Amy Sugars

Learning and Cognition: Essay

How can educators ensure that students with ADHD achieve their full potential?

Introduction
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a behavioural disorder that
can be characterised by inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, p. 203). ADHD may cause diagnosed students to have difficulty in
some areas of their schooling (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 203). There are a
number of ways in which educators can help students with ADHD to achieve
their full potential including helping students to process information more
effectively by encouraging them to be attentive (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.
255). Behaviour management methods including operant conditioning are also a
key factor in assisting children to achieve their full potential (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, p. 224- 225). Finally by focusing on a student’s strongest areas of
intelligence the child may be able to achieve academic success (Schirduan & Case
2001, p. 1-14).

Information processing: attention

One major symptom of ADHD is an inability to focus and be attentive, especially
for longer periods of time (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.203). This symptom can
cause many issues to arise because a key factor in processing information is
attention to the information being presented (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.255).
This lack of attention may cause a number of learning issues for children with
ADHD, during their schooling and throughout their life. There are a number of
ways in which teachers can help a child to focus on an activity or lengthen the
amount of time they can pay attention for. A child’s ability to focus is impacted
by a number of factors including what is occurring in the surrounding
environment, the task or activity’s level of difficulty and the child’s personal
ability to focus and pay attention (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.255).

Educators must have a clear understanding of how their students process

information in order to grasp the concept of how they learn best. Firstly, the
brain makes sense of information in the sensory memory however, the
information is only stored for a very short period of time. The sensory memory
uses and stores information that is heard, smelt, seen, touched or tasted
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 253). The attention paid to such information
controls whether it is used by the working memory, which consists of
information that is currently being thought about (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.
255). Children with ADHD struggle to be attentive therefore, some of the
information that is processed by the sensory memory may not be used by the
working memory (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 203). This information could be
important for the child’s learning therefore, their lack of attention may cause
them to struggle at school. There are a number of techniques that can be
implemented by educators in order to maintain a child’s focus and attention for
longer periods of time in order for information to be processed more effectively.

There are a large number of strategies that could be useful for helping a child
with ADHD to pay attention in order to benefit their learning. It is crucial to
make learning activities enjoyable, interesting and engaging in order to receive
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the attention of the child being taught (Barkley 2002, p. 37). If a child with ADHD
doesn’t understand a set of instructions that have been given or a topic that is
being taught is too challenging they will lose focus and get distracted therefore,
teachers must provide clear instructions for tasks that are not beyond the
student’s abilities (Barkley 2002, p. 37). These instructions should be repeatedly
reiterated in order to increase the student’s motivation (Barkley 2002, p.37). By
making instructions and rules clear and highlighting the importance of the task
the student may pay attention for longer periods of time (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013, p. 256). Asking students questions with the purpose of challenging them
and giving them the opportunity to ask questions will enable the students to be
more engaged, which will enable them to process information more effectively
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.256). The strategic use of colour can be useful,
especially when the colour is used to highlight important points because it draws
the child’s attention to the important information (Barkley 2002, p.37). It is of
upmost importance that tasks don’t go for extensive periods of time because it is
highly likely that the child will lose focus (Barkley 2002, p 37). If an activity
requires a long amount of time in order for it to be effective it is important to
give regular breaks or break the task into smaller parts in order to maintain the
students’ attention (Barkley 2002, p.37). It is crucial that activities are different
otherwise the child may get bored of doing the same task and lose focus
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 256). Often students with ADHD work most
effectively when they are given a time limit for tasks (Barkley 2002, p. 40).
Children with ADHD also enjoy being active therefore, hands-on activities and
activities that involve movement are highly beneficial for their learning and
attentiveness (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.203).

A study that was conducted on ‘5-6-year-old children at risk of ADHD with a set
of computerised attention and information processing tasks’ (Kalff et al. 2005, p.
174). Whilst the study was carried out the experimenter recorded the speed at
which each child carried out the tasks, any changes in the speed throughout the
duration of the study and any errors in the child’s information processing (Kalff
et al. 2005, p.179-180). This study concluded that many children with ADHD had
difficulty processing information and tended to do so at a slower pace than
children without ADHD (Kalff et al. 2005, p.177).

Behaviour management: operant conditioning

The Law of Effect, founded by Thorndike, suggests that individuals learn from
their actions and the consequences that follow (Whetham & Day 2003, p. 102).
Thorndike also proposes that the consequences that follow behaviour impact
whether the occurrence of such behaviour is increased or decreased. Based on
these findings Skinner founded the idea of operant conditioning, which can be
implemented in the classroom in order to effectively manage the behaviour of
students and is particularly useful for managing the behaviour of students with
ADHD (Whetham & Day 2003, p. 102).

