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Steel Frame Design Manual
Australian 4100-1998
Steel Frame
Design Manual
Australian 4100-1998
For ETABS® 2016
ISO ETA122815M10 Rev. 0

Proudly developed in the United States of America December 2015
Copyright
Copyright  Computers & Structures, Inc., 1978-2015

All rights reserved.
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DISCLAIMER
CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE

DEVELOPMENT AND DOCUMENTATION OF THIS SOFTWARE. HOWEVER,
THE USER ACCEPTS AND UNDERSTANDS THAT NO WARRANTY IS
EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED BY THE DEVELOPERS OR THE DISTRIBUTORS ON
THE ACCURACY OR THE RELIABILITY OF THIS PRODUCT.
THIS PRODUCT IS A PRACTICAL AND POWERFUL TOOL FOR STRUCTURAL

DESIGN. HOWEVER, THE USER MUST EXPLICITLY UNDERSTAND THE BASIC
ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOFTWARE MODELING, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN
ALGORITHMS AND COMPENSATE FOR THE ASPECTS THAT ARE NOT
ADDRESSED.
THE INFORMATION PRODUCED BY THE SOFTWARE MUST BE CHECKED BY

A QUALIFIED AND EXPERIENCED ENGINEER. THE ENGINEER MUST
INDEPENDENTLY VERIFY THE RESULTS AND TAKE PROFESSIONAL
RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE INFORMATION THAT IS USED.
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Organization 1-3
1.2 Recommended Reading 1-3
2 Modeling, Analysis and Design Prerequisites
2.1 Check and Design Capability 2-1
2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections 2-2
2.3 Design and Check Stations 2-3
2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios 2-3
2.5 Design Load Combinations 2-4
2.6 Notional Load Patterns 2-6
2.7 Second Order P-Delta Effects 2-6
i
Steel Frame Design AS 4100-1998
2.8 Member Unsupported Lengths 2-9
2.9 Effective Length Factor (ke) 2-11
2.10 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 2-14
2.11 Supported Framing Types 2-16
2.12 Frame Design Procedure Overwrites 2-17
2.13 Interactive Design 2-17
2.14 Automated Iterative Design 2-18
2.15 Choice of Units 2-18
3 Steel Frame Design Using AS 4100-1998
3.1 Notations 3-1
3.2 Design Preferences 3-6
3.3 Overwrites 3-8
3.4 Design Load Combination 3-15
3.5 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling 3-16
3.6 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 3-29
3.7 Calculation of Nominal Strengths 3-33
3.7.1 Nominal Flexural Capacities 3-33

3.7.2 Nominal Shear Capacities 3-40
3.7.3 Nominal Compressive Capacities 3-44
3.7.4 Nominal Tensile Capacity 3-50
ii
Contents
3.8 Members Subjected to Combined Forces 3-51

3.8.1 Section Capacity 3-51
3.8.2 Member Capacity 3-54
3.9 Shear Check 3-58
4 Design Output
4.1 Display Design Information on the Model 4-2
4.2 Display Design Information in Tables 4-5
4.3 Display Detailed Member Specific Information 4-8
4.4 Save or Print Design Information as Tables 4-13
4.5 Error and Warning Messages 4-15
Appendix A Supported Design Codes
Bibliography
iii
Chapter 1
Introduction
The design/check of steel frames is seamlessly integrated within the program.

Initiation of the design process, along with control of various design parame-
ters, is accomplished using the Design menu.
Automated design at the object level is available for any one of a number of
user-selected design codes, as long as the structures have first been modeled
and analyzed by the program. Model and analysis data, such as material prop-
erties and member forces, are recovered directly from the model database, and
are used in the design process in accordance with the user defined or default
design settings. As with all design applications, the user should carefully re-
view all of the user options and default settings to ensure that the design pro-
cess is consistent with the user’s expectations.
The design is based on a set of user-specified loading combinations. However,

the program provides default load combinations for each supported design
code. If the default load combinations are acceptable, no definition of addition-
al load combinations is required. The Direct Analysis Method requires that a
notional load, N = 0.002Yi , where Yi is the gravity load acting at level i, be
applied to account for the destabilizing effects associated with the initial imper-
fections and other conditions that may induce sway not explicitly modeled in
the structure. The user must be aware that notional loads must be defined and
assigned by the user. Currently, the software creates design combinations that
include notional loads and gravity loads only. If the user needs notional loads
1-1
that include combinations containing lateral loads, the user must define such
combinations manually. The automation of default load combinations, includ-
ing notional loads, is currently limited to gravity loads only. Design load com-
binations of notional loads acting together with lateral loads currently are NOT
automated by the software.
Steel frame design/check consists of calculating the flexural, axial, and shear
forces or stresses at several locations along the length of a member, and then
comparing those calculated values with acceptable limits. That comparison
produces a demand/capacity ratio, which typically should not exceed a value of
one if code requirements are to be satisfied. The program follows the same re-
view procedures when it is checking a user-specified shape or when checking a
shape selected by the program from a predefined list. The program does not do
the connection design. However, it calculates the design basis forces for con-
nection design.
Program output can be presented graphically on the model, in tables for both
input and output data, or in calculation sheets prepared for each member. For
each presentation method, the output is in a format that allows the engineer to
quickly study the stress conditions that exist in the structure, and in the event
the member is not adequate, aid the engineer in taking appropriate remedial
measures, including altering the design member without re-running the entire
analysis.
The program supports a wide range of steel frame design codes, including
many national building codes. Appendix A provides a list of supported steel
frame design codes. However, this manual is dedicated to the use of the menu
option "AS 4100-1998." This option covers the “AS 4100-1998 Australian
Standard Steel Structures” (SA 1998). The implementation covers loading
and load combinations from "AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 Australian/New Zealand
Standard, Part 0 : General Principals” (SA/SNZ 2002).
Currently, the software does not automate the following:
 Notional loads combinations that include lateral wind and quake loads
 The validity of the analysis method. The user must verify the suitability of
the specified analysis method used under the User Options described in the
preceding sections. The code requires, for instance, that the Second Order
Elastic Analysis Method be used when a ratio of the second order moments
1-2 Organization
Chapter 1 Introduction
to the first order moments exceeds 1.4. This check currently must be per-
formed by the user.
 P-Δ analysis. Since many different codes are supported by the software and
not all require a P-Δ analysis, the user must specify that a P-Δ analysis be
performed during the analysis phase so that the proper member forces are
available for use in the design phase.
The design codes supported under “AS 4100-1998” are written in Newton-
millimeter units. All the associated equations and requirements have been im-
plemented in the program in Newton-millimeter units. The program has been
enabled with unit conversion capability. This allows the users to enjoy the flex-
ibility of choosing any set of consistent units during creating and editing mod-
els, exporting and importing the model components, and reviewing the design
results.
1.1 Organization
This manual is designed to help you quickly become productive using the AS
4100-1998 steel frame design option. Chapter 2 addresses prerequisites related
to modeling and analysis for a successful design in accordance with AS 4100-
1998. Chapter 3 provides detailed descriptions of the specific requirements as
implemented in AS 4100-1998. The appendix identifies the code supposed in
the program.
1.2 Recommended Reading/Practice

It is strongly recommended that you read this manual and review any applica-
ble "Watch & Learn" SeriesTM tutorials, which are found on our web site,
http://www.csiamerica.com, before attempting to design a steel frame. Addi-
tional information can be found in the on-line Help facility available from
within the program.
Organization 1-3
Chapter 2
Modeling, Analysis and Design Prerequisites
This chapter provides an overview of the basic assumptions, design precondi-

tions, and some of the design parameters that affect the design of steel frames.
For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is

assigned for each code.
• Reference to the AS 4100-1998 code is identified with the prefix "AS."

• Reference to the AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 code is identified with the prefix
"AS/NZS."
2.1 Check and Design Capability

The program has the ability to check adequacy of a section (shape) in accord-
ance with the requirements of the selected design code. Also the program can
automatically choose (i.e., design) the optimal (i.e., least weight) sections from
a predefined list that satisfies the design requirements.
To check the adequacy of a section, the program checks the demand/capacity

("D/C") ratios at a predefined number of stations for each design load combina-
tion. It calculates the envelope of the D/C ratios. It also checks the other re-
quirements on a pass or fail basis. If the capacity ratio remains less than or
equal to the D/C ratio limit, which is a number close to 1.0, and if the section
passes all the special requirements, the section is considered to be adequate,
2-1
otherwise the section is considered to have failed. The D/C ratio limit is taken
as 0.95 by default. However, this value can be overwritten in the Preferences
(Chapter 3).
To choose (design) the optional section from a predefined list, the program first
orders the list of sections in increasing order of weight per unit length. Then it
starts checking each section from the ordered list, starting with the one with the
least weight. The procedure for checking each section in this list for adequacy
is exactly the same as described in the preceding paragraph. The program will
evaluate each section in the list until it finds the least weight section that passes
the code checks. If no section in the list is acceptable, the program will use the
heaviest section but flag it as being overstressed.
To check adequacy of an individual section, the user must assign the section. In
that case, both the analysis and design sections will be changed.
To choose the optimal section, the user must first define a list of steel sections,
the Auto Select sections list. The user must next assign this list, in the same
manner as any other section assignment, to the frame members to be opti-
mized. The program will use the median section by weight when doing the ini-
tial analysis. Refer to the program Help for more information about Auto Se-
lect section lists.
2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

Analysis sections are those section properties used to analyze the model when
an analysis is run. The design section is whatever section is used in the steel
frame design. It is possible for the last used analysis section and the current de-
sign section to be different. For example, an analysis may be run using a
W18X35 beam, and then in the design, it may be found that a W16X31 beam
worked. In that case, the last used analysis section is the W18X35 and the cur-
rent design section is the W16X31. Before the design process is complete, veri-
fy that the last used analysis section and the current design section are the
same. Refer to the program Help for information about completing this task.
The program keeps track of the analysis section and the design section sepa-
rately. Note the following about analysis and design sections:
2-2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

Chapter 2 Design Algorithms
 Assigning a frame section property assigns the section as both the analysis
section and the design section.
 Running an analysis always sets the analysis section to be the same as the
current design section.
 Assigning an Auto Select section list to a frame object initially sets the
analysis and design section to be the section in the list with the median
weight.
 Unlocking a model deletes the design results, but it does not delete or
change the design section.
 Altering the Design Combinations in any way deletes the design results,
but does not delete or change the design section.
 Altering any of the steel frame design preferences deletes the design re-
sults, but does not delete or change the design section.
2.3 Design and Check Stations

For each design combination, steel frame members (beams, columns, and brac-
es) are designed (optimized) or checked at a number of locations (stations)
along the length of the object. The stations are located at equally spaced seg-
ments along the clear length of the object. By default, at least three stations
will be located in a column or brace member, and the stations in a beam will be
spaced at most 0.5 meter apart (2 feet if the model has been created in US
units). The user can overwrite the number of stations in an object before the
analysis is run. The user can refine the design along the length of a member by
requesting more stations. Refer to the program Help for more information.
2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios

