Thermal Power Station

1. Introduction
Fossil fuel fired power plants using coal, oil and natural gases as ‘the fuels provide around 70% of
electrical energy at present’, in most of the industrialized countries. In this type of power plants, steam is
almost universal choice on account of its simplicity and ready availability.
The design of thermal power station requires wide experience because the subsequent operation and
maintenance are greatly affected by its design. The most efficient design consists of properly sized
components designed to operate safely and conveniently along with its auxiliaries and controls. A
satisfactory design involves the following steps:
a) Selection of site
b) Capacity of power station
c) Selection of units
d) Selection of boilers and its auxiliaries
e) Selection of turbine
f) Selection of condenser
g) Design of cooling system
h) Design of control and instrumentation
i) Selection of generators
2. Schematic Arrangement of Thermal Power Plants
2.1 Main Parts and Working of Power Plant
The main parts of a conventional steam power station are:
i) Boiler or steam generator
ii) Steam turbine
iii) Electric generator
iv) Condenser
The fuel is burnt in a furnace and heat produced is used in the boiler to convert water into steam at the
required pressure and temperature. The steam is supplied to the turbine where its expansion produces
mechanical power at the turbine shaft. This power is used to drive the generator which in turn produces
electrical power.
A boiler is a mechanical device for producing steam at the required temperature and pressure. Boilers are
generally of following two types:
a) Water tube boiler
b) Fire tube boiler
Mostly water tube boilers are used in the thermal power stations. The boiler consists of a number of drums
and sets of tubes connecting these drums in which water provided by a feed water system is converted into
steam. Steam pressure from 17 kg/cm2 to 125 kg/cm2 (gauge) and temperature from 315o C to 575o C are
attainable. The heat transfer takes place through the wall of the tubes and the drums are protected from
direct contact with the hot flue gases. The steam is superheated in a superheater before passing from the
boiler to the prime mover.
The fuel in the form of solid (coal), liquid (oil) or gases are burnt in a furnace and the flue gases are
allowed to pass through the boiler tubes where the heat transfer takes place. The solid fuel which is
generally used is bituminous coal, having volatile matter form 8 to 33% and ash from 5 to 16%. In order to
increase the efficiency of the boiler, coal is burnt in powdered form (finer than face powder) in a pulverized
coal furnace. This allows complete combustion of coal.

1
The liquid fuels which can be used are fuel oil, crude oil, petrol and paraffin oil. Out of these only fuel oil
is used for firing the boilers. The other types of liquid fuels are of better quality and are used in internal
combustion engines. Firing of boilers by natural gases are on diminishing scale in most of the countries
because natural gases are used for industrial and domestic heating rather than electric power generation. In
Pakistan to save foreign currency which is required for the import of oil, natural gas is also being used for
electric power generation. The schematic diagram of a thermal power plant is shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 1: Schematic Diagram of Thermal Power Plant

In the boiler house the fuel is burnt and the water is converted into steam having high temperature and
pressure. The steam is further super-heated in a super-heater. The super-heated steam is passed to the
turbine to rotate the turbine blades. The pressure of the steam decreases and volume increases as it passes
through the different stages of turbine blades. After imparting the energy to the turbine blades, the steam
passes out of the turbine into the condenser. A high vacuum is maintained (about 73.6 cms of Hg) in the
condenser in order to increase the efficiency of the Rankine Cycle used.
In the condenser cold water from the river or sea is circulated which condenses the low pressure wet steam.
The condensed water is again supplied to the low pressure water heaters where low pressure steam
extracted from the steam turbine increases the temperature of the feed water. It is further heated in high
pressure heaters where the high pressure steam is used for heating. This method of taking out steam from
different stages of turbine is called steam extraction (or bleeding of the turbine) and this increases the
2
overall efficiency of the boiler. The cold water used for cooling the steam in condenser becomes too hot (if
closed loop system is used) as it comes out of the condenser and hence it is cooled by cooling towers. If
open loop condensing system is used, then cooling towers will not be required, and heat is dumped into the
river or sea.
The steam turbine acts as a prime mover for the alternator (generator) and generates electrical energy. The
generator is connected to the bus-bar through step-up transformer and a circuit breaker for transmission
purposes.
3. Location of Power Station
The location of a power station plays an important role in the economy of the station. The most ideal and
economical power station is that which is situated at the centre of gravity of the loads because for such a
station the length of transmission lines and cable will be low. Thus the capital cost is low. The same is true
for the location of main distribution and sub-distribution boards in the distribution network. The centre of
gravity of the loads can be determined as follows:
Let X and Y be two reference lines (equivalent to X- and Y-axes). Let Q1(x1,y1), Q2(x2,y2), Q3(x3,y3),
Q4(x4,y4) and Q5(x5,y5) be the main loads in KVA having coordinates with reference to X- and Y-lines as
stated.

