ACTIVE PHASE SELECTOR

ABSTRACT

Phase absence is a very common and severe problem in any industry, home or office.
Many times one or two phases may not be live in three phase supply. Because of this, many
times, some electrical appliances will be on in one room and OFF in another room. This creates a
big disturbance to our routine work. This project is designed to check the availability of any live
phase, and the load will be connected to the particular live phase only. Even a single phase is
available, and then also, the load will be in ON condition. Power failure is a common problem. It
hampers the production of industry, construction work of new plants and buildings. It can be
overcome by using a backup power supply such as a generator. But it is cost effective and also
time consuming as certain time is required to switch on the generator manually. It is often
noticed that power interruption in distribution system is about 70% for single phase faults while
other two phases are in normal condition.

Thus, in any commercial or domestic power supply system where 3 phases is available,
an automatic phase selector system is required for uninterrupted power to critical loads in the
event of power failure in any phase. There is no requirement of backup power supply in that
case. Also there is no time consumption as the phase is changed automatically within a few
seconds. The main aim of this paper is to present the real idea of an automatic phase switch for
220V to 240V alternating current. Although, there are many designs that can perform almost
similar functions like, single phase change-over switches, two phase automatic transfer switch
and three phase automatic change-over switch, but this model is about an automatic phase
switchover (phase selector) which is designed for only three phase A.C input power to single
phase output applications.
INRODUCTION

Power instability in developing countries creates a need for automation of electrical

power generation or alternative sources of power to back up the utility supply. This automation is
required as the rate of power outage becomes predominantly high. Most industrial and
commercial processes are dependent on power supply and if the processes of change-over are
manual, serious time is not only wasted but also creates device or machine damage from human
error during the change-over connections, which could bring massive losses. A manual change-
over switch consists of a manual change-over switch box, switch gear box and cut-out fuse or the
connector fuse as described by Rocks and Mazur (1993). This change-over switch box separate
the source between the generator and public supply, when there is power supply outage from
public supply, someone has to go and change the line to generator. Thus when power supply is
restored, someone has to put OFF the generator and then change the source line from generator
to public supply. In view of the above manual change-over switch system that involves
manpower by using ones energy in starting the generator and switching over from public supply
to generator and vice-versa when the supply is restored.

The importance attached to cases of operation in hospitals and air ports in order to save
life from generator as fast as possible makes it important for the design and construction of an
automatic change-over switch which would solve the problem of manpower and the danger
likely to be encountered changeover. The electronic control monitors the incoming public supply
voltage and detects when the voltage drops below a level that electrical or electronic gadgets can
function depending on the utility.
PROBLEM STATEMENT

Continuity of power supply is very important factor in our day to day life. Interruption in
the power supply even for few seconds can lead to huge loss in the industries and also in various
other sectors where there is need of three phase supply like schools, colleges, offices etc. This
problem can be overcome by using a circuit which automatically shifts the phase to another
phase whenever there is failure in any one of the three phases.

AIM

The main aim of the project is to implement a Single Phase Load Selector from Three Phase
Supply with Automatic Active Phase Detector.

PURPOSE

The purpose of the project is to provide the supply for the single phase load from the one of
the active phase of the 3-phase supply.

HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

 Transformers
 Power supply
 3- Single phase supply
 Relay driver
 Relay load
 Switches

SOFTWARE TOOLS:

 Keil u-Vision
 Embedded ‘C’
 Express PCB

LITERATURE SURVEY
 In three-phase applications, if low voltage is available in any one or two phases, and you
want your equipment to work on normal voltage, this circuit will solve your problem[1].

The automatic phase changer was made from electronic components which includes;
operational amplifiers, diodes, resistors, capacitors, Zener diodes, transformers, relays and fuses.
Results obtained during the test shows that, whenever the system senses a higher voltage across
the three inputs and then engages the load [2].

There are many designs and prototype systems that can perform almost similar functions
like, single phase change-over switches, two phase automatic transfer switch and three phase
automatic change-over switch, but this prototype is about an automatic phase switchover (phase
selector) which is designed for only three phase A.C input power to single phase output
applications[3].