Determination of the controlling D/C ratios for each steel frame member indi-
cates the acceptability of the member for the given loading conditions. The
steps for calculating the D/C ratios are as follows:
Design and Check Stations 2-3

 The factored forces are calculated for axial, flexural, and shear at each de-
fined station for each design combination. The bending moments are calcu-
lated about the principal axes. For I-Shape, Box, Channel, T-Shape, Dou-
ble-Angle, Pipe, Circular, and Rectangular sections, the principal axes co-
incide with the geometric axes. For Single-Angle sections, the design con-
siders the principal properties. For General sections, it is assumed that all
section properties are given in terms of the principal directions.
For Single-Angle sections, the shear forces are calculated for directions
along the geometric axes. For all other sections, the program calculates the
shear forces along the geometric and principal axes.
 The nominal capacities are calculated for compression, tension, bending

and shear based on the equations provided later in this manual. For flexure,
the nominal capacities are calculated based on the principal axes of bend-
ing. For the I-Shape, Box, Channel, Circular, Pipe, T-Shape, Double-Angle
and Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric
axes. For the Angle sections, the principal axes are determined and all
computations related to flexural stresses are based on that.
The nominal capacities for shear are calculated along the geometric axes
for all sections. For I-Shape, Box, Channel, T-Shape, Double-Angle, Pipe,
Circular, and Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with their
geometric axes. For Single-Angle sections, principal axes do not coincide
with the geometric axes.
 Factored forces are compared to nominal capacities to determine D/C rati-

os. In either case, design codes typically require that the ratios not exceed a
value of one. A D/C ratio greater than one indicates a member that has ex-
ceeded a limit state.
2.5 Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed
load cases for which the structure needs to be checked. The program creates a
number of default design load combinations for steel frame design. Users can
add their own design combinations as well as modify or delete the program de-
2-4 Design Load Combinations

fault design load combinations. An unlimited number of design load combina-

tions can be specified.
To define a design load combination, simply specify one or more load cases,
each with its own scale factor. The scale factors are applied to the forces and
moments from the load cases to form the factored design forces and moments
for each design load combination.
For normal loading conditions involving static dead load (DL), live load (LL),
wind load (WL), earthquake load (EL), notional load (NL), and dynamic re-
sponse spectrum load (EL), the program has built-in default design combina-
tions for the design code. These are based on the code recommendations.
The default design combinations assume all static load response cases declared
as dead or live to be additive. However, each static load case declared as wind,
earthquake, or response spectrum cases, is assumed to be non-additive with
other loads and produces multiple lateral combinations. Also static wind,
earthquake and notional load responses produce separate design combinations
with the sense (positive or negative) reversed. The notional load cases are add-
ed to load combinations involving gravity loads only.
For other loading conditions involving moving load, time history, pattern live
load, separate consideration of roof live load, snow load, and the like, the user
must define the design load combinations in lieu of or in addition to the default
design load combinations. If notional loads are to be combined with other load
combinations involving wind or earthquake loads, the design load combina-
tions should be defined in lieu of or in addition to the default design load com-
binations.
For multi-valued design combinations, such as those involving response spec-

trum, time history, moving loads and envelopes, where any correspondence
between forces is lost, the program automatically produces sub-combinations
using the maxima/minima values of the interacting forces. Separate combina-
tions with negative factors for response spectrum load cases are not
required because the program automatically takes the minima to be the nega-
tive of the maxima response when preparing the sub-combinations described
previously.
Design Load Combinations 2-5

The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the member
forces of the reducible live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce
the contribution of the live load to the factored responses.
2.6 Notional Load Patterns

Notional loads are lateral loads that are applied at each framing level and are
specified as a percentage of the gravity loads applied at that level. They are in-
tended to account for the destabilizing effects of out-of-plumbness, geometric
imperfections, inelasticity in structural members, and any other effects that
could induce sway and that are not explicitly considered in the analysis.
The program allows the user to create a Notional Load pattern as a percentage
of the previously defined gravity load pattern to be applied in one of the global
lateral directions: X or Y. The user can define more than one notional load pat-
tern associated with one gravity load by considering different factors and dif-
ferent directions. In the AS 4100-1998 code, the notional loads are typically
suggested to be 0.2% (or 0.002) (AS 3.2.4), a factor referred to as the notional
load coefficient in this document.
The notional load patterns should be considered in combination with appropri-

ate factors, appropriate directions, and appropriate senses. The code needs the
notional loads to be considered only in gravity load combinations (ASC 3.2.4).
The program does not create the notional load pattern automatically. However,
if a notional load pattern is defined by the user, it is automatically included in
the default design load combinations involving gravity loads only.
Currently, the notional loads are not automatically included in the default
design load combinations that include lateral loads. However, the user is free to
modify the default design load combinations to include the notional loads with
appropriate factors and in appropriate load combinations.
2.7 Second Order P-Delta Effects

Modern design provisions are based on the principle that the member forces are
calculated by a second-order elastic analysis, where the equilibrium is satisfied
on the deformed geometry of the structure. The effects of the loads acting on
2-6 Notional Load Patterns

the deformed geometry of the structure are known as the second-order or the
P-Delta effects.
The P-Delta effects come from two sources: global lateral translation of the
frame and the local deformation of members within the frame.
Consider the frame object shown in Figure 2-1, which is extracted from a story
level of a larger structure. The overall global translation of this frame object is
indicated by ∆. The local deformation of the member is shown as δ. The total
second order P-Delta effects on this frame object are those caused by both ∆
and δ.
∆
Original position of frame
element shown by vertical
line δ
Final deflected position of the
frame element that includes the
global lateral translation, ∆, and
the local deformation of the
Position of frame element
element, δ
as a result of global lateral
translation, ∆, shown by
dashed line
δ
Figure 2-1 P-∆ and P-δ effects
The program has an option to consider P-Delta effects in the analysis. When
you consider P-Delta effects in the analysis, the program does a good job of
capturing the effect due to the ∆ deformation (P-∆ effect) shown in Figure
2-1, but it does not typically capture the effect of the δ deformation (P-δ
effect), unless, in the model, the frame object is broken into multiple elements
over its length.
Second Order P-Delta Effects 2-7

In design codes, required strengths are usually required to be determined using

a second-order analysis that considers both P-∆ and P-δ effects. Approximate
second-order analysis procedures based on amplification of responses from
first-order analysis for calculating the required flexural strengths are common
in current design codes and have the following general form:
M CAP δ b ( M nt + δ s M lt )
= (AS 4.4.2.2, App. E, App. F)
where,
M CAP = Required flexural design capacities
M nt = Required flexural capacities from first-order analysis of the

member assuming there is no translation of the frame (i.e., asso-
ciated with the δ deformation in Figure 2-1)
M lt = Required flexural capacities from first-order analysis of the

member as a result of lateral translation of the frame only (i.e.,
associated with the ∆ deformation in Figure 2-1)
δs = Unitless amplification factor multiplying M lt
δb = Unitless amplification factor multiplying ( M nt + δ s M lt )
In the AS 4100-1998 code, a rigorous second order analysis (AS 4.4.1.2(b)) or

the amplification of first order analysis results to estimate the effect of second
order effects (AS 4.4.1.2(a)) is required. The program has the capability of
performing both. In the first case, the required strengths are determined directly
from the analysis results without any amplification factor δs (i.e., δs is equal to
1). However, these amplification factors can always be overwritten by the user
on a member-by-member basis, if desired, using the overwrite option.
To properly capture the P-δ effect in a finite element analysis, each element,
especially column elements, must be broken into multiple finite elements,
which is not really desired for other reasons. Although a single element per
member can capture the P-δ effect to some extent, the program considers that
inadequate. The program thus uses the δb factor even if the analysis considers
the P-∆ effects. This is a conservative approach.
2-8 Second Order P-Delta Effects

Thus, in general, the steel frame design feature requires consideration of

P-Delta effects in the analysis before the check/design is performed. Although
one element per line object is generally adequate to capture the P-∆ effect, it is
recommended to use more than one element per line object for the cases where
both P-∆ and P-δ effects are to be considered. However, explicit manual break-
ing of the member into elements has other consequences related to member end
moments and unbraced segment end moment. It is recommended that the
members be broken internally by the program. In this way, the member is
recognized as one unit, end of the members are identified properly, and P-∆
and P-δ effects are captured better.
2.8 Member Unsupported Lengths

The column unsupported lengths are required to account for column slender-
ness effects for flexural buckling and for lateral-torsional buckling. The
program automatically determines the unsupported length ratios, which are
specified as a fraction of the frame object length. Those ratios times the frame
object lengths give the unbraced lengths for the member. Those ratios also can
be overwritten by the user on a member-by-member basis, if desired, using the
design overwrite option.
The unsupported length for minor direction bending or for lateral-torsional

buckling also can be defined more precisely by using precise bracing points in
the Lateral Bracing option on the Steel Frame Design menu. This allows the
user to define the lateral bracing of the top, bottom, or both flanges. The brac-
ing can be a point brace, or continuous bracing is considered enough for flex-
ural buckling in the minor direction. The unbraced length of the compression
flange is determined based on the current moment diagram to determine the
lateral-torsional buckling length, lLTB. This exact method of bracing definition
does not allow the user to define unbraced lengths for major direction bending.
Two unsupported lengths, l33 and l22, as shown in Figure 2-2 are to be consid-
ered for flexural buckling. These are the lengths between support points of the
member in the corresponding directions. The length l33 corresponds to instabil-
ity about the 3-3 axis (major axis), and l22 corresponds to instability about the
2-2 axis (minor axis). The length lLTB , not shown in the figure, is also used for
Member Unsupported Lengths 2-9

lateral-torsional buckling caused by major direction bending (i.e., about the 3-3
axis).
In determining the values for l22 and l33 of the members, the program recogniz-
es various aspects of the structure that have an effect on these lengths, such as
member connectivity, diaphragm constraints, and support points. The program
automatically locates the member support points and evaluates the correspond-
ing unsupported length.
Figure 2-2 Unsupported lengths l33 and l22
It is possible for the unsupported length of a frame object to be evaluated by

the program as greater than the corresponding member length. For example,
assume a column has a beam framing into it in one direction, but not the other,
at a floor level. In that case, the column is assumed to be supported in one di-
rection only at that story level, and its unsupported length in the other direction
will exceed the story height.
By default, the unsupported length for lateral-torsional buckling, lLTB, is taken

to be equal to the l22 factor. Similar to l22 and l33, lLTB can be overwritten.
If the unsupported length is defined using the precise bracing point definition
and if it is also overwritten in the overwrites, the value used in the design
overwrites prevails. If the unsupported length is defined using the precise brac-
2 - 10 Member Unsupported Lengths

ing point definition and if it is not overwritten in the overwrites, the value used
in the bracing point definition governs. If the unsupported length is defined us-
ing neither the bracing point definition nor an overwrite, the program calculat-
ed value will be used.
2.9 Effective Length Factor (ke)