There are a number of ways in which teachers can manage or modify a student’s
behaviour that would be particularly useful for students with ADHD. Behaviour
can be managed through operant conditioning, which involves positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment (Woolfolk & Margetts
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2013, p. 224-225). Operant conditioning either aims to increase or reduce the

frequency of a behaviour or the likelihood of such behaviours from reoccurring
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 224-225). Positive reinforcement involves
presenting someone with a reward, which can also be referred to as a positive
stimulus, in order to increase the likelihood of that behaviour reoccurring
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 224). Similarly, negative reinforcement works to
increase the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring however, it involves
removing an unpleasant stimulus in order to do so (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.
225). Punishment aims to decrease the probability of a negative behaviour
reoccurring by presenting an unpleasant stimulus or removing a positive
stimulus (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 225). Similarly to reinforcement,
punishment has two forms that both aim to reduce or remove the frequency of a
behaviour occurring. When an undesired or displeasing stimulus is presented to
a child it is known as presentation punishment whereas when a positive
stimulus taken away then it is referred to as removal punishment (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, p. 225).

Positive reinforcement can include verbal encouragement or commendation

when a desired behaviour takes place or rewards can be presented in order to
increase the regularity of appropriate behaviors occurring (Barkley 2002, p. 40).
Reinforcement can either be presented to individual beings, to the whole class or
to a group within the class. All of these methods of reinforcing desired
behaviours have been found to be effective (Barkley 2002, p.40). Examples of
positive reinforcement that may be effective for students with ADHD include
reward systems such as sticker charts or giving the class free time for staying on
task. Praising the student for listening, paying attention or successfully
completing tasks may positively influence the student’s behaviour however this
method would be most effective in combination with rewards (Barkley 2002, p.
40). Positively reinforcing the productive behaviours of a student with ADHD
will enable them to learn that if they manage their behaviour and focus then
there will be a positive outcome. Negative reinforcement can include moving a
child who is annoying another student in order to reinforce the child’s
productive behaviour. In this scenario the unpleasant stimulus would be the
child who is annoying the other student and by moving this child away from the
other student, the individual who was being bothered can continue working
therefore, their productive behaviour has been reinforced (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013, p. 225). Behaviours can be reinforced either continuously or
intermittently. Continuous reinforcement involves reinforcing a behaviour every
time it occurs whereas intermittent reinforcement involves only reinforcing
behaviours occasionally (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 226).

Presentation punishment can be in the form of spoken warnings or discussions

that aim to stop such behaviours from reoccurring or in the form of presenting
an undesired stimulus (Barkley 2002, p. 40). Examples of presentation
punishment that may be effective for reducing the frequency of negative and
unproductive behaviours displayed by students with ADHD may include spoken
warnings about counterproductive behaviors or instructing the student to run
laps of the oval or hard court because they are unfocused (Barkley 2002, p.40;
Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 225). Removal punishments such as instructing a
 Amy Sugars

student or students to stay in the classroom during recess or lunchtime have

been found to reduce the frequency of negative behaviours displayed by
students with ADHD (Barkley 2002, p. 40). This would be classified as removal
punishment because it involves removing a portion of a child’s free time
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 225). Punishment is often be unsuccessful
because it can often negatively impact the learning environment and creates
tension between educators and students (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 225).
Punishment may also cause the student who displays undesired behaviours, in
which they know the teacher does not approve of, to hide such behaviours when
in the company of the teacher and may present them in other situations
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 225).

A study conducted by Skinner concluded that if a behaviour has a positive

outcome it will be reinforced (Whetham & Day 2003, p. 102-104). Skinner
introduced the Skinner Box which was used in his experiment in order to test
whether the behaviours of rats were reinforced by providing them with food
(Whetham & Day 2003, p. 103-104). The rats were placed inside the Skinner Box
which contained a lever that caused food to be distributed. Once the rats realised
the purpose of the lever they continued pulling it in order to receive the food
meaning that their behaviour was reinforced (Whetham & Day 2003, p. 103-
104).

Intelligence
Intelligence is commonly described as the capacity to ‘acquire and use
knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world’ (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, p. 172). Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is one
of the numerous theories that aim to define and describe intelligence. Gardner
proposed that individuals have eight forms of intelligence, which include: logical-
mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist,
interpersonal and intrapersonal (Rettig 2005, p. 256).