The system is high complexity in “Automatic Voltage Regulator “ using ac voltage –

voltage convertor developed by Steven .M Hietpas [4]. As statistical analysis were complicated
to achieve in single detection Automatic Phase Shift Method for finding Detection of Grid
Connected Photo Voltaic inverter [5].

The system is basically designed to select between the three phases at reasonable speed,
and also address phase imbalances with respect to loads. In other words, the switching
consideration demonstrates the real and practical situation for mainly domestic, moderate
industrial advanced needs [3].

BLOCK DIAGRAM
BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The above block diagram represents the architecture of the proposed system including all
the major blocks used in this system. In this system we have used relay circuit for controlling the
circuit of the system. There are three transformers which are used to provide supply, which are
given to signal conditioning block as shown in figure above. The output of the transformers are
given to the single phase load connected in this system. A relay driver circuitry as shown in the
fig is mainly the electrically operated switch. The main purpose behind using such a relay
circuitry is the complete electrical isolation between input and output, and to control the low
power signal. The output of this system is in the form of an electric bulb which glows for the
correct output voltage.

Power Supply Unit serves as input unit to the system because AC mains enter the circuit
through this point. In this unit, power is converted from A.C to D.C and filtered. This unit also
provides a regulated supply voltage to the circuit components. The operation of the power supply
unit occurs in three stages; the transformer stage, rectifier stage and filter stage.
 In this system we have used three transformers for the continuous power supply to the
load as shown in the above architecture of the system. Here we also used three relays for the
switching the available phase to provide the supply to the load. The whole switching of the
supply depends upon the relay circuit. Relays are used as a switching device which helps the
load to switch automatically on another phase when there is phase failure. Here we have used
three relays; one relay for each phase. These relays have three terminals NC (Normally close),
NO (Normally open), and common terminal.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 1 2 3 4 5 6

D D

1N4007 1N4007
0-12VOLT/1AMP

230V AC
1N4007

1N4007
1000uF/35V
R Y B N
1N4007
SW DIP-3
1 S 6
2 5 RLY1
3 4 V+ NC
COM L1
K NO
1N4007 1N4007 V-
C 0-12VOLT/1AMP C
RLY2 LAMP
230V AC

1N4007 V+ NC
COM
K NO
1N4007 V-
1000uF/35V
RLY3
1N4007 V+ NC
COM
K NO
V-

1N4007 1N4007
0-12VOLT/1AMP
230V AC

1N4007

1N4007
1000uF/35V
B B
1N4007

A A

Title

Size Number Revision

B
Date: 16-Mar-2018 Sheet of
File: C:\Users\Lenovo\Downloads\Circuit 2018 (24).Ddb
Drawn By:
1 2 3 4 5 6

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The above diagram represents the complete implementation of the circuit diagram of the
phase selector system. In this system we have used three transformers connected in this system
as shown in the above circuit diagram. These transformers are used to provide power supply to
the load connected to the system. Each transformer represents a phase used for the supply. Here
we have used 3 relays for each phase to be fed to the single phase load connected in this system.
These relays are operated to provide available phase to the load by triggering the respective
transistor in the system.

The output of each transformer is connected to one of the relay through switches as
shown in the above circuit diagram of the system. These switches connected in this system are
used to trigger the relay of which the phase supply is available for the load connected in the
system. Here we have used three switches to trigger individual corresponding relay. The common
terminal of each relay is taken out and represents the phase. The common terminal of first relay
represents the R phase, the common terminal of the second relay represents the Y phase whereas
the third common terminal represents the B phase of the supply. The normally open terminal of
each relay is connected to the load for the power supply as per the availability as shown in the
circuit diagram of the system. In this system we have used a Lamp as a single phase load to the
supply system for the demo purpose.

WORKING
 The project is designed to provide uninterrupted AC mains supply i.e., 230 volt to a
single phase load. This is achieved by automatic changeover of the load from the missing phase
to the next available phase in a 3 phase system.

It is often noticed that power interruption in distribution system is about 70% for single
phase faults while other two phases are in normal condition. Thus, in any commercial or
domestic power supply system where 3 phase is available, it is advisable to have an automatic
changeover system for uninterrupted power to critical loads in the event of missing phase.

In this system auto selection is achieved by using a set of relays interconnected in such a
way that if one of the relay feeding to the load remains energized always. Under the phase failure
condition the corresponding step down transformer secondary delivers zero voltage which is duly
rectified to DC and then fed to the next relay that delivers the power to the load.