The effective length method for calculating member axial compressive strength
has been used in various forms in several stability based design codes. The
method originates from calculating effective buckling lengths, le, and is based
on elastic/inelastic stability theory. The effective buckling length is used to cal-
culate an axial compressive strength, Nc, through an empirical column curve
that accounts for geometric imperfections, distributed yielding, and residual
stresses present in the cross-section.
There are two types of ke -factors in the AS 4100-1998 code. The first type of
ke -factor is used for calculating the Euler axial capacity assuming that all of
the beam-column joints are held in place, i.e., no lateral translation is allowed.
The resulting axial capacity is used in calculation of the δ b factor. This
ke -factor is named as keb in the code. This keb factor is always less than 1 and
is not calculated. By default the program uses the value of 1 for keb . The pro-
gram allows the user to overwrite keb on a member-by-member basis.
The other ke -factor is used for calculating the Euler axial capacity assuming
that all the beam-column joints are free to sway, i.e., lateral translation is al-
lowed. This ke -factor is named as kes in the code. This kes is always greater
than 1 if the frame is a sway frame. The program calculates the kes factor au-
tomatically based on sway condition. The program also allows the user to
overwrite kes factors on a member-by-member basis. The same kes factor is
supposed to be used in calculation of the δ s factor. However the program does
not calculate δ s factors and relies on the overwritten values.
Both keb and kes have two values: one for major direction and the other for
minor direction, kebminor , kebmajor , kesminor , kesmajor .
Effective Length Factor (ke) 2 - 11

The kes -factors are supposed to be obtained from figures given in the code (AS
Figure 4.6.3.3(b)). However in absence of the exact mathematical form, either
explicit or implicit, the program calculates the kes -factor from its basic princi-
ple, which is described here. The resulting kes matches very closely with the
figure given in the code (AS Figure 4.6.3.3(b)). The same method is used for
AISC codes.
The kes -factor algorithm has been developed for building-type structures,
where the columns are vertical and the beams are horizontal, and the behavior
is basically that of a moment-resisting frame for which the kes -factor calcula-
tion is relatively complex. For the purpose of calculating the kes -factor, the
objects are identified as columns, beam and braces. All frame objects parallel
to the Z -axis are classified as columns. All objects parallel to the X - Y plane
are classified as beams. The remainders are considered to be braces.
The beams and braces are assigned a kes -factor of unity. In the calculation of
the kes -factor for a column object, the program first makes the following four
stiffness summations for each joint in the structural model:
Scx = ∑  c c  Sbx = ∑  b b 
EI EI
 Lc  x  Lb  x
Scy = ∑  c c  Sb y = ∑  b b 
EI EI
 Lc  y  Lb  y
where the x and y subscripts correspond to the global X and Y directions and
the c and b subscripts refer to column and beam. The local 2-2 and 3-3 terms
EI 22 L22 and EI 33 L33 are rotated to give components along the global X and
Y directions to form the ( EI L ) x and ( EI L ) y values. Then for each column,
the joint summations at END-I and the END-J of the member are transformed
back to the column local 1-2-3 coordinate system, and the G -values for END-I
and the END-J of the member are calculated about the 2-2 and 3-3 directions as
follows:
S I c 22 S J c 22
G I 22 = G J 22 =
S I b 22 S J b 22
2 - 12 Effective Length Factor (ke)

S I c 33 S J c 33
G I 33 = G J 33 =
S I b 33 S J b 33
If a rotational release exists at a particular end (and direction) of an object, the

corresponding value of G is set to 10.0. If all degrees of freedom for a particu-
lar joint are deleted, the G -values for all members connecting to that joint will
be set to 1.0 for the end of the member connecting to that joint. Finally, if G I
and G J are known for a particular direction, the column kes -factors for the
corresponding direction are calculated by solving the following relationship for
α:
α 2 G I G J − 36 α
=
6(G + G )
I J
tan α
from which kes = π/α. This relationship is the mathematical formulation for
the evaluation of kes -factors for moment-resisting frames assuming sidesway
to be uninhibited. For other structures, such as braced frame structures, the
kes -factors for all members are usually unity and should be set so by the user.
The following are some important aspects associated with the column
kes -factor algorithm:
 An object that has a pin at the joint under consideration will not enter the
stiffness summations calculated as described in the preceding text. An ob-
ject that has a pin at the far end from the joint under consideration will
contribute only 50% of the calculated EI value. Also, beam members that
have no column member at the far end from the joint under consideration,
such as cantilevers, will not enter the stiffness summation.
 If there are no beams framing into a particular direction of a column mem-
ber, the associated G-value will be infinity. If the G-value at any one end
of a column for a particular direction is infinity, the kes -factor correspond-
ing to that direction is set equal to unity.
 If rotational releases exist at both ends of an object for a particular direc-
tion, the corresponding kes -factor is set to unity.
 The automated kes -factor calculation procedure can occasionally generate
artificially high kes -factors, specifically under circumstances involving
skewed beams, fixed support conditions, and under other conditions where
Effective Length Factor (ke) 2 - 13

the program may have difficulty recognizing that the members are laterally
supported and kes -factors of unity are to be used.
 All kes -factors produced by the program can be overwritten by the user.
These values should be reviewed and any unacceptable values should be
replaced.
 The beams and braces are assigned kes -factors of unity.
The keb -factors are supposed to be obtained from figures given in the code (AS
Figure 4.6.3.3(a)). However in absence of the exact mathematical form, the
program calculates the keb -factor from its basic principle. This is similar to the
determination of the kes -factor, except that the keb -factor for the correspond-
ing direction is calculated by solving the following relationship for α:
G1G J 2 G J + G J  α  tan (α 2 )
α + 1 − + − 1 =0
4 2  tan α  (α 2 )
where,
π
keb = .
α
If the member is assigned with a framing type of sway frame, keb is used for δb
calculation, and kes is used for Nc calculation. If the member is assigned with a
framing type of Braced frame, keb is used for both δb and Nc calculation.
2.10 Effect of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

The preferred method is to model a beam, column or brace member as one sin-
gle element. However, the user can request that the program break a member
internally at framing intersections and at specified intervals. In this way, accu-
racy in modeling can be maintained at the same time that design/check specifi-
cations can be applied accurately. There is special emphasis on the end forces
(moments in particular) for many different aspects of beam, column, and brace
design. If the member is manually meshed (broken) into segments, maintaining
the integrity of the design algorithm becomes difficult.
2 - 14 Effect of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

Manually breaking a column member into several elements can affect many
things during design in the program.
1. The unbraced length: The unbraced length is really the unsupported length
between braces. If no intermediate brace is present in the member, the un-
braced length is typically calculated automatically by the program from the
top of the flange of the beam framing the column at the bottom to the bot-
tom of the flange of the beam framing the column at the top. The automati-
cally calculated length factor typically becomes less than 1. If there are in-
termediate bracing points, the user should overwrite the unbraced length
factor in the program. The user should choose the critical (larger) one.
Even if the user breaks the element, the program typically picks up the un-
braced length correctly, provided that there is no intermediate bracing
point.
2. ke-factor: Even if the user breaks the member into pieces, the program typi-
cally can pick up the ke-factors correctly. However, sometimes it can not.
The user should note the ke-factors. All segments of the member should
have the same ke-factor and that factor should be calculated based on the
entire member. If the calculated ke-factor is not reasonable, the user can
overwrite the ke-factors for all the segments.
3. Cm factor: The Cm factor should be based on the end moments of unbraced

lengths of each member and should not be based on the end moments of
the segment (AS 4.4.2.2). The program already calculates the Cm factors
based on the end moments of unbraced lengths of each member. If the
member is broken, the program calculated Cm factor is conservative. If this
conservative value is acceptable, no action is required by the user. If it is
not acceptable, the user can calculate the Cm factor manually for the critical
combination and overwrite its value for that segment.
4. αm factor: The αm factor should be based on the end moments of unbraced

lengths of each segment and should not be based on the end moments of
the member (AS 5.6.1.1). The program already calculates the αm factors
based on the end moments of unbraced lengths of each segment. If the bro-
ken segments do not represent the brace-to-brace unsupported length, the
program calculated αm factor is conservative. If this conservative value is
acceptable, no action is required by the user. If it is not acceptable, the user
Effect of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 2 - 15

can calculate the αm factor manually for the critical combination and over-
write its value for that segment.
5. δb factor: This factor amplifies the factored moments for the P-δ effect
(AS 4.2.1.2, App. F). In its expression, there are the Cm factor and the Euler
Buckling capacity Nomb. If the user keeps the unbraced length ratios (l33 and
l22) and the ke-factors (ke,33 and ke,22) correct, the δb factor would be correct.
If the axial force is small, the δb factor can be 1 and have no effect with re-
spect to modeling the single segment or multi-segment element.
6. δs factor: The program does not calculate the δs factor. The program
assumes that the user turns on the P-∆ feature. In such cases, δs can be tak-
en as equal to 1. That means that modeling with one or with multiple seg-
ments has no effect on this factor.
If the user models a column with a single element and makes sure that the
l-factors and ke-factors are correct, the effect of δb and δs will be picked up cor-
rectly. The factors Cm and αm will be picked up correctly if there is no interme-
diate bracing point. The calculated Cm and αm factors will be slightly conserva-
tive if there are intermediate bracing points.
If the user models a column with multiple elements and makes sure that
l-factors and ke-factor are correct, the effect of δb and δs will be picked up
correctly. The factors Cm and αm will be picked up correctly if the member is
broken at the bracing points. The calculated Cm and αm factors will be con-
servative if the member is not broken at the bracing points.
2.11 Supported Framing Types

The code (AS 4100-1998) recognizes the following types of framing
systems.
Framing Type References

Sway Frame AS 4.4.2.2
Braced Frame AS 4.4.2.2
2 - 16 Supported Framing Types

2.12 Frame Design Procedure Overwrites

The structural model may contain frame elements made of several structural
materials: steel, concrete, aluminum, cold-formed steel and other materials.
The program supports separate design procedures for each material type. By
default the program determines the design procedure from the material of the
frame member.
The program allows the user to turn the design of specific members off and on
by selecting No Design or Default from material. Refer to the program Help for
the procedure to overwrite the frame.
ETABS supports both regular steel frame design and composite beam design.
The determination of design procedure is different. If the material is concrete,
the design procedure is concrete. If the material is steel, the default design
procedure can be steel frame design or composite beam design. If the section is
of steel material, and the member satisfies a host of other criteria, such as the
member is horizontal (beam), it supports a filled deck or slab, it is an I-shaped
member, it is hinged at both ends and so on, then the default design procedure
is taken as composite beam design; otherwise, the default design procedure is
taken as steel frame design. ETABS allows the user to overwrite a steel
member frame design procedure to steel frame design, composite beam design,
default, or no design. Change the design procedure by selecting the member(s)
and clicking the Design menu > Overwrite Frame Design Procedure
command. A change in design will be successful only if the design procedure
is valid for that member, i.e., the program will not allow the user to change the
design procedure for a steel frame object to concrete frame design.
2.13 Interactive Design