Y
x2
Q2 (x2, y2) Q3 (x3, y3)

y2

x Q (x, y)

Q4 (x4, y4)

x5 Q5 (x5, y5) y

y5

0
X
Fig. 2: Determination of load centres
Let x, y be the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the loads. The value of x is found by taking the
moments of the loads about OY axis i.e.
x(Q1+Q2+Q3+Q4+Q5) = x1Q1+x2Q2+x3Q3+x4Q4+x5Q5
𝑥1 𝑄1 +𝑥 2 𝑄2 + 𝑥3 𝑄3 + 𝑥4 𝑄4 + 𝑥5 𝑄5
x=
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 + 𝑄5
Similarly, taking moment of the loads about OX-axis,

3
 𝑦1 𝑄1 + 𝑦2 𝑄2 + 𝑦3 𝑄3 + 𝑦4 𝑄4 + 𝑦5 𝑄5
y=
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 +𝑄5
No doubt location of the station at the centre of gravity of the loads is the best, but sometimes it may not be
practically feasible since the centre of the load may come out to be at the heart of the city, for example in
Sadar (Impress Market) which is the most busy commercial centre where firstly land will not be available
and if managed it will be very costly and secondly, the power station will act as a nuisance to public.
In practice, the following points should be considered in order to decide the location of the power station:
1) The cost of land should be quite reasonable. The cost of land will be high in the city area and low
in the rural areas.
2) The land should be such that the acquisition of private property should be minimal.
3) Large quantity of cooling water should be available nearby. So the site near a canal, river or sea is
most suitable.
4) The fuel to be used in the power station should be cheap and available nearby or ample facilities
for its transportation to the site.
5) The site should be level and excavations for minerals etc. should be present in the vicinity.
6) The soil should be such as to provide good and firm foundation to the building and plant.
7) The land should not be rocky so as to require blasting etc.
8) The land should not require pile foundation.
9) The site should not be surrounded by residential buildings so as to avoid nuisance of smoke,
noise, steam, water vapours etc. for the inhabitants.
10) There should be ample scope of development of industries.
11) Ample accommodation for the staff should be available at reasonable rates.
12) The future extension of the power station should be possible.
13) Facilities for the disposal of ash etc. should be available.
14) The chimney should not obstruct the flying of Aeroplanes if the power station is near an airport.
15) The canal and river water used should not harm fisheries, waterworks etc.
16) The capacity of power station should be limited from the point of view of security in case of war.
17) The site should be such as to serve the interests of national defense.
4. Capacity of Power Station
The installed capacity of the power station should be determines by:
1) The present demand of power by the industry and the other utilizing organization.
2) Future demand for next 10 to 15 years. The future demand can approximately be obtained by
projecting the increase in the load demand in the past 10 years or so.
3) Possibility of interconnection of the power station to the existing system or national grid.
4) Availability of water supply. The quantity of water available plays definitely a limiting part in the
capacity of power station.
5. Properties of Steam
5.1 Saturation Temperature: For any given pressure, the temperature at which water boils to form
steam is called saturation temperature at that pressure e.g. 100oC at normal atmospheric pressure and 310
o
C at 1450 lbs/inch2. Saturation temperature corresponding to a particular pressure can be obtained from the
steam table.
5.2 Saturated Steam: Saturated steam is in contact with water from which it is raised and thus contains
particles of moisture in suspension – such steam appears whitish.
5.3 Dry Saturated Steam: Dry saturated steam at its saturation temperature contains no moisture in
suspension, and such steam is invisible.

4
5.4 Superheated Steam: Superheated steam is the steam whose temperature is raised above its saturation
temperature. The degree of super heat is the difference between the actual temperature and its saturation
temperature.
5.5 Sensible Heat of Steam: It is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from its
freezing point to boiling point. At atmospheric pressure, this is from 0o C to 100o C.
5.6 Enthalpy of Phase Change (Latent Heat):It is the amount of heat required to change the boiling
water into steam without change in temperature.
5.7 Total Heat or Enthalpy: It is the total energy contained in unit mass of steam at given temperature
and pressure i.e. sum of sensible heat, latent heat and any heat added for superheating.
5.8 Entropy: Entropy like enthalpy is a mathematical function of the observable properties of a
substance, and therefore changes in entropy are not evident to human senses. Mathematically, entropy
changes between two states 1 and 2 is defined as:
2 𝑑𝑄
1S2 =
𝑇
∫1
where Q → denotes heat
T → is the absolute temperature
S → entropy
Entropy is a useful property of steam such that its product with absolute temperature is proportional to the
added energy. Area under the temperature versus entropy diagram, thus gives work done.
5.9 Critical pressure: At the critical pressure of 3206.2 lbs/in2 and the corresponding temperature of
647.3oK (374.1o C) the density of water and steam becomes equal, the latent heat becomes zero and water
passes into steam without boiling.
6. Steam Cycles
The purpose of the boiler is to generate steam at a pressure and temperature appropriate to efficient and
economic use in steam turbine. The temperature is limited to about 850o K (580o C) by the properties of the
constructional material economically available. Pressure up-to 5000 lbs/in2 may be used, although values
just below the critical pressure is more common.
The basic ideal thermodynamic water vapour cycle is the Rankine Cycle.
6.1 Rankine Cycle
The basic operation in the Rankine Cycle are:
i) Pumping the water into the boiler at a high pressure.
ii) Evaporation of water into steam at high temperature.
iii) Expansion of steam in steam turbine.
iv) Condensation of steam into water which is then pumped backed to the boiler.
The components and system to perform the above basic operations are shown in Fig. 3(a) and 3(b)
where QA→ heat added
QR → heat rejected
WP → work done by the pump
WT → work output from the turbine
The advantage of Rankine Cycle is that it employs a two phase (liquid and vapor) working fluid.