When a phase failure is occurred in the 3 phase power supply for any single phase load
connected in the system, an active phase selector system is designed as mentioned above. In this
system when R phase is not available then the load will be shifted to the next available say Y
phase through phase shifter relay for that particular phase. If the Y phase also not available for
the power supply then load will be fed from the B phase in the system. If all the three phases are
available for the power supply for the load connected in the system, the load will be fed from R
phase as we have made priority to this phase for the power supply.

HARDWARE COMPONENT DESCRIPTION:

RELAYS

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a

switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a Magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current
can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover)
switch contacts as shown in the diagram. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit
which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can
use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a
relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for
relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and
a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the
relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices
can supply relay coils directly without amplification. Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they
can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover
contacts are readily available. The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way
round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can
destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode
across the relay coil. The figure shows a relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a
lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the
switch contacts.
Working :
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contacts either makes or
breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts
was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is
provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters.
 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.
The basis for relays, is the simple electromagnet
A nail, some wire, and a battery is all that is needed to make one, to demonstrate and amaze add
a switch, and presto! You're the talk of the town.

With no power applied to the coil, the nail is NOT magnetized

Connect this to a power source, and it will now grab and hold small pieces of metal.
So, here in lies the concept. If we take an electromagnet, it will interact with metals in its
vicinity. Now let’s take this one step further... If we were to place a piece of metal, near the
electromagnet, and connect some contacts, so that when the electromagnet is energized, the
contacts close, we have a working relay.

The simplest relay, is the Single Pole, Single Throw (spst) relay. It is nothing more than an
electrically controlled on-off switch. Its biggest property is the ability to use a very small current,
to control a much larger current. This is desirable because we can now use smaller diameter
wires, to control the current flow through a much larger wire, and also to limit the wear and tear
on the control switch.
Above is a simple relay control. Now, here is what is happening.....

The control circuit (GREEN) powers the coil inside the relay, using a small amount of current. It
flows from the battery, thru the fuse ( for protection) to a switch, (say, a light switch) then to the
coil in the relay, energizing it.
The coil, now energized becomes an electromagnet, and attracts the metal strip with the contacts,
which closes, providing a secondary heavy current path ( RED ) to the device ( say, the fog
lights)

Turning off the switch, opens the circuit to the coil, removes current flow, and the electromagnet
is no longer a magnet, the secondary path is opened, and the lights extinguish.
TRANSISTOR:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals
and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in 1947 by
American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the transistor
revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and
cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of
IEEE milestones in electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in
Physics for their achievement.

The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics. Many
consider it to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. Its importance in today's
society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor
device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs. The invention of the first
transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known
as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated
circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with diodes,
resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits.
A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as
of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs). "About 60 million transistors were
built in 2002 ... for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth."

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling
appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and
write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical
control function.

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This
property is called gain. It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, that is
proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the
transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch,
where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.

There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at
the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much
larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the
terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current
between source and drain.

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow
between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Because internally
the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops
between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on
the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE
 DESIGN ASPECTS OF POWER SUPPLY

Power supply is the first and the most important part of our project. For our project we
require +5V regulated power supply with maximum current rating 1A.

Following basic building blocks are required to generate regulated power supply.

TRANSFORMER:
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. Step-
up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies
use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio
of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil
which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal
the outgoing power:

Giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in
one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is
attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an
impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary
circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.
Absolute Maximum Ratings:-

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

CALCULATIONS FOR POWER SUPPLY DESIGNING:

Specifications of 7805 vtg regulator:

Polarity = +ve

Output vtg : +5v

Output current :1.5A

Output of bridge rectifier for rectification :

Output: 12Vdc = vrms

Vm=vrms x sq. rt of 2

= 12x sq.rt of 2

= 16.97

Vm= PIV =16.97

Value of Filter capacitor :

C= (IxT)/V

T=1/2πf

= 1/2 x3.14×50 hz

Output current of 7805 =1.5 A

C=(1.5 x 3.1847 x10-3 )/5

= 955.41×10-6
=1000 µf
RECTIFIER:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum
tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to
the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave
rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full
wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes (1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct,
in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward
bias only.
FILTER:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this
filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies
for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply.
This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can
be relatively high.below figure can show how the capacitor chages and discharges.
 COMPONENT DISCRIPTION:
Resistor:

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are formed
and the part is inserted into the board. In automated assembly the leads are cut and formed.