Interactive Design is a powerful mode that allows the user to review the design
results for any steel frame design and interactively revise the design assump-
tions and immediately review the revised results.
Note that a design must have been run for the interactive design mode to be
available. Refer to the program Help for more information about interactive
steel frame design.
Frame Design Procedure Overwrites 2 - 17

2.14 Automated Iterative Design

If Auto Select sections have been assigned to frame objects, ETABS can auto-
matically perform the iterative steel frame design process. To initiate the pro-
cess, first use the Design menu > Steel Frame Design > View/Revise Prefer-
ences command and set the maximum number of auto iterations to the maxi-
mum number of design iterations the program is to run automatically. Next, run
the analysis. Then, begin the design process, making sure that no objects are
selected.
The program will then start the cycle of (1) performing the design, (2) compar-
ing the last-used Analysis Sections with the Design Sections, (3) setting the
Analysis Sections equal to the Design Sections, and (4) rerunning the analysis.
This cycle will continue until one of the following conditions has been met:
 The Design Sections and the last-used Analysis Sections are the same.
 The number of iterations performed is equal to the number of iterations

specified for the maximum number on the Preferences form.
Currently, this feature is absent in SAP2000.
2.15 Choice of Units

English as well as SI and MKS metric units can be used for input. The codes
are based on a specific system of units. All equations and descriptions present-
ed in the subsequent chapters correspond to that specific system of units unless
otherwise noted. For example, the ACI code is published in inch-pound-second
units. By default, all equations and descriptions presented in the "Design Pro-
cess" appendix correspond to inch-pound-second units. However, any system
of units can be used to define and design a structure in the program.
2 - 18 Automated Iterative Design

Chapter 3
Steel Frame Design Using AS 4100-1998
This chapter provides a detailed description of the algorithms used by the

program in the design/check of structures in accordance with "AS 4100-1998
Australian Standard Steel Structures" (SA 1998). The implementation covers
load combinations from "AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 Australian/New Zealand
Standard Structural Design Actions, Part 0: General Principle” (SA/SNZ
2002a), which are described in section 3.4 Design Loading Combinations in
this chapter. The wind loading is based on "AS/NZS 1170.2:2002
Australian/New Zealand Standard Structural Design Actions Part 2: Wind
Actions” (SA/SNZ 2002b). Earthquake loading based on “AS 1170.04-2007
Australian Standard Structural Design Actions Part A; Earthquake Actions in
Australia” (SA 2007) has been described in a separate document entitled “CSI
Lateral Load Manual” (CSI 2007).
 Reference to the AS 4100-1998 code is identified with the prefix “AS.”

 Reference to the AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 code is identified with the prefix
“AS/NZS.”
3.1 Notations
The various notations used in this chapter are described herein.
3-1
Steel Frame Design Manual AS 4100-1998
A Area of cross-section, mm2

Ag Gross area of a cross-section, mm2
An Net area of a cross-section, mm2
Aw Gross sectional area of a web, mm2
bf Width of flange, mm
bw Web depth, mm
d Depth of a section, mm
de Effective outside diameter of a circular hollow section, mm
df Distance between flange centroids, mm
dp Clear transverse dimension of a web panel, or
Depth of deepest web panel in a length, mm
d1 Clear depth between flanges ignoring fillets or welds, mm
d2 Twice the clear distance from the neutral axes to the compression
flange, mm
E Young’s modulus of elasticity, MPa
e Eccentricity, mm
F Action in general, force or load, N
fu Tensile strength used in design, MPa
fy Yield stress used in design, MPa
G Shear modulus of elasticity, MPa, or
Nominal dead load
I Second moment of area of a cross-section, mm4
Icy Second moment of area of compression flange about the section
minor principal y-axis, mm4
Iw Warping constant for a cross-section, mm6
Ix I about the cross-section major principal x-axis, mm4
Iy I about the cross-section minor principal y-axis, mm4
J Torsion constant for a cross-section, mm4
ke Member effective length factor
3-2 Notations
Chapter 3 Steel Frame Design Using AS 4100-1998
kf Form factor for members subject to axial compression

kl Load height effective length factor
kr Effective length factor for restraint against lateral rotation
l Span, or member length, or segment or sub-segment length, mm
l22, l33 Laterally unbraced length of member for major and minor axes
bending, mm
le /r Geometrical slenderness ratio
Mb Nominal member moment capacity, N-mm
Mbx Mb about major principal x-axis, N-mm
Mcx Lesser of Mix and Mox, N-mm
Mi Nominal in-plane member moment capacity, N-mm
Mix Mi about major principal axis, N-mm
Miy Mi about minor principal axis, N-mm
Mo Reference elastic buckling moment for a flexural member,
N-mm
Moa Amended elastic buckling moment for a member subjected to
bending, N-mm
Mob Elastic buckling moment determined using an elastic buckling
analysis, N-mm
Moo Reference elastic buckling moment obtained using le = l,
N-mm
Mos Mob for a segment, fully restrained at both ends, unrestrained
against lateral rotation and loaded at shear centre, N-mm
Mox Nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity about major
principal x-axis, N-mm
Mrx Ms about major principal x-axis reduced by axial force,
N-mm
Mry Ms about minor principal y-axis reduced by axial force,
N-mm
Ms Nominal section moment capacity, N-mm
Msx Ms about major principal x-axis, N-mm
Notations 3-3
Msy Ms about the minor principal y-axis, N-mm

Mtx Lesser of Mrx and Mox, N-mm
M* Design bending moment, N-mm
Nc Nominal member capacity in compression, N

Ncy Nc for member buckling about minor principal y-axis, N
Nom Elastic flexural buckling load of a member, N
Nomb Nom for a braced member, N
Noms Nom for a sway member, N
Ns Nominal section capacity of a compression member, or
Nominal section capacity for axial load, N
Nt Nominal section capacity in tension, N
N* Design axial force, tensile or compressive, N
Q Nominal live load

r Radius of gyration, mm
ry Radius of gyration about minor principle axis, mm
S Plastic section modulus, mm3
t Flat thickness, or wall thickness of a circular hollow section, mm
tf Thickness of a flange, mm
tp Thickness of a plate, mm
tw Thickness of a web, mm
Vb Nominal shear buckling capacity of a web, N
Vu Nominal shear capacity of a web with a uniform shear stress dis-
tribution, N
Vv Nominal shear capacity of a web, N
Vvm Nominal web shear capacity in the presence of bending moment,
N
Vw Nominal shear yield capacity of a web, N
V* Design shear force, N
3-4 Notations
yo Coordinate of shear centre, mm

Z Elastic section modulus, mm3
Zc Ze for a compact section, mm3
Ze Effective section modulus, mm3
αb Compression member section constant
αc Compression member slenderness reduction factor
αm Moment modification factor for bending
αl, αlc, αmc Factors for bending defined in Appendix H of AS 4100
αs Slenderness reduction factor
αst Reduction factor for members of varying cross-section
αv Shear buckling coefficient for a web
βe Modifying factor to account for conditions at the far ends of
beam members
βm Ratio of smaller to larger bending moment at the ends of a mem-
ber
ξ Compression member factor defined in AS Clause 6.3.3
η Compression member imperfection factor (AS 6.3.3)
λ Slenderness ratio
λe Plate element slenderness
λep Plate element plasticity slenderness limit
λey Plate element yield slenderness limit
λn Modified compression member slenderness
λs Section slenderness
λsp Section plasticity slenderness limit
λsy Section yield slenderness limit
υ Poisson’s ratio, 0.25
φ Capacity factor
Notations 3-5
3.2 Design Preferences

The steel frame design preferences are basic assignments that apply to all of
the steel frame members. Table 3-1 lists steel frame design preferences for "AS
4100-1998." Default values are provided for all preference items. Thus, it is not
necessary to specify or change any of the preferences. However, at least review
the default values to ensure they are acceptable. Some of the preference items
also are available as member-specific Overwrite items. The overwrites are
described in the next section. Overwritten values take precedence over the
preferences. Refer to the program Help for information about changing the
Preferences.
Table 3-1: Steel Frame Design Preferences
Item Possible Values Default Value Description
Design Code Design codes AS4100-1998 The selected design code. Subsequent design is based on
available in the this selected code. The default values shown below appear
current version when the AS4100-1998 is selected as the Design Code.
Multi-Response Envelopes, Envelopes Indicates how results for multivalued cases (Time history,
Case Design Step-by-Step, Nonlinear static or Multi-step static) are considered in the
Last Step, design. Envelope considers enveloping values for time
Envelopes – All, history and multi-step static and last step values for non-
Step-by-Step All linear static. Step-by-Step considers step-by-step values
for time history and multi-step static and last step values
for nonlinear static. Last step considers last values for time
history, multi-step static and nonlinear static. Envelope
all considers enveloping values for time history, multi-step
static and nonlinear static. Step-by-Step All considers step-
by-step values for time history, multi-step static and non-
linear static. Step-by-Step and Step-by-Step All default to
the corresponding Envelope if more then one multi-valued
case is present in the combo.
Framing Type Sway, Braced Sway Frame This item is used for ductility considerations in the design.
Structural Analysis General 2nd Order, General 2nd Indicates the analysis method used to check/design the
Method Amplified 1st Order steel members. The design module does not verify the
Order acceptability of the selected analysis method. See sections
4.1, 4.3, 4.4.1.2, and Appendix E of "AS 4100:1998" code
for details. The user is expected to verify the acceptability
of the selected method. The user is expected to set the
appropriate notional loads.
3-6 Design Preferences


Steel Type Hot Rolled, Hot Rolled Indicates the residual stress level in the structural section.
Hot Finished, This affects plasticity limit and yield limit of plate element
Cold Formed, slenderness values. Eventually this can affect moment
Stress Relieved, capacity and axial compression capacity through modifica-
Lightly Welded, tion on Ze and Aeff. "Hot Rolled" and "Hot Finished" are
Heavily Welded used synonymously in this program. "Cold Formed" is
meant as cold-formed and not stress-relieved. "Stress
Relieved" is meant as cold-formed and stress-relieved.
Welded H and I sections are assumed to be fabricated from
flame-cut plates. See sections 5.2.2, 6.2.4, 6.3.3, and Ta-
bles 5.2, 6.2.4, 6.3.3(1), and 6.3.3(2) of "AS 4100:1998"
code for details.
Capacity Factor Capacity factor for strength limit state. See section 3.4 and
≤1.0 0.9
Phi (Bending) Table 3.4 of “AS 4100 1998” for details.
≤1.0 0.9
Phi (Compression) Table 3.4 of “AS 4100 1998” for details.
Capacity Factor,
Capacity factor for strength limit state. See section 3.4 and
Phi (Tension Yield- ≤1.0 0.9
Table 3.4 of “AS 4100 1998” for details.
ing)
Capacity Factor
Capacity factor for strength limit state. See section 3.4 and
Phi (Tension- ≤1.0 0.9
Table 3.4 of “AS 4100 1998” for details.
Fracture)
≤1.0 0.9
Phi (Shear) Table 3.4 of “AS 4100 1998” for details.
Consider Yes, No No Toggle to consider the deflection limit (Yes) or to not