5
 Fig 3(a): Rankine cycle component and system Fig. 3(b): Temp. - Entropy diag. of Rankine cycle
The function of the different processes involved are as follows:
Process (1) to (2)
─ Feed water heating to increase the sensible heat of water and increases the pressure through feed pump.
─ It is a reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression that takes place in the pump
Process (2) to (3)
─ Increase in the sensible heat and raising steam including superheating, if any.
─ It is a reversible isobaric heat addition process that occurs in the boiler.
Process (3) to (4)
─ Expansion of the steam in the turbine for doing useful work.
─ It is a reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion in the turbine.
Process (4) to (1)
─ Condensation of steam in the condenser.
─ It is a reversible isobaric (constant pressure) heat rejection process that takes place in the condenser.
The shaded area(area within points 1 to 4 of the curve) is actually the work done or output. From the
temperature entropy diagram, it is obvious that the output and hence the efficiency can be increased by
increasing the shaded area through superheating of steam as well as by creating vacuum in the condenser.
Thus the theoretical efficiency of Rankine Cycle can be increased.
When the basic Rankine cycle is operating at an upper pressure of 1000 lbs/in2 and lower pressure of 0.5
lb/in2 (or 29 inches of H2O – this is equivalent to 73.6 cm of Hg as vacuum) or 2.4 cm of Hg as pressure in
the condenser, the Carnot efficiency of 46.5 % is obtained. But the actual efficiency is about 0.75 of the
Carnot efficiency i.e. ≈ 34 %, on account of the various losses in the boiler, turbine, condenser, and
associated plants.
Increasing the pressure raises the theoretical Rankine efficiency by raising the saturation temperature,
thereby enabling heat to be added at higher temperature. If the upper pressure is raised to 2000 lbs/in2, then
the theoretical efficiency of 50 % may be obtained.
6.2 Superheat Cycle
If saturated steam is allowed to expand through the turbine, condensation takes place leading to wetness of
the steam as it approaches the low pressure end.
To limit the moisture content less than 10 %, the steam is invariably superheated to well above saturation
temperature (Fig. 4). Because the moisture content causes mechanical losses and erosion of turbine blades.
Moreover, due to superheating a slight improvement in the thermal efficiency also results.

6
 Fig. 4 Fig. 5: Feed heating cycle
6.3 Feed Heating Cycle
A further increase in efficiency can be achieved by bleeding upto 10 % of the steam from one or more
stages (upto eight) of turbine and using it to heat the feed water entering the boiler (Fig. 5).
In this way the heat in the bled steam is fully utilized instead of being partially wasted in the cooling water
in the condenser.
6.4 Reheat Cycle
In order to avoid wetness of the steam, even with super heating, the steam may be reheated to its initial
temperature at one or two points during its passage through the turbines (Fig. 6). This also increases the
average temperature at which the heat is added and hence increases the theoretical efficiency.

Fig. 6: Reheat cycle Fig. 7: Reheat cycle T-S diagram

7
A large capacity modern thermal power station usually incorporates all the above devices and can achieve
an overall efficiency of about 40 %. The increase in work output due to incorporation of reheat cycle is
shown in T-S diagram (Fig.7).
The double shaded area shows the increase in work output due to high vacuum in the condenser.
7. Boiler Plant
Steam boiler can be classified in many ways but there are actually two major groups of steam generators
which are fire tube boilers and water tube boilers. Fire tube boilers have limited capacity, its maximum
drum diameter is around 8 ft and the maximum steam pressure is limited to about 17 bar (250 lbs/in2
absolute), although most of the system operate normally at a pressure of about 10 bar (150 lb/ in2absolute).
Another problem associated with fire tube boiler is the consequence of major tube failure. In the event of
sudden tube failure, the high pressure water flows into the hot combustion chamber generating large
quantity of steam in the furnace. This is likely to produce a steam explosion in the furnace.
Modern boilers used in thermal power plants are of water tube type having drum and water tubes. These
groups of water tubes are exposed to the combustion chamber to absorb the available heat (Fig. 8).
Thetubes are so arranged that it gives better circulation of water and large heating surface area. Normally
these boilers have natural water circulation due to convection. A simplified diagram of water tube boiler is
shown in Fig. 8.
Water tube type of boiler is generally adopted due to its high evaporation and heat transfer rate made
possible by:
i) Large heating surface resulting from multiplicity of 100 to 150 mm diameter tubes.
ii) Rapid and uniform circulation of water in the tubes at 500 to 700 kg/sec.
iii) High ratio of heating surface to water quantity, e.g. 0.3 to 0.4 m2/kg.
iv) Small diameter pipes and drums which can be designed for pressures upto 5000 lbs/in2 at temperatures
upto 570 oC.

Fig. 8(a): Simplifies Diagram of Water Tube Boiler

8
 Fig. 8(b): Babcock & Wilcox Express Type furnace boiler
Water tube boilers giving up to 1.5x106 kg/hr of steam, corresponding to an electrical output of 500 MWe
can be built, and even larger size is envisaged. With modern plant, the requirements are about 3 kg/hr of
steam and 0.5 kg/hr of coal per kW of electrical output.
7.1 Flue Gas
The flue gas after leaving the boiler flows through the economizer, air preheater and induced draught fan to
chimney as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9: Flue gas flow diagram

9
A general arrangement of the economizer with its water inlet and outlet is shown in Fig. 10. In its passage
through the economizer the feed water is heated by the flue gases.