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as

a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust
signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Resistors can have fixed
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable
resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented withinintegrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors
are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the
relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
 The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage

Resistor color-coding:-

One decade of the E12 series (there are twelve preferred values per decade of values) shown with
their electronic color codes on resistors

A 100 kΩ, 5% axial-lead resistor

A 0 Ω resistor, marked with a single black band

A 2260 ohm, 1% precision resistor with 5 color bands (E96 series), from top 2-2-6-1-1; the last
two brown bands indicate the multiplier (x10), and the 1% tolerance. The larger gap before the
tolerance band is somewhat difficult to distinguish.

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

 band A is the first significant figure of component value (left side)

 band B is the second significant figure (some precision resistors have a third significant
figure, and thus five bands).

 band C is the decimal multiplier

 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow
in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that
the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.

Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component
failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details.

Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, or an
additional band indicating temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K.

All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are
optional.

The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows:

Temp.
Significant
Color Multiplier Tolerance Coefficient
figures
(ppm/K)

Black 0 ×100 – 250 U

Brown 1 ×101 ±1% F 100 S

Red 2 ×102 ±2% G 50 R

Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P

Yellow 4 ×104 (±5%) – 25 Q

Green 5 ×105 ±0.5% D 20 Z

Blue 6 ×106 ±0.25% C 10 Z

 Violet 7 ×107 ±0.1% B 5 M

Gray 8 ×108 ±0.05% (±10%) A 1 K

White 9 ×109 – –

Gold – ×10-1 ±5% J –

Silver – ×10-2 ±10% K –

None – – ±20% M –

Resistors use preferred numbers for their specific values, which are determined by
their tolerance. These values repeat for every decade of magnitude: 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. In
the E24 series the values are related by the 24th root of 10, while E12 series are related by the
12th root of 10, and E6 series by the 6th root of 10. The tolerance of device values is arranged so
that every value corresponds to a preferred number, within the required tolerance.

Zero ohm resistors are made as lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-shaped body which can be
substituted for another resistor value in automatic insertion equipment. They are marked with a
single black band.

The 'body-end-dot' or 'body-tip-spot' system was used for radial-lead (and other cylindrical)
composition resistors sometimes still found in very old equipment; the first band was given by
the body color, the second band by the color of the end of the resistor, and the multiplier by a dot
or band around the middle of the resistor. The other end of the resistor was colored gold or silver
to give the tolerance, otherwise it was 20%.

CAPACITOR:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energyelectrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or
conductive electrolyte, etc. The "nonconducting" dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge
capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer
etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to
collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor.
However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement
current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance is
expressed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when the
conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown
voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[10] The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric
field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, [11] and the
dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[12]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[10]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for
a given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large
capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a basic pn-

junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

On October 7, 2014, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi
Amano and Shuji Nakamura for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has
enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources" or, less formally, LED lamps.
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials.

The following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and
material:

Voltage
Color Wavelength [nm] Semiconductor material
drop [ΔV]

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.63
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
1.63 < ΔV <
Red 610 < λ < 760 Aluminium gallium indium
2.03
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.03 < ΔV < Aluminium gallium indium
Orange 590 < λ < 610
2.10 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.10 < ΔV < Aluminium gallium indium
Yellow 570 < λ < 590
2.18 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9[72] < ΔV < Traditional green:
4.0 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
 Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

2.48 < ΔV < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 450 < λ < 500
3.7 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development

2.76 < ΔV <

Violet 400 < λ < 450 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
4.0

Dual blue/red LEDs,

2.48 < ΔV <
Purple Multiple types blue with red phosphor,
3.7
or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)[73]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[74][75]
Ultraviole Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[76]
λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4
t Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
—down to 210 nm[77]

Blue with one or two phosphor layers:

yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added
Pink Multiple types ΔV ~ 3.3[78] afterwards,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye
over top.[79]
White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

