Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Double replacement—acid/base: f 4 7 14
Remove the proton from the acid and give it to the base. Aufbau Principle: Fill shells from lowest energy to highest.
Decomposition: Hund’s Rule: electrons are placed in each equal-energy
1. Break the reactant into more than one product. orbital before doubling up to produce the lowest energy atom.
2. Carbonate compounds form CO2 as a product. Pauli Exclusion Principle: Two electrons occupying the
Ammonium salts form NH3 as a product. same orbital must be opposite spins (angular momentum).
Composition:
1. Metals and metal oxides added to water make bases. Use the periodic table as a guide (read left to right):
2. Nonmetals and nonmetal oxides added water make 1s
acids. 2s 2p
Complex Ion Formation: 3s 3p
1. Know the common complex ions on the AP exam: 4s 3d 4p
Ag(CN)2-1, Fe(SCN)+2, Cu(NH4)3+2, Zn(NH4)3+2,
5s 4d 5p
Ag(NH3)2+1, Ni(NH3)6+2, Al(OH)4-1, Zn(OH)4-2
6s 4f 5d 6p
Combustion:
7s 5f 6d 7p
1. When hydrocarbons are added to O2, they always
produce CO2 and H2O.
3 types of electron configuration notation:
Redox:
1. All single replacement reactions are redox reactions. Boxes & Arrows: O (8 electrons): 1s ↑↓ 2s ↑↓ 2p ↑↓ ↑ ↑
2. Other common oxidizers are NO3-1, MnO4-1, Cr2O7-2, and Spectroscopic: Br (35 electrons):
H2O2. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
Noble Gas: Br (35 electrons): [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
Amorphous solid particles are “trapped” in place before Elementary Step: Chemical equation showing reactants in
they can arrange themselves into a repeating pattern. one collision and the products formed.
Three types of crystalline solids: Reaction Mechanism: Series of elementary steps that add
• Atomic solids up to the overall reaction.
Metallic solids—closest packing of metal atoms.
Network solids—one giant molecule. Each atom is • k = rate law constant. Is different for each reaction at
covalently bonded to surrounding atoms. each temperature.
• Molecular solids—strong covalent bonds within the • [A] = concentration of reactant
molecular, weaker physical attractions between them. • [A]0 = initial concentration of reactant
• Ionic solids—electrostatic attraction between ions. Ions • t = time
are stacked to minimize like-charge repulsions. Rate Laws:
Order Differential Law Integrated Law
Changes in state involve breaking or forming IMF’s 0 Rate = k [A] = -kt + [A]0
Boiling/Condensation Point: Vapor pressure of liquid = 1 Rate = k[A] ln [A] = -kt + ln [A]0
atmospheric pressure. Liquid and gas at equilibrium 2 Rate = k[A]2 1 / [A] = kt + 1 / [A]0
Melting/Freezing Point: Vapor pressure of solid = Vapor Half life (t½): Time for ½ of the original reactants to
pressure of liquid. Solid and liquid at equilibrium disappear. Use integrated rate law and use [A] = ½ [A]0
Melting: ΔH = m × H fus
Calculating EA
Evaporating: ΔH = m × H vap A = Arrhenius constant (fraction of collisions with correct
orientation); EA = Activation energy (unit of J/mole);
18: Solutions R = 8.31 J/K×mole; T = temperature (in Kelvin. °C + 273=K)
EA
Solution: Homogeneous mixture; −
Solute: Substance being dissolved; k = Ae RT
Solvent: Substance doing the dissolving
Factors affecting Solubility:
20: Equilibrium
• Pressure: Gases: as Pressure increases, solubility Reversible Reaction: Reaction that goes in both directions.
increases. Equilibrium: When the rate of the forward and reverse of a
• Temperature: Gases: higher temperature is lower reversible process are equal.
solubility. Most solids: higher temperature is higher Dynamic equilibrium: The number of reactants and
solubility. products do not change, but the reaction continues to occur in
Concentration Measurements: both directions.
% by mass: % mass = mass solute × 100 Writing equilibrium constant expressions
mass solution • Concentration of products over concentration of reactants.
Molarity (M): Molarity = moles solute • Do not include pure solids or pure liquids.
L solution • Use the coefficients of the balanced equations as powers.