Fig. 10: Economizer Fig. 11: Air Preheater

7.2 Air Preheater
The preheater as shown in the diagram (Fig. 11)is used to heat the fresh air before it reaches the furnace.
Air heated by the flue gases before they leave the chimney so that some of their heat is used which
otherwise will be wasted.The heated air instead of cold air is supplied to the furnace and thus improved
heat balance is obtained.
Water in the boiler drums and tubes is converted into steam by the heat supplied by the combustion of fuel
in the furnace. The pressure and temperature of steam depends on the design of the boiler. The steam raised
is in the saturated form. To increase the temperature of the steam it is passed through a super-heater. Then
superheated steam from the superheater enters the turbine at the throttle valve.
The steam is expanded through a turbine from a high pressure at the throttle valve to a back pressure
corresponding to a vacuum of 71 to 73.5 cms of Hg, or an absolute pressure of 2.5 to 5 cms of Hg. The
efficiency of Rankine cycle is increased by expanding the steam to the lowest possible pressure or highest
vacuum in the condenser. The require vacuum in the condenser is achieved by the use of steam driven air
ejector. Circulating water pumps circulate cooling water through the condenser tubes and condense the
exhaust steam into condensate as shown in Fig. 12. The condensate water is pumped back to the boiler by
condensate pumps forming a closed loop system. The same water is used over and over again. Before being
pumped into the boiler, the feed water is heated by extracting steam at different stages of turbine. Some
water is lost through the leakage at various stages in the piping system, which is added in the feed water
system as make-up water. The amount of make-up water required is less than 1 %.
7.3 Condenser
Mostly surface type condensers are used as shown in Fig. 12. The condenser tubes are straight and of single
pass type. The other types may use U-tube i.e. double pass depending upon the design. The cooling water
(also called circulating water) used to cool the system in the condenser may be either open loop or closed
10
loop system. Whena limited quantity of cooling water is available, a closed loop system involving cooling
towers is employed.

Fig. 12: Typical power plant condenser

7.4 Cooling Tower
When plenty of cooling water is available from sea or river an open loop cooling system is used. In the
closed loop cooling system water is first obtained from a tube well or other sources and stored in a tank,
from which it is pumped into the condenser. In the condenser, it absorbs latent heat from the exhaust steam
and gets warm. This warm water is then passed through a cooling tower where the amount of water which
is large is divided in smaller quantities practically of the size of drops. These water drops falling from a
height of 8 to 10 m to the bottom of the cooling tower.
The height of cooling tower and its water handling capacity is suitably designed for particular cases. The
splitting of the water into small droplets, the draught provided by the tower, and the large evaporating
surface help to cool the water very quickly – practically during the time when it is descending. Water from
the base of the cooling tower is pumped to the condenser, and the cycle is repeated. Some water about 2 to
5 % is lost due to evaporation and should be added from the storage tank. The elevation and sectional view
of the cooling tower is shown in Fig. 13.
Cooling water while passing through the condenser tubes absorbs heat and in general promotes conditions
suitable for the growth of algae. This growth, adhering to the walls of the condenser tubes, interferes with
the heat transfer, and results in poor vacuum. This affects the performance of the condenser. Chlorine is
therefore added to the water at regular intervals in order to kill the growth and to maintain the tubes in the
clean condition.
In the above Fig. 13 of cooling tower, circulating water is divided in small channels all around the tower
and towards the centre and arranged to descend the water in droplets, thus producing considerable
evaporation and cooling. The draught is produced due to the difference in pressure of the hot air column
inside the tower and the equivalent cold air column outside the tower.

11
 Fig. 13: Cooling Tower
In the open loop cooling system when the cooling water is sea water which is rich in mineral and salt
contents and highly corrosive, develops pin holes in the condenser tubes. This causes increase in the
conductivity and pH value of water used in the boiler. The pin holes are filled by mixing saw dust in the
circulating water at regular intervals. Moreover, the condensate water is passed through demineralizers to
bring down the conductivity and pH value to the acceptable limit. The demineralizers are also called ion
exchangers.
8. Thermodynamic Cycle
According to the first law of thermodynamics a cyclic integral of a work is equal to the cyclic integral of
heat or mathematically it can be represented as:
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = ∮ 𝑑𝑄 -------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
This means that net work transferred from the cycle is equal to the heat transferred to the cycle (designated
as +ve work). For a thermodynamic heat engine cycle, the figure of merit is called the thermal efficiency ηth
and is defined as:
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Thermal efficiency =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
∮ 𝑑𝑊
= ----------------------------------------------- (2)
𝑄𝑎
∮ 𝑑𝑄
= ----------------------------------------------- (3)
𝑄𝑎
The thermal efficiency of any heat engine cycle should be as high as possible, but according to the second
law of thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency must be less than 100 %.
One of the statement of second law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to build a device whose
sole effect is to produce work while exchanging heat with a single thermal reservoir at constant
temperature. Effectively this implies that it is impossible to construct a heat engine cycle or develop power
cycle that has a thermal efficiency of 100 %. This means that atleast part of thermal energy transferred to a
power cycle must be transferred to a low temperature sink.