Deflection? consider the deflection limit (No) in design.
DL Limit, L/ ≥0 120 Deflection limit for dead load. Inputting 120 means that
the limit is L/120. Inputting zero means no check will be
made of this item.
Super DL+LL ≥0 120 Deflection limit for superimposed dead plus live load.
Limit, L/ Inputting 120 means that the limit is L/120. Inputting zero
means no check will be made of this item.
Live Load Limit, L/ ≥0 360 Deflection limit for superimposed live load. Inputting 360
means that the limit is L/360. Inputting zero means no
check will be made of this item.
Total Limit, L/ ≥0 240 Deflection limit for total load. Inputting 240 means that the
limit is L/240. Inputting zero means no check will be made
of this item.
Total-Camber ≥0 240 Limit for net deflection. Camber is subtracted from the
Limit, L/ total load deflection to get net deflection. Inputting 240
Pattern Live Load ≤1.0 0.75 The live load factor for automatic generation of load com-
Factor binations involving pattern live loads and dead loads.
Design Preferences 3-7


Demand/Capacity ≤1.0 0.95 The demand/capacity ratio limit to be used for acceptabil-
Ratio Limit ity. D/C ratios that are less than or equal to this value are
considered acceptable.
3.3 Overwrites
The steel frame design Overwrites are basic assignments that apply only to
those elements to which they are assigned. Table 3-2 lists steel frame design
overwrites for "AS 4100-1998." Default values are provided for all Overwrite
items. Thus, it is not necessary to specify or change any of the Overwrites.
However, at least review the default values to ensure they are acceptable.
When changes are made to Overwrite items, the program applies the changes
only to the elements to which they are specifically assigned. Overwritten val-
ues take precedence over the Preferences. Refer to the program Help for infor-
mation about changing Overwrites.
Many of the items on the Overwrites form are similar to those found on the
Preferences form. Note that the values displayed on the table will often be
“Program Determined,” indicating that the value used will be calculated by the
program.
Table 3-2 Steel Frame Design Overwrites for AS-4100-1998

Current Design Any defined steel Analysis section The design section for the selected frame object. When
Section section this Overwrite is applied, any previous auto select section
assigned to the frame object is removed.
Fame Type Sway, Braced From Preferences This item is used for ductility considerations in the de-
sign.
Steel Type Hot Rolled, Hot Rolled The steel type selection will affect the plate element
Hot Finished, slenderness limits as described in AS4100-1998, Table
Cold Formed, 5.2.
Stress Relieved,
Lightly Welded,
Heavily Welded
Consider Yes, No From Preferences Toggle to consider the deflection limit (Yes) or to not
Deflection? consider the deflection limit (No) in design.
Deflection Check Ratio, Both Choose to consider deflection limit as an absolute, as a

Type Absolute, divisor of the beam length, as both, or with no deflection
Both limit.
3-8 Overwrites

DL Limit, L/ ≥0 From Preferences Deflection limit for dead load. Inputting 120 means that
made of this item.
Super DL+LL ≥0 From Preferences Deflection limit for superimposed dead plus live load.
Limit, L/ Inputting 120 means that the limit is L/120. Inputting
zero means no check will be made of this item.
Live Load Limit, ≥0 360 Deflection limit for superimposed live load. Inputting
L/ 360 means that the limit is L/360. Inputting zero means
no check will be made of this item.
Total Limit, L/ ≥0 240 Deflection limit for total load. Inputting 240 means that
made of this item.
Total-Camber ≥0 240 Limit for net deflection. Camber is subtracted from the
Limit, L/ total load deflection to get net deflection. Inputting 240
DL Limit, abs ≥0 120 Deflection limit for dead load. Inputting 120 means that
made of this item.
Super DL+LL ≥0 1. Deflection limit for superimposed dead plus live load.
Limit, abs Inputting zero means no check will be made of this item.
Live Load Limit, ≥0 1. Deflection limit for superimposed live load. Inputting
abs zero means no check will be made of this item.
Total Limit, abs ≥0 1. Deflection limit for total load. Inputting zero means no
Total–Camber ≥0 1. Deflection limit for net deflection. Camber is subtracted

Limit, abs from the total load deflection to get net deflection. Input-
ting zero means no check will be made of this item.
Specified Camber The specified amount of camber to be reported in the

≥0 0
design output and to be used in the net deflection check.
Net Area to Total The ratio of the net area at the end joint to gross cross-
≥0 1.0
Area Ratio sectional area of the section. This ratio affects the design
of axial tension members. Specifying zero means the
value is the program default, which is 1.
Live Load Reduc- The reducible live load is multiplied by this factor to
≥0 Calculated
tion Factor obtain the reduced live load for the frame object. Specify-
ing zero means the value is program determined.
Overwrites 3-9

Unbraced Length Unbraced length factor for buckling about the frame
≥0 Calculated
Ratio (Major) object major axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
object length. This factor times the frame object length
gives the unbraced length for the object. Specifying zero
means the value is program determined. For symmetrical
sections, major bending is bending about the local 3-axis.
For unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles) major bending
is the bending about the section principal axis with the
larger moment of inertia.
Unbraced Length Unbraced length factor for buckling about the frame
≥0 Calculated
Ratio (Minor) object minor axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
means the value is program determined. For symmetrical
sections, major bending is bending about the local 2-axis.
For unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles) major bending
Unbraced Length Unbraced length factor for lateral-torsional buckling for
≥0 L22
Ratio (LTB) the frame object; specified as a fraction of the frame
means the value is program determined.
Effective Length Effective length factor for buckling about the frame
≥0 1.0 object major axis with an assumption that the frame is
Factor (Ke Major
Braced) braced at the joints against sidesway. This item is speci-
fied as a fraction of the frame object length. Multiplying
the frame object length with this factor gives the effective
length for the object. Specifying 0 means the value is
program determined. For beam design, this factor is
always taken as 1 regardless of what may be specified in
the overwrites. This factor is used for B1 factor. For
symmetrical sections major bending is bending about the
local 3-axis. For unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles)
major bending is the bending about the section principal
axis with the larger moment of inertia.
≥0 1.0
Factor (Ke Minor object minor axis with an assumption that the frame is
Braced) braced at the joints against sidesway. This item is speci-
fied as a fraction of the frame object length. Multiplying
the frame object length with this factor gives the effective
length for the object. Specifying 0 means the value is
program determined. For beam design, this factor is
always taken as 1 regardless of what may be specified in
the overwrites. This factor is also used for determining
the effective length for lateral-torsional buckling. This
factor is used for B1 factor. For symmetrical sections
minor bending is bending about the local 2-axis. For
unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles) minor bending is
the bending about the section principal axis with the
smaller moment of inertia.
3 - 10 Overwrites

≥0 1.0
Factor (Ke Major object major axis. This item is specified as a fraction of
Sway) the frame object length. Multiplying the frame object
length with this factor gives the effective length for the
object. Specifying 0 means the value is program deter-
mined. For beam design, this factor is always taken as 1
regardless of what may be specified in the overwrites.
For symmetrical sections major bending is bending about
the local 3-axis. For unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles)
≥0 1.0
Factor (Ke Minor object minor axis. This item is specified as a fraction of
Sway) the frame object length. Multiplying the frame object
length with this factor gives the effective length for the
object. Specifying 0 means the value is program deter-
mined. For beam design, this factor is always taken as 1
regardless of what may be specified in the overwrites.
This factor is also used for determining the effective
length for lateral-torsional buckling. For symmetrical
sections minor bending is bending about the local 2-axis.
For unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles) minor bending
Twist Restraint Twist restraint effective length factor for members sub-
≥0 Program
Factor for LTB jected to flexure. It is unitless. It affects lateral-torsional
Determined
(Kt) buckling capacity, Mb, by affecting Mo and alpha_s. Its
value depends on lateral or rotational restraints and sec-
tion slenderness b/t or d/t. Specifying 0 means the value
is thr program default which is 1. See section 5.6.3 and
Table 5.6.3(1) of the "AS 4100:1998" code for details.
Lateral Rotation Lateral rotation restraint effective length factor for mem-
≥0 Program
Restraint Factor Determined bers subjected to flexure. It is unitless. It affects lateral-
(Kr) torsional buckling capacity, Mb, by affecting Mo and
alpha_s. Its value depends on lateral or rotational re-
straints. Specifying 0 means the value is the program
default. See Section 5.6.3 and Table 5.6.3(3) of the “AS
4100-1998” code for details.
Load Height Load height effective length factor for members subject-
≥0 Program
Factor for LTB Determined ed to flexure. It is unitless. It affects lateral-torsional
(Kl) buckling capacity, Mb, by affecting Mo and alpha_s. Its
value depends on lateral or rotational restraints. Specify-
ing 0 means the value is the program default. See Section
5.6.3 and Table 5.6.3(2) of “AS 4100-1998” code for
details..
Overwrites 3 - 11

Moment Coeffi- Unitless factor for nonuniform moments, Cm for major
≥0 Program
cient (Cm Major) Determined axis bending, used in determining the Delta_b factor. It
captures the effect of non-uniform moment distribution
along the length. Specifying 0 means the value is pro-
gram determined. See section 4.4.2.2 and Appendix E of
"AS 4100:1998" code for details. For symmetrical sec-
tions major bending is bending about the local 3-axis. For
unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles) major bending is
Moment Coeffi- Unitless factor for nonuniform moments, Cm for minor
≥0 Program
cient (Cm Minor) axis bending, used in determining the Delta_b factor. It
Determined
captures the effect of non-uniform moment distribution
along the length. Specifying 0 means the value is pro-
gram determined. See section 4.4.2.2 and Appendix E of
"AS 4100:1998" code for details. For symmetrical sec-
tions minor bending is bending about the local 2-axis. For
Moment Modifi- Moment modification factor for distribution of bending
≥0 Calculated
cation Factor moments in a member subjected to flexure. It is unitless.
(Alpha_m) It captures the effect of non-uniform moment distribution
along the length. Program determined value means it is
calculated for each element for each load combination
uniquely. Specifying 0 means the value is program de-
termined. See sections 5.6.1.1 and 5.6.2 and Tables 5.6.1
and 5.6.2 of the "AS 4100:1998" code for details.
Slenderness Re- Slenderness reduction factor for a member subjected to
≥0 Calculated
duction Factor flexure. It is unitless. Program determined value means it
(Alpha_s) is calculated for each element for each load combination
uniquely. Specifying 0 means the value is program de-
termined. See section 5.6.1.1 the "AS 4100:1998" code
for details.
NonSway Mo- Unitless moment magnification factor for major axis
≥0 Calculated
ment Factor (Db bending moment of a braced member. Specifying 0
Major) means the value is program determined. Program deter-
mined value means it is calculated for each element for
each load combination uniquely. See section 4.4.2.2 and
Appendix E and F of the "AS 4100:1998" code for de-
tails. For symmetrical sections major bending is bending
about the local 3-axis. For unsymmetrical sections (e.g.,
angles) major bending is the bending about the section
principal axis with the larger moment of inertia.
3 - 12 Overwrites