COMPONENT COSTING:

COMPONENT SPECIFICATION COST/ITEM

TRANSFORMER 12-0-12V 2A 200/-

RESISTOR 2.2K,10K,470K,100E 1/-

CAPACITOR 1000uF, 100uF, 33pF 5/-

DIODE IN4007 2/-

LED 3mm 5/-

SWITCH PUSH TO ON 10/-

CRYSTAL 4MHz 12/-

TRANSISTOR BC547 5/-

RELAY 12V SPDT 30/-

LAMP 50/-
 PCB DESIGNING:

For a certain number of projects, including first-prototype, surface mount 'breadboarding',

layout experimentation, rapid multiple-revisions, and 1-hour deadlines doing your own PCB
etching can be quick, clean, and very very inexpensive. The method set up in the Media Lab
basement is somewhat-similar to that of large pcb manufacture shops, except in scale and
automation. There is no system for through-hole plating, automated drilling/routing or multilayer
design. However, you can make precisely aligned doublesided boards with simple registration
techniques.

When To Use

A tool is only good towards the application it was designed for. Using the etcher for something
other than what its good for will frustrate you and waste time.

When using the spray etcher is a good idea:

 You need the boards quickly

 The substrate is 1/16" with 1oz or 2oz copper either FR4 or paper
phenolic (preferred)

 The design is single sided

 There are many surface mount parts

 The design is double sided, with no hidden vias (vias underneath surface
mount parts) or through-hole part vias (vias that also serve as through-
hole component holes) that you cannot solder on both sides

 You can visually scan for shorts

 The design follows a 12/12 mil rule (this is probably not true, I'm sure
10/10 or even 8/8 is fine, but yield will drop) That is, 12mil minimum
trace width, and 12mil minimum trace distance.
  You only need a few boards, or are willing to live with a yield as low as
50%

 Drill hole locations can be imprecise (up to 10 mils off!)

Conversely, when using the spray etcher is a bad idea:

 You dislike wet chemistry/cleaning

 Are using exotic substrates

 There are many vias, or throughhole parts, and you dont want to drill
holes/solder vias.

 You want the boards to be perfect without checking for shorts or opens

 You need printed overlays, multiple layers, through hole plating or solder
masks.

 You want many parts. Remember that for $200 you can just about get as
many boards as your heart desires, and from a reputable PCB
manufacturer.

Getting the Layout Ready

In this step you will prepare your layout for etching. For this step you will need: a quality laser
printer, a sheet of transluscent paper.

The photoresist method we use in PCB etching is a positive process, which means that when UV
light hits the resist, it softens, and then is washed away. What remains is a positive of the PCB
design. What this boils down to is that you will want a positive printout of your PCB design
(black where there will be copper). Preferably mirrored. Most all PCB design tools let you print
out your layout mirrored. Or you can mirror your entire design in the software. Whichever. Also,
if possible, have it print white holes where you will drill, these will be your drill guides. Because
the drill holes will not be precise, make your annular rings (the copper around a drill hole) larger
than normal. Since you will lose as many as half of the design to exposure/development/etching
flaws, tile 2-3 times layouts as many as you want.

In Eagle: After your design is ready, go to the CAM Processor, and open the "layout2.cam" job.
As output select PS. Change the extention to ".ps" as well. Be sure that Mirror is selected but
that Fill Pads is not. Then open the ps with any free postscript viewer and print it. (Also you
could print it to "Gerber274x" and use a gerber viewer, or any other format you can print.)

After you have verified the above, print your design to a high quality (600dpi at least) laser
printer, in monochrome mode, onto a white piece of paper. Double check that it is as you want it,
in the correct orientation, enough tiling, mirrored, dark ink, slightly smaller than the PCB you
have, etc. Now print it onto translucent paper, there is a box of it in the cabinet underneath the
etcher, in a thin cardboard sleeve.

etcher, in a thin cardboard sleeve.

This photo has notes. Move your mouse over the photo to see them.
Left, plain paper test. Right, translucent paper. Both are mirrored.

In this picture, I have two layouts I want to etch. I tiled one three times and one twice. The one I
tiled three times has a very fine pitch IC (TSSOP-16) so it is less likely to come out. On the left
is opaque laser print. On the right, translucent paper. Note that the design (noticably the text) is
mirrored.