12
One of the externally reversible ideal power cycle is the Carnot cycle whose thermal efficiency is:
𝑇
ηth =1 − 𝑇𝐿
𝐻
Where TH and TL are the temperatures of the heat source and sink respectively. Carnot cycle is an
externally reversible power cycle and is sometimes referred to as the optimum power cycle. The Carnot
cycle is composed of two reversible isothermal processes and two adiabatic (isentropic) processes. The
cycle is plotted on P-V and T-S diagram (Fig. 14). The Carnot cycle is not practical power cycle because it
has so little specific work that friction in the actual process would probably eat up the net work output.

Fig. 14
8.1 Internal Combustion (IC) Engine Cycle
Internal combustion engines cannot operate on an ideal externally reversible heat engine cycle but they -can
be approximated by internally reversible cycle in which all the processes except the heat addition and heat
rejection processes. Internal combustion engines are more polluting than external combustion engines
because of the formation of nitrogen oxides, Carbon Monoxide, and un-burnt hydrocarbons. Because of the
cyclic nature of engine operation, reciprocating IC engines can operate at extremely high peak temperature.
Consequently these systems can produce reasonably high value of thermal efficiency.
8.1.1 Otto Cycle
It is the basic thermodynamic power cycle for the Spark Ignition (SI) internal combustion engine. This
cycle is a power process cycle as shown in P - V and T - S diagram (Fig. 15). Theoretically, an air fuel
mixture is compressed (process 1 to 2) reversibly and adiabatically (isentropically) to a minimum volume
(piston at top dead centre); the mixture is then ignited (by spark plug); the hot working fluid then expands

13
in a reversible adiabatic process; and the heat is rejected to the atmosphere in a reversible isometric
process.

Fig. 15

The important Otto-cycle parameter is the compression ratio rv, which is the ratio of maximum to minimum
volumes:
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣1 𝑣4
rv = = =
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣2 𝑣3
For the air-standard Otto-cycle which is an ideal Otto cycle that uses cold air as the working fluid, the
thermal efficiency can be shown to be equal to
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (−) 𝑄𝑟 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
ηth= 1+ = 1 + = 1 -
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑎 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
𝑇1 (1−𝐾)
ηth= 1 - = 1 - 𝑟𝑣
𝑇2
Where K = Cp/Cv
Cp is the specific heat of air at constant pressure
Cv is the specific heat of air at constant volume
14
The value of K is fixed for air fuel mixture which must be used as working fluid, K is essentially fixed at
high value closed to that for diatomic gas (K = 1.4)
Effectively, the only way to increase the thermal efficiency is to increase the compression ratio. There is a
limit, however, to the maximum value of compression ratio that can be employed in an actual engine.
Prior to 1972 automobile engines had compression ratio as high as 12.5, but these engines had to use
premium or high octane gasoline. The increased automobile emission and pollution has brought the
development of Otto cycle engines with compression ratio around 9.
8.1.2 Diesel Cycle
The other principal internal combustion engine cycle is the Diesel cycle, which is the ideal power cycle for
the compression – ignition (CI), internal combustion engine commonly called the Diesel engine. In this
system, atmospheric air is compressed to a very small volume, generating high pressures and temperatures.
At or near the top dead end centre (min volume), diesel fuel is injected into the hot air and this fuel, unlike
spark-ignition fuel, is designed to burn within a short time after it is injected into the cylinder. The
combined effect of burning fuel and increasing volume makes the process approach an isobaric process. At
some point during the power stroke, called the fuel cutoff, the fuel addition (heat addition) is terminated
and the piston continues the expansion process adiabatically until it reaches bottom dead centre (maximum
volume). At this point, the exhaust and intake strokes essentially produce a constant volume heat rejection
process that takes place in the atmosphere.

Fig. 16.: The Diesel Cycle

The ideal diesel cycle is a four process cycle that is composed of a reversible adiabatic (S= Smin)
compression process (process 1 – 2); a reversible isobaric (p = pmax) heat addition process (process 2 – 3);
a reversible adiabatic (S = Smax) expansion process (process 3 – 4); and a reversible isometric (v = vmax)
heat rejection process (process 4 – 1). The diesel cycle is plotted on p-v and T-S diagram as shown in
Fig. 16.
The diesel cycle has two important engine parameters. One of these is the compression ratio rv defined
earlier as the ratio of maximum to minimum volume. The other is the fuel cutoff ratio rcf which is the ratio
of the volume at the end offuel addition (fuel cutoff, state 3) to the minimum volume (state 2)

