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Chapter
Summary

4.1 Understanding Thermal Equilibrium

1. When two objects are in thermal contact, heat is transferred between the objects. Heat
energy is transferred at a faster rate from the hotter object to the colder object.

2. Thermal Equilibrium is a state where

(i) the net rate of heat transfer between the two objects is zero.
(ii) the two objects have the same temperature.

3. Comparison between temperature and heat :

temperature heat
Is a base quantity. Is a derived quantity.
Measure of degree of hotness Is a form of energy
SI unit is Kelvin (K) SI unit is joule (J)

4. Instrument used to measure temperature is a thermometer.

5. Every thermometer uses a specific thermometric property of a substance to measure

temperature.

6. Table below shows four types of thermometer and their thermometric property.

Thermometer Thermometric property

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
Gas thermometer
Resistance thermometer
Thermocouple thermometer
volume of the liquid
Gas pressure
Electrical resistance of a platinum wire
Electromotive force between the two
copper-constantan junctions

7. Liquid-in-glass thermometer usually uses mercury and coloured alcohol .

8. Mercury thermometer is widely used in tropical countries because

 It is opaque liquid, hence can be sassily seen.
 Does not wet the glass wall
 Expands uniformly when heated
 Can measure a wide range of temperature, from -39 oC to 357 oC.
 Does not vaporize
 Conduct heat well, responds faster to temperature change

The disadvantage is that mercury is very poisonous and it freezes at -39 oC making it
not suitable to be used in countries with cold winter.

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9. To calibrate a liquid-in -glass thermometer, two fixed points, namely the ice point and
the steam point must be marked. The range between them is then divided equally into
division or degrees.

10. If divisions are not marked on the thermometer, the temperature of a substance  can be
determined by using
  o
temperature,    x 100o C
100  o

11. Sensitivity of the liquid-in-glass thermometer can be increased by using

 Capillary tube with finer bore
 A smaller glass bulb
 Glass bulb with a thinner wall

4.2 Understanding Specific Heat Capacity

1. When heat is absorbed by an object, the average kinetic energy of the molecules will
increase. As a result, its temperature increases.

2. When heat is released by an object, the average kinetic energy of the molecules will
decrease. As a result , the object is cooled.

3. The heat capacity of an object is defined as the amount of heat that must be supplied
to the object to increase its temperature by 1oC or 1 K. The unit of heat capacity is J
o -1
C or J K-1.

4. The specific heat capacity of an object is defined as the amount of heat that must be
supplied to a mass of 1 kg of the object to increase its temperature by 1oC or 1 K.
The unit of heat capacity is J kg -1 oC-1 or J kg-1 K-1.

Q
5. Specific heat capacity , c 
m

6. Quantity of heat absorbed or lost from a body is given by Q = mc

7. Substance with high specific heat capacity has to absorb more heat to become hot and
released more heat to be cooled down.

8. Good heat conductor is easy to be heated up and easy to become cold. It has a low
specific heat capacity.

9. Poor heat conductor is difficult to be heated up and difficult to become cold. It has a
high specific heat capacity.

10. Natural phenomenon due to the difference in specific heat capacity of land and sea :
 During daytime, wind blows from the sea towards the land (sea breeze)
 During the night, wind blows from the land towards the sea (land breeze)

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11. Application of specific heat capacity
(i) Cooking pot
 The body is made of aluminium because aluminium has a low specific heat
capacity. It is a good heat conductor so it can absorb heat and become hot
quickly.
 Aluminium has a low density so that the pot will be light.
 The base is made of copper because copper has a smaller specific heat capacity
than aluminium. The base heats up more quickly than the body.
 Copper has a high density so that the base is heavy and the pot is stable.
 The handle is made of poor heat conductor. It has a larger specific capacity and
will not become too hot even if heat is absorbed.

(ii) cooling system of a car engine

 A water pump circulates the water.
 Heat from the combustion in the cylinder is transferred to the water.
 The hot water flows to the radiator where air is drawn in by the radiator fan.
 The water lost its heat to the cooler air that flows through the cooling fins..
 Water is used as the cooling agent because it has a large specific heat capacity.
Hence it can absorb big quantity of heat without being heated up. Besides ,
water is readily available at a low cost

4.3 Understanding Specific Latent Heat

1. All matters can exist in three phases : solid , liquid and gaseous

2. Table below shows changes of phases.

changes of phases Name of the process Heat transfer Constant

temperature
Solid - liquid melting absorbed Melting point
Liquid- gaseous boiling absorbed Boiling point
Liquid - solid Solidification/freezing released Freezing point
Gaseous - liquid condensation released Boiling point

3. When heat is absorbed by a substance , either one of the process below may occur.

(i) Heat absorbed is used to increase kinetic energy of the molecule causing a rise in
temperature. Amount of heat absorbed is the heat capacity.