NonSway Mo- Unitless moment magnification factor for minor axis
≥0 Program
ment Factor (Db Determined bending moment of a braced member. Specifying 0
Minor) means the value is program determined. Program deter-
mined value means it is calculated for each element for
each load combination uniquely. See section 4.4.2.2 and
Appendix E and F of the "AS 4100:1998" code for de-
tails. For symmetrical sections minor bending is bending
about the local 2-axis. For unsymmetrical sections (e.g.,
angles) minor bending is the bending about the section
principal axis with the smaller moment of inertia..
Sway Moment Unitless moment magnification factor for major axis
≥0 1.0
Factor (Ds Major) bending moment of a sway member. Specifying 0 means
the value is the program default, which is 1. The program
determined value is taken as 1 because it is assumed that
P-Delta effects were specified to be included in the anal-
ysis, and thus no further magnification is required. See
section 4.4.2.3 and Appendix E and F of the "AS
4100:1998" code for details. For symmetrical sections
major bending is bending about the local 3-axis. For
unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles) major bending is
Sway Moment Unitless moment magnification factor for minor axis
≥0 1.0
Factor (Ds Minor) bending moment of a sway member. Specifying 0 means
the value is the program default, which is 1. The program
determined value is taken as 1 because it is assumed that
P-Delta effects were specified to be included in the anal-
ysis, and thus no further magnification is required. See
section 4.4.2.3 and Appendices E and F of the "AS
4100:1998" code for details. For symmetrical sections
minor bending is bending about the local 2-axis. For
Form Factor (Kf) 1 Form factor for members subjected to axial compression.
1
<1 It is unitless. Its value is 1 for compact sections and less
than one for non-compact and slender sections. Specify-
ing 0 means the value is program determined. See sec-
tions 6.2.1, 6.3.3, 8.3.2, 8.4.2.2, and 8.4.4.1 of the "AS
4100:1998" code for details.
Axial Capacity ≤1 1 Correction factor for distribution of forces for members

Connection Factor subjected to axial tension. It is unitless. Its value depends
(kt) on the connections and can be less than or equal to one
for any section. Specifying 0 means the value is the pro-
gram default, which is 1. See sections 7.2, 7.3.1, and
7.3.2 and Table 7.3.2 of the "AS 4100:1998" code for
details.
Overwrites 3 - 13

Yield Stress, Fy Material yield strength used in the design/check. Specify-
≥0 Program
Determined ing zero means the value is program determined. The
program determined value is taken from the material
property assigned to the frame object.
Compressive Allowable axial compressive capacity. Specifying zero
≥0 Program
Capacity, Nc Determined means the value is program determined.
Tensile Capacity, Allowable axial tensile capacity. Specifying zero means

≥0 Program
Pnt Determined the value is program determined.
Major Bending Allowable bending moment capacity in major axis bend-

≥0 Program
Capacity, Ms33 Determined ing. Specifying 0 means the value is program determined.
Minor Bending Allowable bending moment capacity in minor axis bend-
≥0 Program
Capacity, Ms22 Determined ing. Specifying 0 means the value is program determined.
For symmetrical sections minor bending is bending about
minor bending is the bending about the section principal
axis with the smaller moment of inertia.
Major Bending Allowable critical moment capacity for major axis bend-
≥0 Program
Capacity, Mb33 Determined ing. Specifying 0 means the value is program determined.
Major Shear Allowable shear capacity force for major direction shear.
≥0 Program
Capacity, Vu2 Determined Specifying 0 means the value is program determined. For
symmetrical sections major shear is shear in the local 2-
axis direction. For unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles)
major shear is the shear associated with major bending.
Note that major bending is the bending about the section
principal axis with the larger moment of inertia.
Minor Shear Allowable shear capacity force for minor direction shear.
≥0 Program
Capacity, Vu3 Determined Specifying 0 means the value is program determined. For
symmetrical sections minor shear is shear in the local 3-
axis direction. For unsymmetrical sections (e.g., angles)
minor shear is the shear associated with minor bending.
Note that minor bending is the bending about the section
principal axis with the smaller moment of inertia.
Demand/Capacity The stress ratio limit to be used for acceptability. Stress
≥0 Program
Ratio Limit ratios that are less than or equal to this value are consid-
Determined
ered acceptable. Specifying zero means the value is pro-
gram determined.
3 - 14 Overwrites
3.4 Design Load Combination

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed
load cases for which the structure is to be checked. The program creates a
number of default design load combinations for steel frame design. Users can
add their own design load combinations as well as modify or delete the pro-
gram default design load combinations. An unlimited number of design load
combinations can be specified.
To define a design load combination, simply specify one or more load cases,
each with its own scale factor. The scale factors are applied to the forces and
moments from the load cases to form the factored design forces and moments
for each design load combination. There is one exception to the preceding. For
spectral analysis modal combinations, any correspondence between the signs
of the moments and axial loads is lost. The program uses eight design load
combinations for each such loading combination specified, reversing the sign
of axial loads and moments in major and minor directions.
As an example, if a structure is subjected to dead load, D, and live load, L,

only, the AS 4100-1998 design check may need one design load combination
only, namely, 1.2D + 1.5L. However, if the structure is subjected to wind,
earthquake, or other loads, numerous additional design load combinations may
be required.
For AS 4100-1998, if a structure is subjected to dead (D), live (L), pattern live
(PL), wind (W), and earthquake (E) loads, and considering that wind and
earthquake forces are reversible, the following load combinations may need to
be defined (AS 3.2.3, AS/NZS 4.2.2):
1.35D (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(a))

1.2D + 1.5L (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(b))
1.2D + 1.5(0.75 PL) (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(b))
0.9D ± 1.0W (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(e))

1.2D ± 1.0W (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(d))
1.2D + 0.4L ± 1.0W (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(d))
1.0D ± 1.0E (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(f))

1.0D + 0.3L ± 1.0E (AS/NZS, 4.2.2(f))
Design Load Combination 3 - 15

Note that the 0.4 factor on the live load in three of the combinations is not valid
for live load representing storage areas.
These are also the default design load combinations in the program whenever
the AS 4100-1998 code is used.
Two types of live load are used in the program, i.e., Live (L) and Reduced Live
(LR). Live loads are non-reducible and this load should be used for defining
sustained loadings, such as storage, car parking, mechanical plant, and the like,
and Reduced Live should be used for transient live loads.
The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the member
forces of the reducible live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce
the contribution of the live load to the factored responses.
The user should use other appropriate design load combinations if roof live
load is separately treated, or if other types of loads are present. PLL is the live
load multiplied by the Pattern Live Load Factor. The Pattern Live Load Factor
can be specified in the Preferences.
The code is required to consider Notional Load in the design loading combina-
tions for steel frame design. The program allows the user to define and create
notional loads as individual load cases from a specified percentage of a given
gravity load acting in a particular lateral direction. These notional load cases
should be considered in the combinations with appropriate factors, appropriate
directions, and appropriate senses. Currently, the program automatically in-
cludes the notional loads in the default design gravity load combinations only.
The user is free to modify the default design load combinations to include the
notional loads for the other combinations, if desired. For further information,
refer to the "Notional Load Patterns" section in Chapter 2.
The combinations described herein are the default loading combinations only.
They can be deleted or edited as required by the design code or engineer-of-
record.
3.5 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling

The nominal strengths for flexure are dependent on the classification of the
section as Compact, Non-Compact, Slender, or Too Slender. Compact sections
3 - 16 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling

are capable of developing the full plastic strength before local buckling occurs.
Non-Compact sections can develop partial yielding in compression and buckle
inelastically before reaching fully plastic stress distribution. Slender sections
buckle elastically before any of the elements yield under compression.
Sections are classified as Compact, Non-Compact, or Slender sections in ac-

cordance with Section 5.2.2 of the code (AS 5.2.2). For a section to qualify as
Compact, its flanges must be continuously connected to the web or webs and
the width-thickness ratios of its compression elements must not exceed the
plasticity limit, λep from Table 5.2 of the code.
λe ≤ λep (for all elements) (AS 5.2.2, 5.2.3, Table 5.2).
If the width-thickness ratio of one or more compression elements exceeds λep,

but does not exceed λey from Table 5-2, the section is Non-Compact.
λe ≤ λey (all) (AS 5.2.2, 5.2.4, Table 5.2)

λep < λe ≤ λey (any) (AS 5.2.2, 5.2.4, Table 5.2)
If the width-thickness ratio of any element exceeds λey but does not exceed λew ,
the section is Slender.
λe ≤ λew (all) (AS 5.2.2, 5.2.5, Table 5.2)
λey < λe ≤ λew (any) (AS 5.2.2, 5.2.5, 5.10.1)
If the width-thickness ratio of any element exceeds λew , the section is consid-
ered Too Slender.
λe > λew (any) (AS 5.2.2, 5.10.1)
The values of λep, λey, and λew, as implemented in the program, are taken from
Table 3-4 (AS 5.2.2, 5.10.1, Table 5.2). In that table, all expressions of λep and
λey are taken from AS Section 5.2.2 and AS Table 5.2. The limit demarcating
Slender and Too Slender has been identified as λew in this document. The ex-
pression of λew for I-Shape, Double Channel, Channel, and T-Shape sections is
taken from AS section 5.10.1.
Section classification is done differently for bending about major and minor
axes. For example, when a double symmetric I-Shaped member goes through
major axis bending, its compression flange sustains a uniform compression.
Whereas when the same member is subjected to a minor axis bending moment,
the flanges sustain a non-uniform compression as the stress will be maximum
Classification of Sections for Local Buckling 3 - 17

at the tip and zero at the edge that connects the web. In these two cases the val-
ues of λep, λey, and λew will be different because of uniform and non-uniform
stress conditions. Accordingly the program classifies the individual sections in
accordance with Table 3-4 for major axis bending, and Table 3-5 for minor ax-
is bending. Tables 3-4 and 3-5 focus mostly on the width-thickness ratios, the
number of longitudinal edges supported and the stress condition. Actual λep,
λey, and λew are taken from Table 3-3.
Table 3-3 Values of Plate Element Slenderness Limits (Table AS 5.2)

Plate Longitudinal Residual Plasticity Yield Too slender
element edges Stress Condition stresses limit limit limit
type supported (see Notes) (λep) (λey) (λew)
SR 10 16 90
HR 9 16 90
Uniform compression
LW, CF 8 15 90
HW 8 14 90
One
Non-uniform Compression - SR 10 25 90
Maximum compression at HR 9 25 90
unsupported edge, zero stress LW, CF 8 22 90
Flat or tension at supported edge HW 8 22 90
SR 30 45 180
HR 30 45 180
Uniform compression
LW, CF 30 40 180
Both HW 30 35 180
Non-uniform Compression -
Compression at one edge, Any 82 115 180
tension at the other edge
SR 50 120 No Limit
HR, CF 50 120 No Limit
Circular hollow sections Any
LW 42 120 No Limit
HW 42 120 No Limit
Notes:
SR Stress relieved LW Lightly welded longitudinally (residual stress < 40 MPa)
HR Hot-rolled or hot-finished HW Heavily welded longitudinally (residual stress ≥ 40 MPa)
CF Cold formed
The following tables use the variables bf, tf, tw, b, t, do, d, h, and so on. The var-
iables b, d, do, and t are explained in the respective figures inside the table. The
variables bf, tf, h, and tw are explained in Figure 3-1.