Volume at the end of fuel addition

rcf =
Minimum volume
The thermal efficiency of the air-standard Diesel cycle is:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (−) 𝑄𝑟 𝑚𝐶𝑣 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 )
ηth= 1 + = 1 + = 1+
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑎 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
15
 𝐾
(𝑟𝑐𝑓 −1)
= 1 - (𝐾−1)
𝐾𝑟𝑣 (𝑟𝑐𝑓 − 1)
As the value of K is fixed at about 1.4, effectively only the compression ratio and the cutoff ratio can be
altered in order to achieve highest thermal efficiency.
Compression ignition engines can be either two stroke or 4 stroke engine i.e. the four processes of the
diesel cycle is completed two stroke or 4 strokes respectively.
9. Gas Turbine
9.1 Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is the ideal thermodynamic cycle for gas turbine or turbo-engines. This is the only major
power cycle that can operate as either an internal or external combustion engine. The Braton cycle is a four
process cycle as follows:
Process 1 – 2: the working fluid is compressed reversibly and adiabatically (isentropically)
Process 2 – 3: heat is added in a reversible isobaric process in a combustion chamber (P = Pmax).
Process 3 – 4: the hot gases expand reversibly and adiabatically (isentropically, S = Smax) in the turbine.
Process 4 – 1: then the heat is rejected in a reversible isobaric (P = Pmin) process.
The Braton cycle may be classed as either open cycle or closed cycle. In the open cycle, the working fluid
is atmospheric air and the heat rejection process occurs in the atmosphere as the turbine exhaust is
discharged into the atmosphere. In the closed cycle, any working fluid can be employed and the heat
rejection process is accomplished in a heat exchanger. In this system the working fluid is cycled
continuously.
Many of the external combustion cycles are closed cycles in which the heat is added to the working fluid in
a heat exchanger and heat rejection is in another heat exchanger as shown in Fig. 17. The open and closed
Braytor power cycle and system is shown in Figs. 18 & 19.

Fig. 17: P-V and T-S diagrams

The important cycle parameter for the simple Brayton cycle in the compression ratio rp which is defined as
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
rp = = Ratio of maximum to minimum system pressure.
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛

16
 Atmospheric air

Fig. 18: Open cycle Fig. 19: Closed Cycle

The thermal efficiency of a simple Braton cycle is
𝑄𝑟 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇4 )
ηth= 1 + = 1+
𝑄𝑎 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
where Qa is heat addition
Qr is heat rejected
Cp is specific heat of gas at constant pressure
𝑇1 (1−𝐾)/𝐾
ηth = 1 − == 1 − 𝑟𝑝
𝑇2
Thus in the expression of ηth, there are two parameters rp and K, and by properly adjusting these ηth can be
maximized.
The so called “noble” gases such as helium, neon, argon, etc. are monatomic gases and consequently have
the highest value of K (ratio of specific heats) when considered as working fluid. The value of K for
gaseous working fluid is
5
= for monoatomic gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.)
3
7
= for diatomic gases (N2, CO etc.)
5
8
= for triatomic gases (H2O, CO2 etc.)
6
The noble gases make excellent working fluid since they do not react and thus produce no corrosion,
Helium gas has the best thermal properties next to hydrogen so it is a good working fluid for closed cycle
gas turbine.
There are several ways to improve the thermal efficiency of the simple Brayton cycle but they all involve
the use of heat recovery devices called a “regenerator”. The regenerator is essentially a counter flow heat
exchanger in which heat is transferred from the hot gases to the compressor discharge gases. The cycle and
system is shown in T – S diagram (Fig. 20).
17
 Fig. 20: Regenerative Brayton Power Cycle and System
In the “regenerator”, the compressor gas can be heated to some temperature Ta, and the turbine discharge
can be cooled to temperature Tb. Theoretically, Ta can approach the turbine exhaust temperature T4, and the
value of Tb can approach the compressor discharge temperature T2. The performance parameter of the
generator is called the regenerator effectiveness, or Er, which is defined as the ratio of the actual heat
transfer in the heat exchanger divided by the maximum possible heat transfer
𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇2
Er= =
𝑇4 − 𝑇2 𝑇4 − 𝑇2
The thermal efficiency of the regenerative Brayton cycle is
𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇
𝑚𝑖𝑛
ηth= 1 − 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇1 = 1 −
3 𝑎 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑎
If the generator effectiveness is 100 %, Ta and Tb becomes equal to T4 and T2 respectively and ηthreduces to
𝑇 (1− 𝐾)/𝐾
ηth= 1 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
The efficiency of the regenerative Brayton cycle can be increased by increasing the maximum temperature
and/or by decreasing the minimum temperature, by decreasing the compression ratio rp, and/or by using a
gas with a low value of K. The last two parameters rp and K, have the opposite effect on this cycle as they
do on the simple Brayton cycle.
9.2 Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of the Brayton Cycle
Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle may be improved by the following ways:
i) By employing the regenerative cycle as discussed.
ii) By employing engine with multi stage compression and inter-cooling.
iii) By employing the reheat cycle.
9.2.1 Multi Stage Compression and Inter-cooling
Brayton cycle efficiency can be increased by employing multi-stage compression with inter-cooling
provided the regenerator is also used. Inter-cooling between the two stages of the compression produces a
lower compression discharge temperature than that resulting from a single stage compressor. As a result,
18
more heat is required to heat the gas to the turbine inlet temperature which is available from the exhaust
gases through the regenerator (Fig. 21). However, the work output of the cycle offsets the increase in heat
addition, resulting in an overall increase in efficiency.