(ii) The substance is at its melting point or boiling point. Heat absorbed is thus used to
loosen the bonds or breaking bonds between molecules causing a change of phase.

Amount of heat absorbed is the latent heat.

4. The heat absorbed or the heat released at constant temperature during a change of phase
is known as latent heat. This transfer of heat does not cause a change in the kinetic
energy of the molecules.

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5. The specific latent heat of a substance, l is the amount of heat required to change the
phase of 1 kg of the substance at a constant temperature. The SI unit for specific latent
heat is J kg-1.

Q
6. The specific latent heat , l 
m

7. The latent heat absorbed or released during change of phase is given by Q = ml

8. The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to change 1 kg of the substance from solid to liquid phase without a change in
temperature.

9. The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to change 1 kg of the substance from liquid to gaseous phase without a change
in temperature.

10. A liquid does not need to boil to change into gas. Liquid can change into gas at a
temperature below its boiling point by the process evaporation.

11. When liquid evaporates, the molecules absorbed latent heat of vaporisation from the
liquid itself and from the surrounding. As a results , it produces a cooling effect.

12. Comparison between evaporation and boiling.

Evaporation Boiling
Heat is absorbed Heat is absorbed
Changes from liquid to gaseous phase. Changes from liquid to gaseous phase
A slow process A rapid process
Occurs only at the surface of a liquid Occurs throughout the whole volume of
the liquid.
Occurs continuously at temperature below Occurs only at boiling point.
boiling point.
No significant sign during evaporation Bubbles of vapour are seen during boiling
The rate of evaporation is affected by The boiling point is affected by
 Exposed surface area of liquid  Presence of impurities
 Temperature  Atmospheric pressure
 Air movement  Types of liquid
 Humidity of air
 Types of liquid

13. Application of cooling effect of evaporation

 Refrigerator
 Air conditioner

14. Application of boiling

 Pressure cooker increases the pressure inside the pot so that boiling point is
increased. Cooking is done at a faster rate.

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 Fractional distillation separates components in the petroleum mixture by making use
of their different boiling points.
4.4 Understanding the Gas Laws

1. The kinetic theory of gases is based on the following assumptions

 Molecules of gas are always moving in random motion. They possess kinetic
energy.
 Molecules of gas always collides with each other and with the walls of the
container . These are elastic collisions.
 The attractive forces between the molecules are negligible.

2. For a gas in an enclosed container,

(a) the number of molecules is constant
(b) the mass of the gas is constant
(c) the behaviour of the gas depends on the volume, temperature and pressure
of the gas.

3. Tables below shows the explanation of the property of a gas.

Property of gas Explanation based on the kinetic theory of gases

Volume  The molecules moves freely in random motion.
 Molecules fill up the whole spaces in the container.
 The volume of the gas is equal to the volume of the container.

Temperature  Molecules are in continuous random motion and have kinetic energy.
 The kinetic energy is proportional to the temperature.

Pressure  The molecules are in continuous random motion and collides with the
wall of the container in elastic collision.
 When the molecules bounces back, there is a change in momentum.
 A force is exerted on the wall.
 The forces per unit area is the pressure of the gas.

4. Boyle’s Law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is inversely
proportional to its volume when the temperature is kept constant.

5. Charles’ Law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the volume of the gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature when the pressure is kept constant.

6. Pressure Law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature when the volume is kept constant.

7. Summary of the Gas Laws

Relationship Boyle’s Law Charles’ Law Pressure Law
Variables Pressure and Volume and Pressure and
Volume absolute absolute
temperature temperature
Relationship 1 V T PT
P
V V1 V2 P1 P2
 
P1V1 = P2V2 T1 T2 T1 T2
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Constant Temperature and Pressure and mass Volume and mass
mass of gas of gas of gas

Chapter summary / chap. 4/ Heat