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Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand multidimensionality and time dependence of heat transfer,
and the conditions under which a heat transfer problem can be
approximated as being one-dimensional,
• Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various
coordinate systems, and simplify it for steady one-dimensional case,
• Identify the thermal conditions on surfaces, and express them
mathematically as boundary and initial conditions,
• Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain the
temperature distributions within a medium and the heat flux,
• Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that involve heat
generation, and
• Evaluate heat conduction in solids with temperature-dependent
thermal conductivity.
2.1. Introduction
• Although heat transfer and temperature are
closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate
direction with plus or minus signs.
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the
temperature difference.
dT
Qcond = − kA (W) (2-1)
dx
dT
Qn = − kA (W) (2-2)
dn
• In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction
vector can be expressed in terms of its components as
G G G G
Q n = Q x i + Q y j + Q z k (2-3)
• Examples:
– electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate
of I2R,
– fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
– exothermic chemical reactions.
∆Eelement
Q x −Q x +∆x + E gen,element =
∆t
(2-6)
∆Eelement
Qx − Qx+∆x + Egen,element = (2-6)
∆t
∆E
Qr −Qr +∆r + Egen,element = element
∆t
(2-18)
∆Eelement
Qr − Qr +∆r + Egen,element = (2-18)
∆t
• The change in the energy content and the rate of heat
generation can be expressed as
⎪ Eelement = Et +∆t − Et = mc (Tt +∆t − Tt ) = ρcA∆r (Tt +∆t − Tt ) (2-19)
⎧∆
⎨
⎪⎩Egen,element = egenVelement = egen A∆r (2-20)
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜r k +
⎟ gen
e = ρ c (2-30)
Variable conductivity: r ∂r ⎝
2
∂r ⎠ ∂t
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ egen 1 ∂T
Constant conductivity: ⎜r ⎟+ = (2-31)
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r
2
⎠ k α ∂t
One-dimensional steady-state
heat conduction equation:
d 2T
=0
dx 2
2.3 General Heat Conduction Equation
∆Eelement
Q x + Q y + Q z
−Qx +∆x − Qy +∆y − Qz +∆z + Egen ,element = (2-36)
∆t
Repeating the mathematical approach used for the one-
dimensional heat conduction the three-dimensional heat
conduction equation is determined to be
Two-dimensional
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T egen 1 ∂T
Constant conductivity: + 2 + 2 + = (2-39)
∂x 2
∂y ∂z k α ∂t
Three-dimensional
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T egen
+ 2 + 2 + = 0 (2-40)
1) Steady-state: ∂x 2
∂y ∂z k
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂T
2) Transient, no heat generation: ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2 = α ∂t (2-41)
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2 + 2 + 2 = 0 (2-42)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Cylindrical Coordinates
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜ rk ⎟+ 2 ⎜ k ⎟ + ∂z ⎜ k ∂z ⎟ + egen = ρ c (2-43)
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r ∂φ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ∂t
Spherical Coordinates
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜ kr ⎟ + ⎜ k ⎟ + ⎜ k sin θ +
⎟ gen
e = ρ c
r 2 ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ r 2 sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ ∂t
(2-44)
2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions
T(0, t) = T1
(2-46)
T(L, t) = T2
∂T (0, t ) ∂T (0, t )
k =0 or =0
∂x ∂x
∂T ( L / 2, t )
(2-49) = 0 (2-50)
∂x
(iii) Convection Boundary Condition
Heat conduction Heat convection
at the surface in a = at the surface in
selected direction the same direction
∂T (0, t )
−k = h1 [T∞1 − T (0, t ) ] (2-51a)
∂x
and
∂T ( L, t )
−k = h2 [T ( L, t ) − T∞ 2 ] (2-51b)
∂x
(iv) Radiation Boundary Condition
Heat conduction at the Radiation exchange at
surface in a selected = the surface in
direction the same direction
∂T (0, t )
−k = ε1σ ⎣Tsurr ,1 − T (0, t ) ⎤⎦
⎡ 4 4
(2-52a)
∂x
and
∂T ( L, t )
−k = ε 2σ ⎡⎣T ( L, t ) 4 − Tsurr
4
⎤
,2 ⎦
(2-52b)
∂x
(v) Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) the same temperature at the area of contact,
(2) the heat flux on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.
and
∂TA ( x0 , t ) ∂TB ( x0 , t )
−k A = −kB (2-54)
∂x ∂x
(vi) Generalized Boundary Conditions
OK !
不成立 !
相依
2.6 Heat Generation (熱生成) in Solids
核能、電阻加熱
與化學反應熱於
過程中之轉換能
量,在分析時均
被當作生成熱。
The quantities of major interest in a medium
with heat generation are
(i) the surface temperature Ts
(ii) the maximum temperature Tmax
that occurs in the medium in steady operation.
Heat Generation in Solids
- (i) The Surface Temperature
Rate of Rate of
heat transfer = energy generation (2-63)
from the solid within the solid
For uniform heat generation within the medium
Q = egenV (W) (2-64)
The heat transfer rate by convection can also be
expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as
- Q = hAs (Ts − T∞ ) (W) (2-65)
egenV
Ts = T∞ + (2-66)
hAs
(a) For a large plane wall of thickness 2L (As=2Awall
and V=2LAwall)
egen L
Ts , plane wall = T∞ + (2-67)
h
(b) For a long solid cylinder of radius r0 (As=2πr0L
and V=πr02L)
egen r0
Ts ,cylinder = T∞ + (2-68)
2h
egen r0
Ts , sphere = T∞ + (2-69)
3h
Heat Generation in Solids – (ii)The maximum
Temperature in a Cylinder (the Centerline)
2k
rdr
kave =
∫
T1
k (T )dT
(2-75)
T2 − T1
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material
with can often be approximated as a linear function
and expressed as
k (T ) = k0 (1 + β T ) (2-79)