidarity.
BRONISLAW MALINOWSKI

Malinowski studied Trobriand islanders off the coast of New Guinea. He argued that religion
promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional stress that threaten the
stability of society. Two categories of events producing tensions and anxiety are:

 Life crises such as birth, puberty, marriage and death: These life crises have the
potential to disrupt social order. Malinowski argued that in most societies, these life
crises are surrounded by religious rituals which minimize this potential for social
disruption. For example, the death of a loved one leaves family members helpless and
alone, unable to cope with life. The funeral and group mourning help people to adapt to
the new situation.

 Events which are unpredictable and which cannot be fully controlled by human beings:
Such events are also surrounded by religious rituals. For example, the Trobriand
islanders would perform religious rituals before going out to fish in the open sea
because it was dangerous and the religious ceremonies committed them to the
protection of their gods. Rituals reduce anxiety by providing confidence and a feeling of
control.

TALCOTT PARSONS

Parsons suggested that religion performs three major functions:

 Religion is an agency of socialisation and social control. Religion provides general

guidelines for conduct which are expressed in a variety of norms. Thus, religion helps to
provide the value consensus which Parsons believes is necessary for order and stability
in the society. Religion also provides guidelines for human action against which people’s
behaviour can be judged as moral or immoral. Religious beliefs therefore form the basis
of social control and punishment in most societies.

 Religion maintains social solidarity by relieving the tension and frustration that could
disrupt social order. It provides the means of adjusting to events such as death which
are out of control of humanity and it helps individuals to deal with situations of
uncertainty.

 Religion gives meaning to life by applying meaning to events which people think ought
not to happen such as sudden death, suffering or evil. For example, suffering tests a
 person’s faith, punishes them for their sins and gives dignity to those who struggle on in
the face of adversity. Parsons argues that one of the major functions of religion is to
‘make sense’ of all experiences, no matter how meaningless or contradictory they
appear.

CRITICISM OF THE FUNCTIONALIST APPROACH

 Functionalism ignores the instances where religion can be seen as a divisive and
disruptive force. When there is hostility between different religious groups within the
same society, religion becomes a direct threat to social order (e.g. Catholics and
Protestants in Ireland, Hindus and Muslims in India).

 Some sociologists argue that religion may not always lead to the development of the
collective conscience or of value consensus in a society – sometimes religious teaching
opposes the values of the wider society.

 Durkheim and Malinowski have both studied small groups of people, making their
sample unrepresentative. Critics argue that it is therefore misleading to generalise their
findings.

 Many sociologists do not support Durkheim’s view that religion is the worship of society.
MARXIST THEORY (Ref. p. 399-401)

Marx argued that religion was part of the superstructure of capitalist society and consequently
religion was an ideological apparatus which functioned to reproduce, maintain and legitimate
the class inequalities in income and wealth produced by the infrastructure. In other words,
religious ideas and practices exist to serve the interests of the rich and powerful (the ruling
capitalist class).

According to Marx, religion is:

 an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression

 a series of myths that justify and legitimate the subordination of the subject class and
the domination and privilege of the ruling class

 a distortion of reality which provides many of the deception that forms the basis of
ruling-class ideology and false class consciousness

 ‘the opium of the people’

Religion helps to reduce the pain of oppression in the following ways:

 It promises an end to suffering – promising a paradise of eternal bliss in life after death.

 It makes a virtue of suffering (offering a reward for suffering, making suffering bearable)
and it promises compensation for injustice in the afterlife.

 It offers the hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth.

 It justifies the social order and a person’s position within it (e.g. the caste system of
India justified social inequality – people saw their social position as God-given).

From a Marxist perspective, religion is a mechanism of social control. It helps to produce a

false class consciousness which blinds members of the subject class to their true situation and
their real interests. Religion produces passive people who, instead of trying to change the
world for the better, merely dream of spiritual alternatives. Religion is a conservative social
force as it inhibits real social change.

Marx believed that, as religion is an instrument of oppression, it would disappear when

oppression came to an end (religion would not be necessary in a communist society).
Evidence to support Marxism – p. 400

Limitations of Marxist theory – p. 401

FEMINIST THEORY (Ref. p. 401-405)

Feminist theories of religion follow Marxist theories in arguing that religion can be an
instrument of domination and oppression. Feminists see religion as a product of patriarchy,
serving the interests of men.