Exposing the Board

This step transfers your layout design to a positive-resist PCB by exposing UV light to the
sensitized PCB with the printout as a mask. For this step you will need: a presensitized positive
photoresist copper clad board, scissors, tape, a UV bulb and thin plate glass or exposure unit.
This step takes 5-10 minutes.

First cut out the layout leaving a few millimeters of space on the edges. If you are going to
perform the exposing and etching in the same session, go ahead and turn the etching machine on
now, since it takes 10 minutes to warm up.
Cut the translucent paper, leaving at least a few mm boarder

Next, locate an unused PCB. There is a bag of them in the cabinet underneath the etcher. You
may need to cut a larger board down using a metal shear. Using a larger PCB than necessary is
wasteful, and exhausts the chemicals faster than a board that is well-fit. You can also purchase
your own stash of PCB material in many different substrates, thicknesses, etc. and, of course,
that is encouraged. (See "Where to Purchase Supplies, at bottom")

The best PCBs are those that have a plastic sticky sheet protecting them (some are just sold in a
plastic bag) so that they can be handled, drilled and sheared without excess UV exposure. The
plastic is easy to peel off:

The underlying substrate should be a greenish colour

Place your design on top of the exposed resist, ink-side down, so that it appears not-mirrored
when you look through the paper at the board. Placing the ink closest to the resist means less
light can leak around and cut into thin traces. Next, tape down the design on two edges, so that
the tape does not overlap any of the layout, but holds the paper flat.
Use any plain tape to tape down two opposite sides without overlapping the layout

now take it to be exposed under a UV lamp. As an arbitrary measure, a 15W Sylvania "350
Blacklight" UV 24" flourescent bulb, 3" above a FOTOBOARD2-brand board, with a 1/8" clear
glass plate (to keep the paper totally flat) over the board, 10 minutes will give good exposure.
[When a more permanent fixture is found, it will be calibrated.]

After it has been exposed, peel off one piece of tape and flip it open, to look at the photoresist.
Well exposed photoresist is a paler green, and you will be able to see the layout in the original,
yellower green, faintly. If you don't see anything, retape that side, and try a few more minutes
under the lamp.
The unexposed part is faintly visible, on the right side.

Once you think you're done exposing, lift off the design and put it away in case you want to
make another set of boards. You are ready to perform the chemical processing. If you need to do
this part later, or you have other boards to expose, place this board in an opaque container (like
in an envelope, face down, in a drawer or some such.)

Developing the Board

In this step, the exposed photoresist is removed chemically using developer, leaving a positive of
your layout in photoresist on copper. For this step you will need: gloves, apron, sink, dev tray,
developer, small soft sponge. This step takes 3 minutes.

Take the board over to your processing area. Put on the apron and a pair of 'rubber gloves'. These
wet chemicals can splash, some stain, and they are not good to drink. Find the dev tray and the
bottle of developer, (both marked DEV) and make sure the tray is clean. There is one set of large
trays (for > 5x7") and one small set, use the ones that fits best. Place the board face up in the tray
and pour developer in until there is about 1/4" (or enough to cover) in the tray.
Carefully pour into a tray. The developer is green from use, it starts out clear

Almost immediately the board will start to 'leak' resist as it is attacked by developer. Agitate the
board with your hand, and swirl the developer around to make sure there is a flow around the
board. It should be developed in 1/2 to 1 minute. If you leave it in too long, some of the finer
traces wont come out. Leaving it in too little means that there will be a very thin, invisible, layer
of resist left that will stop the etching process and force you to repeat this step. Use a soft sponge
to wipe the photoresist away.
Before rinsing, rub down the board with a soft cloth or sponge soaked in developer

Rinse the board in cold water to clean off the developer (stop bath), the parts that are to be etched
should look like completely clean copper, no residue. If you feel a slimy/slippery coating, or see
a bluish coating, you need to develop more. If none of the resist came off, you'll need to realign
your paper and re-expose the board. Pour the developer back into the bottle, and rinse off the
tray. The board is now ready to etch.

A well developed board has solid green traces and a clean copper background

First Rinse

In this step, the board is spray rinsed to prepare it for etching. This step takes 2 minutes.