Molality (m): Molality = moles solute Reaction Quotient (Q): When concentrations at any time
kg solvent are plugged into the equilibrium constant expression.
• If Q = K, it’s at equilibrium.
Dilution equation: M 1V1 = M 2V2 • If Q > K, reaction proceeds towards reactants.
• If Q < K, reaction proceeds towards products.
Electrolyte: compounds dissociate into ions when dissolved
in water. Allows the solution to conduct electricity. Solubility Product (Ksp): Equilibrium constant for a
dissolution reaction. Written just as any K is.
Colligative Property: Property of a solution that depends
on the concentration of the solute particles. ICE charts a technique for organizing information in an
• Van’t Hoff i-factor (i): Factor describing how many equilibrium problem
particles is actually in the solution compared to how many • Make a table with the reactants and products across top
molecules were added. • Place “ICE” down the left hand side, for Initial, Change
• Vapor Pressure of a solution is always lower than the and Equilibrium.
pure solvent. • Fill in any given information from the problem.
• Use the balanced equation’s stoichiometric ratio to
• Raoult’s Law: PA = χ A PAD
determine the “change” row.
Boiling point of a solution is always higher ΔTb = iK b m • Use “equilibrium” values to plug in to the K expression.
Freezing point of a solution is always lower than the pure Le Chatelier’s Principle: A system at equilibrium will re-
solvent. ΔT f = iK f m adjust to reach equilibrium again when disturbed.
⎛ [base] ⎞ where
pH = pKa + log⎜⎜
pKa = − log[ K a ]
⎟⎟ RT
⎝ [acid ] ⎠
24: Descriptive & Organic Chemistry
22: Thermodynamics • Descriptive Chemistry: Knowledge of descriptive facts
Thermodynamics: Study of heat changes. about chemistry.
Energy: The ability to do work or supply heat. • Colorimetry: Study of colored compounds and the
Heat (q): Flow of energy from a hot toward a cooler object. relationship between light absorbed and concentration.
Enthalpy (H): Takes into account internal energy, pressure • Organic chemistry: Study of carbon-containing
and volume. Same as heat for open-air situations compounds.
Work w = − P ΔV • Hydrocarbon: Compound with hydrogen and carbon atoms.
w = work (in J); P = pressure (in atm); ΔV = V2 – V1 (in L) • Functional Group: Group of atoms on an organic molecule
Specific Heat Capacity (Cp): Amount of energy that 1 that affect the properties of that molecule.
gram can absorb before increasing in temperature. • Isomers: Molecules with the same chemical formula but
Cp for water: 4.18 J or 1.00 cal different structure.
Colored soluble Colored insoluble
ΔH = m × C p × ΔT m = mass; ΔT = T2 – T1 compounds compounds
Calorimetry: ΔHsystem = ΔHsurroundings Soluble copper salts are AgCl is white
T2 of both system and surroundings are the same blue/green
Enthalpy of formation (Hf): Energy change when a Fe salts are red/brown Chromate precipitates are
compound is formed from its elements. orange
ΔHrxn = ∑ H f prod − ∑ H f react Cobalt salts are blue Dichromate precipitates are
yellow
Entropy (S): Disorder or random-ness Complex ions are often Hydroxide precipitates are
Free Energy (G): Takes into account enthalpy, entropy and colored white
temperature to determine spontaneity The most common, simple functional groups:
ΔG = ΔH − TΔS • Haloalkane: Halogen replacing a hydrogen on the
- ΔG = spontaneous at that temperature hydrocarbon.
+ ΔG = spontaneous in the opposite direction at that temp • Alcohol: “-OH” replacing a hydrogen on the hydrocarbon
ΔG = 0 at equilibrium • Carboxylic acid: “-COOH” replacing a hydrogen on a
hydrocarbon.
ΔG D = − RT ln K and ΔG = ΔG D + RT ln Q Carbons are counted in the longest chain, starting from the
ΔG° = free energy change at standard state (1 atm and carbon closest to the functional group.
25°C) Prefixes are used to denote number of carbons:
R = 8.31 J/mole×K; T = temperature (in Kelvin); K = 1 = meth-
equilibrium constant; Q = Reaction Quotient 2 = eth-
3 = prop-
4 = but-
5 = pent-
6 = hex-
7 = hept-
8 = oct-
9 = non-
10 = dec-