Fig. 21: Brayton Cycle & System with Multi-stage Compression and Cooling
For two stage compression with intercooler, the optimum intercooler pressure Pi which minimizes the
work, is:
1
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
= = ( ) -------------------------------------------------- (1)
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛
From equation (1)
1
Pi = [(𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 )(𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )]2
For j-stage compressor we have, the pressure ratio across each stage as:
1
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑗
( ) = ( ) ----------------------------------------------- (2)
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛

As j approaches infinity, the compression process approaches an isothermal compression process, while
additional stages of compression with inter-cooling reduces the compression work, a point of diminishing
returns limits the number of practical stages that can be used.
9.2.2 By Employing The Reheat Cycle
The specific work and the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle can also be increased by using the reheat
Brayton cycle. This is shown on the T – S diagram and the system diagram (Fig.22)
10. Heat Recovery of Gas Turbine Exhaust
The most widely used systems which utilize the heat content in the exhaust gases are called:
i) Combined cycle system
ii) Co-generation system

19
 Fig.22: Reheat Brayton Cycle and System
10.1. Combines Cycle System
When two power cycles, A and B, with respective thermal efficiencies of ηA and ηB are connected in series
so that qA is the specific heat transferred to cycle A and the heat rejected from the cycle plussome
additional quantity of heat, qB is the heat added to cycle B, the overall thermal efficiency of the combined
cycle is:
𝑞𝐴 𝜂𝐴 + (1−𝜂𝐴 )𝑞𝐴 𝜂𝐵 + 𝑞𝐵 𝜂𝐵
ηth, total =
𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝐴 𝜂𝐴 (1− 𝜂𝐵 )
= 𝜂𝐵 + ------------------------------------------- (1)
𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
If there is no additional heat added to cycle B (qB = 0), equation (1) reduces to
ηth, total = 𝜂𝐴 +𝜂𝐵 -𝜂𝐴 𝜂𝐵 -------------------------------------------- (2)
Thus if ηA = 30% and ηB = 20%, the combines thermal efficiency would be
ηth, total = 0.3 + 0.2 – 0.3 x 0.2
= 0.44 or 44%
In recent years, considerable interest has been given to the possibility of combining the Brayton or gas
turbine cycle with the Rankine or vapor power cycle in the so called combined-cycle power system. In
these systems, a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is connected directly to the exhaust of a gas
turbine. The steam generator may operate with the turbine exhaust alone (with qB = 0), or supplementary
heat can be added to the turbine exhaust because the gas turbine operates with very high excess air. The
schematic diagrams of the unfired combined-cycle in Fig. 23 (a) and also for the supplementary fired
combined fired cycle in Fig. 23(b) are shown.
10.2 Co-generation
A co-generation system produces electrical power and usable energy (steam or hot air) simultaneously. It is
also known as combine heat and power (CHP) system. Co-generation systems use far less fuel to deliver

20
the same amount of power and heat in comparison to separate energy systems. The heat balance of co-
generation system is as given in Fig. 24.

Fig. 23 (a): The combined (Brayton & Rankine) cycle Systems with no Supplementary firing

Fig. 23 (b):The combined (Brayton & Rankine) cycle Systems with Supplementary firing
10.2.1 Advantages
i) Higher thermal energy – System efficiency upto 90% possible
ii) Low emissions – reduced fuel usage and clearer exhaust streams contribute to a clearer environment
iii) Improved energy economics – reduced expenses – enhances profitability
11.0 Co-generation System

21
A co-generation system is shown in Fig. 25. The installation cost is about $ 1000/kW including the cost of
the equipment. Supplementary heat is easily added to the turbine exhaust by simply burning more fuel in
the exhaust because gas turbine operate with very high excess air.

Fig. 24: Heat Balance of Co-generation System

The combined-cycle system appears to be very promising for the so called intermediate load service
between the peaking units (gas turbine and diesel generators) and the base load units (large fossil fuel or
nuclear steam power plants). The combined cycle plants are attractive for capacity factors ranging from 15
to 45% (1300 to 4000 hours/ year). For capacity factor less than 15% (0 to 1300 hours/year) the gas turbine
and diesel generating units are the best because of the low capital cost. For capacity factor greater than 45%
(more than 4000 hours/year), large coal fired and nuclear power plants are the best because of the lower
fuel cost.

Fig. 25
22
Problem 1
A combined cycle power plant uses a gas turbine system with a thermal efficiency of [34; 36; 38; 40; 42]
percent and the turbine discharge input into a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with no additional
heat. The steam power system has a thermal efficiency of [16; 18; 20; 22; 24] percent. Find the combined
thermal efficiency of the system.
Problem 2
If 20 MW of heat is added to the gas turbine system of problem 1 and 5MW of heat is added to the gas
turbine exhaust which raised the efficiency of the steam system to [25; 27; 29; 31; 33] percent, Determine
the combined thermal efficiency.
11. Steam Turbine
A turbine is a device that converts stored mechanical energy in a fluid into rotational mechanical energy.
There are several different types of turbines including steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines and wind
turbines.
There are several different ways to classify steam turbines. One way of classifying steam turbine is with
respect to the purpose of the turbine. This system includes the central station units which are used to drive
electric generators at synchronous speed (usually 3000 or 1500 rpm at 50 Hz or 3600 or 1800 rpm at 60
Hz) and have power capabilities up to 1500 MWe.
Mechanical drive turbines are used to power large draft fans, pumps, compressors, and other large rotating
machines. These systems have a number of advantages over electrical drive systems including better
utilization of thermal energy, easy speed control, and fast startup. In addition, no sparks are generated
during normal operation; they are amenable to hot and damp environments, and the low pressure steam
(exhaust steam) can be used for other purposes.
Steam turbine can also be specified according to the back or exhaust pressure of the unit. Under this
classification, turbines are classed as either condensing or non-condensing. In the non-condensing turbine,
the turbine exhaust pressure is above or equal to atmospheric pressure and system can operate with or
without a condenser. A condensing turbine normally discharges steam to a condenser at a very high
vacuum and this improves the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Steam turbine may be classified according to the method of steam injection or extraction from the turbine.
Bleeder or extraction turbines are used where turbine steam is removed partly through the turbine for
process use or for feed water heating. Reheat turbines are used in the reheat vapor power cycles.
11.1 Turbine Blading
Although there are a few radial-flow steam turbines, most of the turbines are axial flow machines. There
are two basic types of turbine blading employed in common steam turbines. These are; impulse blading and
reaction blading. Two different types of impulse blades and one set of reaction blades are shown in Fig. 26.
In the impulse turbine stage, all the steam first passes through a nozzle block where the kinetic energy of
the steam is increased. Flow through nozzles approaches a reversible adiabatic (isentropic) process. If the
inlet velocity is negligible, the steam velocityV1 becomes:
1
V1 = (− 2 𝑔𝑐 Δh)2 , where gc is the conversion factor
1
= 223.73 (− Δh𝐵𝑡𝑢 )2 ft/Sec
1
= 44.721 (− Δh𝐾𝐽 )2 m/Sec (in S.I. unit) --------------------------------------- (1)
where Δh is the decrease in enthalpy across the nozzle.