Evidence of patriarchal influence in religious belief systems are:

 Religious organisations are male-dominated despite the fact that women participate
more than men in religious practices (e.g. Catholicism forbids women to become
priests).

 Sacred texts largely discuss the doings of male gods or prophets (e.g. all the most
significant Old Testament prophets in the Bible are male while in the New Testament all
the apostles are men).

 Religious laws and customs may give women fewer rights than men (e.g. concerning
marriage or divorce, concerning dress codes).

 Religious influences on cultural norms may lead to unequal treatment, such as genital
mutilation or punishments for sexual transgression. Many religions legitimise and
regulate women’s traditional domestic and reproductive role (e.g. the Catholic Church
bans abortion and artificial contraception).

 Fundamentalist religions stress the importance of women playing a traditional

subordinate role to men.

 Simone de Beauvoir argues that religion is an instrument of deception, blinding women

to their subordination and the gender inequalities prevalent in society (in the same way
that it blinds members of society to class inequalities – through ideology). Women are
deceived by religion into thinking that they are equal to men. They are seen as closer to
God, even if they are unlikely to occupy positions of power within religions. Religion
gives women the false belief that they will be compensated for their suffering on earth
by equality in heaven.

 Religious texts are usually written and interpreted by men to subordinate or oppress
women.

The Muslim feminist, El Sadaawi, argues that religious belief systems, such as Islam or
Christianity, are not in themselves patriarchal or to blame for the oppression of women.
Rather, she argues that early societies were patriarchal and therefore men were able to
dominate the interpretation of the Scriptures and consequently this enabled men to
misinterpret religious belief systems to impose their power on women.

Some writers have noted that, historically, women have not always been subordinate within
most religions (e.g. archaeologists have uncovered numerous symbols of the Great Mother
goddess). There were very few early effigies of gods as men and, since there were goddesses,
there were also female priests. However, the history of invasions, and the acceptance and
popularity of monotheism, saw the decline of goddesses.

However, it should not be assumed that all religions are equally oppressive to women. There
have been some successful challenges to the patriarchal structure of organised religion.
Women are no longer the passive victims of religious oppression. Moreover, Helen Watson
argues that even apparently oppressive practices may be open to interpretations. For
example, Watson notes that the Western media has depicted the veil, burkha and hijab as
symbols of women’s oppression, as constraining and restricting forms of dress, and
consequently as a means of male social control over women. However, this is not the
viewpoint of many Muslim women and writers. They argue that religious modesty actually has
advantages for women which can enable them to cope with male power, especially the power
of men to reduce women to sexual objects.
Questions:

Nov 2011 – Paper 32

5 (a) (i) Define the term social solidarity. [3]
(ii) Identify and briefly describe two consequences of lack of social solidarity. [6]
(b) Evaluate the view that the role of religion is to maintain social cohesion. [16]

Nov. 2009 – Paper 32

5 (a) (i) Define the term ideology in relation to religion. [3]
(ii) Identify and briefly describe two global religious ideologies. [6]
(b) Evaluate the view that religion oppresses some groups. [16]

Nov. 2005 – Paper 3

5 (a) Describe the Functionalist perspective on the way in which religion helps maintain social
order. [9]

June 2012 – Paper 33

5 (a) (i) Define the term ritual in relation to religion. [3]
(ii) Identify and briefly describe two functions of religious rituals. [6]
(b) Evaluate Marxist theories of religion. [16]

June 2012 – Paper 31

5 (a) (i) Define the term ideology. [3]
(ii) Identify and briefly describe two ways in which religious beliefs may support patriarchal
ideas in society. [6]
(b) Evaluate the usefulness of feminist theories in understanding the role of religion in modern
industrial societies. [16]

June 2010 – paper 33

5 (a) (i) Define the term social control. [3]
(ii) Identify and briefly describe two ways in which religion acts as a means of social control.
[6]
(b) Evaluate the contribution of functionalist theories to our understanding of the role of
religion in society. [16]

June 2009 – Paper 3

6. (b) Evaluate the feminist view that religion primarily serves the interests of men. [16]
June 2005
5 (a) Describe Marxist views on the role that religion plays in society. [9]
(b) ‘The continuation of religious practices in societies is evidence that Marxist views on the
future of religion in society are inaccurate’. Assess this view. [16]