First check to see that the machine is on. If not, turn the machine on.
The Rota-Spray machine, the wash tank is on the left, the etching tank on the right.
The on button is in the top left corner.

Once on, the left LED display should display "oC" and then something like "23" which means
the etchant is at 23degC. Now load the board into the board holding apparatus, placing it near the
center, and securing the plastic nuts. Make sure the board won’t fall out and into the tank.
The board holder can hold many small boards, but make sure they cant fall out

Slide the board holder, with the copper facing right, into the wash tank. Attach the water hose
(black, with white plastic spring-end) to the sink faucent, and turn on the cold water.
The connector is a little difficult to use, requiring that you simultaneously push down on the ring
while pressing the brass fitting into the faucet head. Two handed might be easier at first.

Turn on the wash spray to clean off the board. You can move the holder up and down to make
sure the board is sprayed off.

Make sure the water drains cleanly into the sink. This is the older setup, in the current lab there
should be a PVC drainage pipe into the large sink so there shouldnt be any drain problems

Etching the Board

In this step, the board is placed in an etcher, which is a machine that washes warm ferric chloride
(or another etchant) over the board, eating away any exposed copper. For this step you will need
to make sure the etchant is warm enough to use. This step takes 2minutes.

Move the holder into the etching tank, again facing to the right. Check that the temperature
monitor reports 42-45 degrees C, and that the fluid well feels warm. also make sure the top is
secured so that there is very little chance FeCl will spray out the top. By default the timer is set
for 1:30 minutes, which I've found satisfactory. You can also change the time if necessary (for
different weights of copper). Turn on the spray pump by pressing start. The entire tank will turn
reddish brown as the etchant removes the copper from your board. After the time is up, remove
the holder and quickly put it in the wash tank again. Be careful as there will be a lot of FeCl
dripping off the holder and you dont want it going anywhere but in the machine or the sink.

The board is very messy at this point, so do the move quickly and carefuly

Second Rinse

Turn on the wash spray again, moving the holder around so that the entire board and holder are
completely cleaned off. After the water runs clean, remove the board and examine it. There may
be parts that didn't etch, or overetched. Depending on your patience and yield, you may decide to
re-etch a subset of your boards.
There are some traces of unetched copper on the right. Since I only needed one PCB, I just threw
it away.

Examine all the boards carefully to determine which ones have shorts/opens/missing traces/etc,
and which ones are good for use. Shut off the water faucet, run the spray to clean out the hose,
turn off the machine and disconnect the hose from the faucet.

Strip

In this step, the remaining photoresist is stripped away, leaving only copper. For this step you
will need chemical stripper and/or a scrub pad. This step takes 2 minutes.

Place the board face up in the STRIP tray, and coat it with resist stripper. This may be in a bottle
or in a 'shoepolish' dispenser. Rub in the chemical first with the soft sponge, then with with a
plastic scrub pad. The green resist should come off, revealing copper underneath. Make sure -all-
of the resist is removed, as it smells very bad when it gets hot (when soldering.) If there is no
stripper, you can just scrub it off with a green scrub pad. If the stripper came from a bottle, pour
it back in. Rinse off the board and tray.
You can easily remove the resist with just a green scouring pad

Tinning

This step is optional but is very helpful for soldering to your board. For this step you will need:
tinning liquid mix. This step takes 2-10 minutes.

Find the bottle of tinning liquid, and the TIN tray. Place the board in the tray copper up, and pour
in enough tinning liquid to cover the board, the copper should immediately turn a silvery color. If
you intend to reflow solder, you may want to leave it for 15 minutes, otherwise, 3-5 is probably
fine. Use this time to clean up the area around the etcher, rinse off surfaces and clean and dry any
trays. When the board is done, remove and rinse it. Pour the tinning liquid back into the bottle
and clean the tray. Throw away the gloves, and put the apron back. Make sure the area looks
better than it did when you got there.
The exposed copper will turn silver almost immediately, tin will aid soldering and stop oxidation

Drilling

In this step, any holes or vias in the PCB are drilled out. For this step you will need: a drill press
that can run at 2000+ RPM, high-speed carbide wire-gauge drill bits. This step takes 3-10
minutes, depending on number of holes in pcb.