23
 Fig. 26

Fig. 27
The minimum to maximum pressure ratio across each nozzle block is around 0.53 for superheated steam
and about 0.58 for saturated steam.
The high velocity steam jet leaving the nozzle is then directed towards the moving blades where part of the
kinetic energy of the steam is then transferred to the blades. The velocity vector in the tangential and axial

24
direction of the turbine rotor are shown in Fig. 27. The force on the moving blades Fb is equal to
𝑑𝑣𝑡
m.at.which can be written as m , or letting m represent the steam flow rate through the blades,
𝑑𝑡
Fb = m(𝑉1,𝑡 − 𝑉2,𝑡 ) ---------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
The energy transferred to the blades is equal to the blades is equal to the product of the force on the
blade times the distance moved by the blade, while power absorbed by the blade Pb is equal to the energy
rate to the blade or the product of blade force Fb and blade velocity Vb:
Pb = FbVb = m(𝑉1,𝑡 − 𝑉2,𝑡 )Vb
= m(𝑉1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼+ 𝑉2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛿) ----------------------------------------------- (3)
Using geometry, it can be shown that eqn (3) reduces to
ṁ
Pb = [(𝑉12 − 𝑉22 ) − (𝑉1,𝑟
2 2
− 𝑉2,𝑟 )] --------------------------------------- (4)
2
If the steam flow through the blade is frictionless, the steam velocity, relative to blade is unchanged and
then V1,r = V2,r. In the actual case, however, there is a friction and the relative steam velocity decreases as
it flows through the blades or V1,r>V2,r. For the case of frictionless flow it can be seen from eqn (4) that the
effective rate of energy transfer to the blade is equal to the rate of change of kinetic energy of the steam.
For the case of flow with friction, the blade power is reduced by the second quantity of the eqn (4),
ṁ 2 2
(𝑉1,𝑟 − 𝑉2,𝑟 ). This last term represents the mechanical power that is converted into thermal power by
2
friction.
The performance of a given turbine blade is given by blade efficiency, which is defined as the fraction of
the K.E. of the inlet steam transferred to the blade, or
2(𝑉1,𝑡 − 𝑉2,𝑡 )𝑉𝑏
Blade efficiency =
𝑉12
(𝑉12 − 𝑉22 ) − (𝑉1,𝑟
2 − 𝑉2 )
2,𝑟
= --------------------------- (5)
𝑉12
For frictionless flow, the above equation reduces to
𝑉2 2
Blade efficiency = 1 −( ) ---------------------------------------- (6)
𝑉1
The blade efficiency and the blade power are a maximum when V2 is minimum and this occurs when V2,t is
zero and V1 is equal to V2,a. When there is no friction this condition is attained when the tangential
component of the inlet steam velocity is equal to twice the blade velocity, or
𝑉1,𝑡 𝑉1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼
Optimum blade velocity = V b, opt = = ---------------- (7)
2 2
The actual steam flow through the turbine blade does occur with friction and in this case, V2 can be
minimized by reducing the blade exit angle γ. This produces an asymmetric impulse turbine blade. Both the
reduction in the blade exit angle and the presence of friction creates an axial load or thrust on the blade.
Friction also increases the value of the exit steam enthalpy; this phenomenon is called “Stage reheat”.

25
12. General Layout Plan of Diesel Generating Station

Fig. 28 (a): Layout Plan for a Typical Diesel Generating Station

Fig. 28(b): Layout Plan for a Typical Diesel Engine Room

26
13. Layout Plan of Steam Power Plant
There are two possible layouts:
i) Turbine-Generator sets perpendicular to the division wall between boiler and turbine room (Fig. 29).
ii) Turbine-Generator sets parallel to the division wall between the boiler and turbine room (Fig. 30)

Fig. 29: Two Turbo-Generators as well as boilers perpendicular to wall between boiler and turbine
Rooms

Fig. 30: Turbo-Generators parallel to the wall between boiler and turbine Room
27