Gardner’s theory also suggested that each person has a specific area of
intelligence in which they are most successful, which also means that individuals
may struggle in some of the areas of intelligence (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.
173). A study conducted by Schirduan and Case (2001, p.4) suggested that most
schools have a main focus on the linguistic and logical-mathematical
intelligences, which are often not the strengths of all students therefore, this may
result in children struggling academically. The logical-mathematical intelligence
refers to thinking logically and problem solving which is often an area of
strength for students who excel in science and mathematics subjects (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, p. 174). The linguistic intelligence refers to language ability,
which is often seen as a strength in students who are successful in English,
language and literacy type subjects (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 174). This
research also concluded that a large portion of the participants with ADHD were
strong in the naturalist and spatial intelligences which are not areas that are
seen as being of high importance, in most schools (Schirduan & Case 2001, p. 6).
Students with ADHD, in the study, who attended schools that incorporated the
Multiple Intelligences into the curriculum and teaching, appeared to achieve
higher academic results than those who attended conventional schooling
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(Schirduan & Case 2001, p. 7-8). Based on the results of this study it can be
concluded that in order for students to achieve their full academic potential,
Gardner’s multiple intelligences should be incorporated into the curriculum and
teaching in schools. From this research it can also be concluded that providing
variety in the subjects that are taught and focusing on a range of intelligences can
be beneficial for all students however, it is particularly advantageous for
students with ADHD and improving their academic results (Schirduan & Case
2001, p. 1-14).

Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory has a number of strengths and

incorporating the knowledge from this theory into the curriculum has been
found to have a positive impact on the learning outcomes for students with
ADHD however, there are a number of weaknesses to this theory (Schirduan &
Case, p. 7-8). Relationships have been discovered between a number of the
multiple intelligences which suggests that if an individual has a strength in an
area of intelligence they may also have a strength in other related areas
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 174). For example, a student may be highly
musical but they may also have high levels of spatial intelligence and these two
areas of have been found to be associated (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 174).
Gardner’s theory is also too general to suggest to educators specific ways that
they can improve teaching and learning however, it does emphasise the
importance of discovering and nurturing a child’s strengths and skills (Woolfolk
& Margetts 2013, p.174).

Conclusion
In conclusion, educators can help a child with ADHD to achieve their full
academic potential by implementing strategies to improve the student’s
information processing, managing behaviour through of operant conditioning
and incorporating elements of Gardner’s multiple intelligences into teaching and
learning.

A symptom that is seen in children with ADHD is inattention and there are a
number of ways in which educators can encourage improvement in the student’s
ability to focus in order for more effective information processing to occur
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 203). Strategies include making tasks and
activities engaging and enjoyable whilst providing simple instructions that are
often reiterated (Barkley 2002, p. 37). Reducing the duration of activities may
also assist the attentiveness of students with ADHD (Barkley 2002, p.37).

Educators can modify the behaviours of children with ADHD through operant
conditioning, which involves positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
presentation punishment and removal punishment (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013,
p. 224-225). Although punishment may reduce the frequency of negative
behaviours in some circumstances, positive reinforcement has been found to be
more effective because it involves educators focusing on the positive aspects of a
child’s behaviour (Barkley 2002, p. 40).
 Amy Sugars

Finally, incorporating Gardner’s multiple intelligences into teaching and the

curriculum also enables educators to help students with ADHD to achieve their
full academic potential. Research suggests that many students with ADHD often
show strengths in the spatial and naturalist intelligence (Schirduan & Case 2001,
p. 6). Applying this theory to teaching and learning enables educators to
acknowledge and encourage development of a student’s strengths rather than
their weaknesses (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.173- 174).

References
Barkley, RA 2002, ‘Psychosocial treatments for attention-
defecit/hyperactivity disorder in children’, The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry,
vol. 63, no. 12, pp. 36-43.

Kalff, AC, De Sonneville, LMJ, Hurks, PPM, Hendriksen, JGM, Kroes, M, Feron,
FJM, Steyaert, J, Van Zeben, TMCB, Vles, JSH & Jolles, J 2005, ‘Speed, speed
variablility, and accuracy of information processing in 5 to 6-year-old
children at risk of ADHD’, Journal of the International Neuropsychological
Society, vol. 11, no.2, pp. 173-183.

Rettig, M 2005, ‘Using the multiple intelligences to enhance instruction for

young children and young children with disabilities’, Early Childhood
Education Journal, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 255- 259.

Schirduan, V & Case, KI 2001, ‘Mindful curriculum leadership for students

with attention deficit disorder (ADHD): leading in elementary schools by
using multiple intelligences theory (SUMIT)’, Refereed proceedings of the 2001
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, University
of Hartford, pp. 1-14.

Watkins, S 2010, ‘A Vygotskian approach to ADD/ADHD: scaffolding with

multiple intelligences’, Journal of Philosophy & History of Education, vol. 60,
pp. 161-166.

Whetham, P & Day, A (Ed.) 2003, Psychology key ideas, Greg Eather in
association with Adelaide Tuition Centre, Adelaide.

Woolfolk, A & Margetts, K 2013, Educational psychology, 3rd edn, Pearson

Australia, Frenchs Forest, NSW.