If your PCB is FR4 laminate, you may want to find a dust mask for this step, since fiberglass
dust is carcinogenic. Chances are, you're using paper phenolic which is much safer. There is a
box of HSS carbide drill bits in a box underneath the etcher, they are packaged in plastic boxes
of 10. Find the boxes of closest size to your board holes. In general, .020"/75ga is good for RF
vias, .028"/70ga is good for signal vias, .035"/65ga is good for DIP/LEDs/Resistors/Capacitors,
etc., .042"/58ga is good for TO-220/heavier diodes/etc., .060"/53ga for heavier wires and power
components, and .086"/44ga for mounting holes or anything else. Other drill sizes are available
for purchase, of course.
Left, these are inexpensive resharpened drill bits $7.50 a box. Right, 70 gauge is as small as
you'll need

Place the first drill bit in the chuck, and tighten it well. Find a piece of wood to place underneath
the board for support. While the drill is running, adjust the speed to 2000RPM or higher.
The drill press in the media lab shop is more than sufficient, adjust it only while running

Drill all holes of one size at a time. Try to position the drill bit right in the center of the hole, or
at least, try not to drill through any copper traces. The drill bits might break, especially if they
sub-35mil. Holding the board steady while drilling through it helps. The bits only cost 75 cents
so just throw them away when broken, but if you break more than 5, you should purchase a
replacement set.
You can drill a hole a second if you dont clamp down the board, but breakage is more likely

After all the drilling, replace the bits in their boxes, and put the box back underneath the etcher.

Shearing

In this step, the tiled layouts are seperated. For this step you will need a metal shear (this step
could also be done with a band saw.) This step takes 2 minutes.

Shear or cut the good boards out, leaving a few mm on each edge. The edges may be filed or
sanded.
A metal shear, such as the one outside the shop, is good for this. Go slowly and use the middle.
ADVANTAGE

 Highly sensitive
 Works according to the phase availability
 Fit and Forget system
 Low cost and reliable circuit
 Can handle heavy loads

APPLICATIONS:

 Used in Industrial applications

 Used in corporate offices
 Used in shopping malls
 Used in Agricultural fields

CONCLUSION

This project will improve on the overall efficiency of our power systems resident in
needed areas as the downtime experienced as a result of power instability will be reduced. As a
result of this, there will be a positive impact on the social economic development of our
immediate environment. From the cost analysis, it can be seen that it is economically viable and
affordable when compared to its functions.

FUTURE SCOPE

Further the project can be enhanced by incorporating power semiconductor devices such
as thyristors/IGBTs for instantaneous changeover to the next available phase. This overcomes the
drawback of the changeover time generally witnessed by relay switching operations. It also has a
provision of connecting to an inverter source which delivers uninterrupted power to the load
incase all the 3 phases go missing. Also we can use microcontroller for the automation of the
system for phase selection.

REFERENCES
[1] F. U. Nweke and R. C. Iwu, “Design and Construction of Automatic Three Phase Power
System Selector” IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) e-ISSN: 2278-4861.Volume 7,
Issue 6 Ver. I (Nov. - Dec. 2015), PP 11-14

[2] Oduobuk, E. J. Ettah, E. B. Ekpenyong, E. E., “Design and Implementation of Automatic

Three Phase Changer Using LM324 Quad Integrated Circuit” International Journal of
Engineering and Technology Research Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2014, pp. 1 – 15.

[3] Muhammad Ajmal P. (2007), Automatic Phase Changer. Retrieved: 11/02/2014.

[4] Oduobuk E. J.& Ekpenyong, E. E. “Design and Implementation of Automatic Three Phase
Changer Using LM324 Quad Integrated Circuit” International Journal of Engineering and
Technology Research Vol. 2, No. 4, April 2014.

[5] Steven M. Hietpas, Mark Naden,”Automatic “Voltage regulator using an AC Voltage-Voltage

Converter” IEEE Transaction on Industrial Application, Vol 36,no 1, January-February 2000.

[6] Gua-Kiang Hung, Chih- chang Chang, “Automatic Phase Shift Method for Islanding
Detection of Grid – Connected Photovoltaic Inverters” IEEE Transaction On Energy conversion,
Vol.18.No.1, March 2003.