Table 3-4 Width-Thickness Ratios, Edge Supports, and Stress Uniformity of

Compression Elements for Classification of Sections When Subjected
to Flexure about the Major Axis
Element Number of
Section Description Slenderness Supported Edg- Stress
Type of Element Example (λe) es Condition
Flexural compression  b f − tw  f y
of flanges of rolled   One Uniform
I-Shapes  2t f  250
Doubly Symmetric
I-Shape
in flanges of built-up   One Uniform
 h  fy
Flexure in web  t  250 Two Non-Uniform
 w
Flexural Compression  b f − tw  f y
Singly Symmetric
I-Shapes
in flanges of   One Uniform
built-up I-Shapes  2t f  250
hp
hc
2 pna
2
h  h  fy
Flexure in Web cg  t  250 Two Non-Uniform
 w
tw
 b f − tw  f y
Channel
Flexural
compression in flang-   One Uniform
es  t f  250


Element Number of
Channel
 h  fy
 w
Flexural  b f − tw  f y
Double Channel
compression in   One Uniform

flanges  t f  250
 h  fy
 w
Flexural compression  b  fy
of flanges  t  250 Two Uniform
 
Box
 h  fy
 
in flanges   One Uniform
T-Shape
 2t f  250
Flexural compression  d − tf  fy
in stems   One Non-Uniform
 tw  250
Flexural compression  b  fy
 t  250 One Uniform
Double Angle
in leg
 
Flexural  b  fy
compression in leg  t  250 One Non-Uniform
 
 b  fy
Angle
Flexural compression
in any leg  t  250 One Uniform
 


Element Number of
 do  f y
Pipe
Flexural compression  
 t  250
Round
---- ---- ---- Assumed Compact
Bar
Rectan-
gular
General ---- ---- ---- Assumed Compact
SD
Section
Table 3-5 Width-Thickness Ratios, Edge Supports, and Shear Uniformity of

Compression Elements for Classification Sections When Subjected to
Flexure about Minor Axis
Number of
Section Description of Ele- Element Slenderness Supported Edg- Stress Condi-
Type ment Example (λe) es tion
of flanges of rolled I-   One Non-Uniform
Shapes  2t f  250
Doubly Symmetric
I-Shape
in flanges of built-up   One Non-Uniform
 h  fy
 w


Number of
of flanges of rolled   One Non-Uniform
Singly Symmetric
I-Shapes
in flanges of built-up I-   One Non-Uniform
 b f − tw  f y
Flexure in Web   Two Non-Uniform
 2t f  250
compression in flang-   One Non-Uniform
es  t f  250
Channel
 h  fy
Flexure in web  t  250 Two Uniform
 w
Double Channel
compression   One Non-Uniform

in flanges  t f  250
 h  fy
 w
 b  fy
Box
of flanges under major  t  250 Two Non-Uniform

axis bending  


Number of
 h  fy
Box
Flexure in web   Two Uniform

 t  250
in flanges   One Non-Uniform
T-Shape
 tw  250
 d − tf  fy
Compression in stems   One Non-Uniform
 tw  250
Any type of  b  fy
 t  250 One Non-Uniform
Double Angle
compression in leg
 
compression in leg  t  250 One Uniform
 
 b  fy
Angle
in any leg  t  250 One Non-uniform
 
Flexural  do  fy
Pipe
compression   250
t 
Round
Bar
Rectan-
gular
SD
Section

bf bf b ft
hp 2
hc 2
PNA
tw
bw d df
tw bw= d − 2 t f ( ) NA
h
tw
tf tf
b b b fc
s bf bf
tw b b
( )
bw= d − 2 t f bw d
tw
bw= d − 2 t f( ) bw tw d
tw
tf tf
tf
b bf
bf
b
bf bf
s
tf
t tf
d bu h b
tw b d
b
tw
Axes Conventions
2, y
2-2 is the cross section axis
parallel to the webs, the
do t longer dimension of tubes,
d the longer leg of single 3, x 3, x
angles, or the side by side
legs of double anges. This is
the same as the y-y axis.
2, y
3-3 is orthogonal to 2-2. This is
the same as the x-x axis.
Figure 3-1 AS 4100-1998 Definition of Geometric Properties

In classifying web slenderness of I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, and

all other sections, it is assumed that there are not intermediate stiffeners. The
code provides a limit on web slenderness for unstiffened web in Clause 5.10.1.
This document refers to that limit as λew and uses it as a limit of Too Slender-
ness. When λe exceeds λew, the web slenderness limit at unstiffened condition,
the program reports that the section is Too Slender.
For sections with flat compression elements, the plate element slenderness is
taken as follows:
 b  fy
λ e =  (AS 5.2.2)
 t  250
For flat compression elements supported on only one edge parallel to the direc-
tion of compression force, b is taken as the clear width of the element outstand
from the face of the supporting plate elements. For flat compression elements
supported along two edges parallel to the direction of the compression force, b
is taken as the clear width of the element between the faces of supporting plate
elements (AS 5.2.2). For all flat compression elements t is taken as the element
thickness (AS 5.2.2).
The section plasticity and yield slenderness limits, λsp and λsy, respectively,
shall be taken as the values of the element slenderness limits λep and λey, re-
spectively, which are given in the Table 3-3 for the element of the cross-
section which has the greatest λe / λey. The section slenderness λs is given by
the following:
 λf λw
λ f , if λ fy
≥
λ wy
,

λ s = (AS 5.2.2)
λ , if λf λ
< w ,
 w λ fy λ wy

where, λf and λfy are the values of λe and λey for the flange, and λw and λwy are
the values of λe and λey for the web, as described in Section 3.5.
For circular hollow sections, the element slenderness, λe, and equivalent sec-
tion slenderness, λs , is taken as follows:
 d  fy 
λ s =λ e = o   (AS 5.2.2)
 t  250 

where do is the outside diameter of the section.
The nominal strength for axial compression also depends on the classification
of section. In this mode, however, the sections are classified as either Compact
or Slender in accordance with the code (AS 6.2.3). For a section to qualify as
Compact, the following condition should be satisfied:
λe ≤ λey (all elements) (AS 6.2.3)
If the preceding condition is not satisfied, the section is considered to be Slen-
der.
The value of λey for the axial mode is taken from Table 3-6 in accordance with
the code (AS 6.2.4, Table 6.2.4). For sections with flat plate elements, this
limit λey is the same as that in AS Table 5.2. However for pipe sections, the
values differ.
The slenderness of a flat plate element, λe, is calculated as follows:
b  fy 
λe =   (AS 6.2.3)
t  250 
For circular hollow sections, the element slenderness, λe, is calculated as fol-
lows:
 d   fy 
λe =  o    (AS 6.2.3)
 t   250 
The preceding two expressions of λe are exactly the same as those given for the
flexural mode (AS 6.2.3, 5.2.2). Also the values of b, t, and do are the same as
those described earlier in this section.
The program clarifies the individual sections in accordance with Table 3-7 for
axial compression. This table focuses on the width-thickness ratios, number of
longitudinal edges supported, and stress condition. Actual λey is taken from Ta-
ble 3-6.

Table 3-6 Values of Plate Element Yield Slenderness Limit (AS Table 6.2.4)
Longitudinal Residual Yield
Plate
edges stresses slenderness
element type
supported (see Notes) limit, λey
SR 16
HR 16
One (Outstand)
LW, CF 15
HW 14
Flat
SR 45
HR 45
Both
LW, CF 40
HW 35
SR 82
HR 82
Circular hollow sections
LW, CF 82
HW 82
Notes:
SR Stress relieved LW Lightly welded longitudinally (residual stress < 40 MPa)
HR Hot-rolled or hot-finished HW Heavily welded longitudinally (residual stress ≥ 40 MPa)
CF Cold formed

Axial Compression
Number of
of flanges of rolled I-   One Uniform
Doubly Symmetric
I-Shape
in flanges of built-up   One Uniform
 h  fy
 w


Axial Compression
Number of
Singly Symmetric
I-Shapes
in flanges of built-up I-   One Uniform
 h  fy
Flexure in Web  t  250 Two Uniform
 w
 b f − tw  f y
Channel
Flexural
compression in flang-   One Uniform
es  2t f  250
Channel
 h  fy
 w
Double Channel
compression   One Uniform

in flanges  t f  250
 h  fy
 w
 b  fy
Box
of flanges under major  t  250 Two Uniform

axis bending  


Axial Compression
Number of
 h  fy
Flexure in web t  Two Uniform
  250
in flanges   One Uniform
T-Shape
 2t f  250
 d − tf  fy
Compression in stems   One Uniform
 tw  250
 t  250 One Uniform
Double Angle
compression in leg
 
compression in leg  t  250 One Uniform
 
 b  fy
Angle
in any leg  t  250 One Uniform
 
Axial only
 b  fy
Angle
compression  t  250 One Uniform

in any leg  
Flexural  do  fy
Pipe
compression t 
  250
Round
Bar
Rectan-
gular
SD
Section

3.6 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments

The factored member loads that are calculated for each load combination are
N*, M*33, M*22, V*2, V*3 and T* corresponding to factored values of the axial
load, the major and minor moments and shears, and torsion, respectively.
These factored loads are calculated at each of the previously defined stations.
The factored forces can be amplified to consider second order effects, depend-
ing on the choice of analysis method chosen in the Preferences. If the analysis
method is chosen to be General Second Order Elastic Analysis, it is assumed
that the analysis considers the influence of second-order effects (P-∆ and P-δ
effects); hence the analysis results are used without amplification (AS
4.4.1.2(a), 4.4.1.2(b), App E, App F). Second-order effects due to overall sway
of the structure can usually be accounted for, conservatively, by considering
the second-order effects on the structure under one set of loads (usually the
most severe gravity load case), and performing all other analyses as linear us-
ing the stiffness matrix developed for this one set of P-delta loads (see also
White and Hajjar 1991). For a more accurate analysis, it is always possible to
define each loading combination as a nonlinear load case that considers only
geometric nonlinearities. For both approaches, when P-δ effects are expected to
be important, use more than one element per line object.
If the analysis method considers only Second Order Analysis by Amplified

First Order Analysis (AS 4.4.2), it is assumed that the analysis does not con-
sider the influence of second order effects (P-∆ and P-δ). Hence the analysis
results are amplified using δb and δs factors using the following approximate
second-order analysis for calculating the required flexural strengths in mem-
bers of lateral load resisting systems. The required second-order flexural
strength, M*, is determined as follows:
M* = δb (M*fb + δs M*fs) Sway Frames (AS 4.4.1.2(b), 4.4.2.3, App F)
M* = δb (M*fb + M*fs) Braced Frames (AS 4.4.1.2(a), 4.4.2.2, App F)
where,
Cm
=δb ≥ 1, and (AS 4.4.2.2)
 N* 
1−  
 N omb 
3 - 30 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments

1
=δs ≥ 1, (AS 4.4.2.3)
∆ s ΣN *
1−
hs ΣV *
where,
M* = required second-order flexural strength using load combina-

tions, N-mm
M*fb = first-order factored moment using the design load combina-

tions, assuming there is no lateral translation of the frame, N-
mm
M*fs = first-order factored moment using the design load combina-

tions caused by lateral translation of the frame only, N-mm
N* = required second-order axial strength using load combinations,

N
ΣN* = total vertical load supported by the story, including gravity

column loads, N
ΣV* = total story shear, N
∆s = lateral strong drift, mm
hs = strong height, mm
Cm = a coefficient assuming no lateral translation of the frame,

whose value is taken as follows:
(i) For beam-columns not subject to transverse loading be-

tween supports in the plane of bending,
Cm= 0.6 − 0.4βm ≤ 1.0 (AS 4.4.2.1)
M
βm = a
Mb
Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 3 - 31

where, Ma and Mb, calculated from a first-order analysis,

are the smaller and larger moments, respectively, at the
ends of that portion of the member unbraced in the plane
of bending under consideration. M a M b is positive when
the member is bent in reverse curvature, negative when
bent in single curvature.
(ii) For beam-columns subjected to transverse loading between

supports, the value of Cm is conservatively taken as 1.0 for
all cases (AS 4.4.2.2.(a)).
When Mb is zero, Cm is taken as 1.0; the program defaults Cm

to 1.0 if the unbraced length is more than actual member
length. The user can overwrite the value of Cm for any mem-
ber. Cm can be expressed as follows:
1.00, if length is more than actual length,


1.00, if tension member,

Cm = 1.00, if both ends unrestrained,
0.6 − 0.4β , if no transverse loading, and
 m
1.00, if transverse loading is present.

(AS 4.4.2.1)
Nomb = elastic critical buckling resistance of the member in the plane

of bending, calculated based on the assumption of zero side-
sway, N
π2 EI
N omb = (AS 4.6.2)
( kebl )
2
where,
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, 200,000 MPa
I = moment of inertia in the plane of bending, mm4
l = story height, mm
3 - 32 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments

keb = effective length factor in the plane of bending, calculat-

ed based on the assumption of no lateral translation. It
is calculated following the procedure given in Chapter
2. The Overwrites can be used to change the value of
keb for the major and minor directions.
In the expression of δb, the required axial force N* is used based on its first or-
der value. The magnification factor δb must be a positive number. Therefore,
N* must be less than Nomb. If N* is found to be greater than or equal to Nomb, a
failure condition is declared.
If the program assumptions are not satisfactory for a particular structural model
or member, the user has the choice to explicitly specify the values of δb for any
member.
Currently, the program does not calculate the δs factor. The user is required to
overwrite the values of δs for the members, if the Amplified First Order
Method is used. The program prefers that the user would use the General
Second Order Elastic Analysis method
However, it is assumed that P-∆ analysis reasonably captures the effect of P-∆
only. In order to capture the effect of P-δ, the program conservatively amplifies
the second order moment with the δb factor only.
M* = δb M*m ( AS 4.4.1.2(b), App E)
This is similar to assuming a braced condition.
3.7 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are comput-
ed for Compact, Noncompact, and Slender members in accordance with the
following sections. The nominal flexural strengths for all shapes of sections
are calculated based on their principal axes of bending. For the Rectangular, I-
Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, Circular, Pipe, T-Shape, and Double
Angle sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For the
Single Angle sections, the principal axes are determined and all computations
except shear are based on that.
Calculation of Nominal Strengths 3 - 33

For all sections, the nominal shear strengths are calculated for directions
aligned with the geometric axes, which typically coincide with the principal
axes. Again, the exception is the Single Angle section.
If the user specifies nonzero nominal capacities for one or more of the
members on the Steel Frame Overwrites form, those values will override
the calculated values for those members. The specified capacities should
be based on the principal axes of bending for flexure, and the geometric
axes for shear.
3.7.1 Nominal Flexural Capacities

This section applies to members subject to simple bending about one principal
axis. The members are assumed to be loaded in a plane parallel to a principal
axis that passes through the shear center, or restrained against twisting. Nor-
mally a member subjected to pure bending about the major principal axis (x-
axis or 3-3 axis) should satisfy the following conditions:
M x* ≤ φM sx (AS 5.1)
M x* ≤ φM bx (AS 5.1)
Normally a member subjected to pure bending about the minor principal axis
(y-axis or 2-2 axis) should satisfy the following condition:
M *y ≤ φM sy (AS 5.1)
where,
M *x = The design bending moment about the x-axis (major principal

axis, 3-3 axis).
M *y = The design bending moment about the y-axis (minor principal

axis, 2-2 axis).
φ = The capacity factor for flexure.
Msx = The nominal section moment capacity about the x-axis.
Msy = The nominal section moment capacity about the y-axis
3 - 34 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

Mbx = The nominal member moment capacity about the x-axis.
Members subjected to combined actions of axial forces, bending moments, and

shear forces are checked using interaction equations described later in this
chapter. These equations use Msx, Msy, and Mbx extensively.
3.7.1.1 Section Moment Capacity for Bending About a Principal Axis

For bending about a principal axis, the section moment capacity is calculated
as follows,
M sx = f y Z ex (AS 5.2.1)
M sy = f y Z ey (AS 5.2.1)
where the effective section modulus, Ze, is calculated as follows.
For compact, noncompact, and slender sections comprised of flat plate ele-
ments, such as I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, T-Shape, Angle, Dou-
ble Angle sections and hollow pipe sections, Ze is calculated as follows:
For sections that satisfy λs ≤ λsp (compact sections), the effective section mod-
ulus, Ze, is taken as follows:
Ze = min{S, 1.5Z}, (AS 5.2.3)
where,
S = Plastic section modulus, and
Z = Elastic section modulus.
The program uses the S and Z values based on gross section property. No ad-
justment for holes is made.
For sections that satisfy λsp < λs ≤ λsy (non-compact sections), the effectiveness
section modulus, Ze, is calculated as follows:
 λ sy − λ s  
Ze =
Z +   ( Zc − Z ) ( AS 5.2.4)
 λ sy − λ sp  

where Zc is the effective section modulus Ze for a compact section specified

previously.
Zc = min{S, 1.5Z} (AS 5.2.3)
For sections with flat plate elements in uniform compression that satisfy λs > λsy
(slender sections), the effective section modulus, Ze, is calculated as follows:
 λ sy 
Ze = Z   (AS 5.2.5)
 λs 
For a section whose slenderness is determined by the value calculated for a flat
plate element with maximum compression at an unsupported edge and zero
stress or tension at the other edge and that satisfies λs > λsy, the effective section
modulus, Ze, is calculated as follows:
2
 λ sy 
Ze = Z   ( AS 5.2.5)
 λs 
For circular hollow sections (pipe) that satisfy λs > λsy, the effective section
modulus is taken as the lesser of the following two values:
 λ sy 
Ze = Z   and ( AS 5.2.5)
 λs 
2
 2λ sy 
Ze = Z   ( AS 5.2.5)
 λs 
For solid circular sections, Ze is always calculated assuming compact section.
Ze = min{S, 1.5Z} (AS 5.2.3)
For solid rectangular sections, general sections, and the Section Designer sec-
tions, Ze is calculated conservatively as follows:
Ze = Z
Ze is calculated for major and minor axis bending separately using the appro-
priate values of (Z22, S22) or (Z33, S33) pairs.

3.7.1.2 Member Moment Capacity of Segments with Arbitrary Lateral

Restraint
The nominal member moment capacity of a flexural member is calculated as
follows:
=M b α mα s M s ≤ M s (AS 5.6.1.1(a))
where,
αm = A moment modification factor.
αs = A slenderness reduction factor.
Ms = The nominal section moment capacity.
The moment modification factor, αm, is taken as follows:
1.7 M m*
=αm ≤ 2.5 (AS 5.6.1.1(a)(iii))
( ) +( ) +( )
 M* 
2 2 2
M 3* M 4*
 2 
where,
M *m = Maximum design bending moment in the segment.
M2* , M *4 = Design bending moment at the quarter points of the segment.
M3* = Design bending moment at the midpoint of the segment.
If the segment is unrestrained at one end (cantilever), the program determined

value for factor αm, in accordance with AS 5.6.1.1(a)(iii), does not remain cor-
rect. In that case αm should be taken from AS Table 5.6.2. The user should
overwrite αm for cantilevers. The program also defaults αm to 1.0 if the minor
unbraced length, l22, is redefined to be more than the length of the member by
the user or the program, i.e., if the unbraced length is longer than the member
length. The Overwrites can be used to change the value of αm for any member
The slenderness reduction factors αs, is calculated as follows:

  M  2   M 

=α s 0.6    s  + 3 −  s  (AS 5.6.1.1(a)(iv))
  M oa    M oa 
 
in which Moa is taken as
Moa = Mo, where Mo is the reference buckling moment
For doubly symmetric I-Shape, Channel, Double Channel, T-Shape, Angle,

Double Angle, Box, and Pipe sections, the reference buckling moment, Mo, is
determined as follows:
 π 2 EI y   π 2 EI  
M= =
M  2  GJ +  2 w   (AS 5.6.1.1(a)(iv))
 le
oa o
   le   
where,
E, G are the elastic Young's and shear moduli,
Iy, J and Iw are section constants,
Iw = 0 for angle sections (AS 5.6.1.3)
Iw = 0 for rectangular box sections (AS 5.6.1.4)
le is the effective length for lateral torsional buckling determined in ac-

cordance with AS 5.6.3, which is described later.
For singly-symmetric I-Shapes, Mo is determined as follows:
 π 2 EI y    π 2 EI w   β x2π 2 EI y  β x  π 2 EI y 
=Mo  2  ( ) 
GJ + 2  +  2   +  2 
 le    le   4 le   2  le 
(AS 5.6.1.2(a))
where, the monosymmetric section constant, βx, is defined as:
 2 I  
=β x 0.8d f  cy  − 1 (AS 5.6.1.2(i))
 I y  

where,
df = The distance between flange centroids.
Icy = The moment of inertia of the compression flange about the

section minor principal y-axis.
The effective length for lateral torsional buckling, le, of a segment or sub-
segment is determined as follows:
le = kt kl kr lLTB (AS 5.6.3)
where,
kt = A twist-resistant factor given in AS Table 5.6.3(1).
kl = A load height factor given in AS Table 5.6.3(2).
kr = A lateral rotation restraint factor given in AS Table 5.6.3(3).
lLTB = The segment length between two lateral restraints.
The procedure to determine lLTB is described in the section entitled Member

Unsupported Length in Chapter 2. This length factor can be overwritten.
kt, kl, and kr values should be based on AS Tables 5.6.3(1), 5.6.3(2), 5.6.3(3).
The program does not calculate them. The user is expected to overwrite them.
The procedure for calculating Mb can be simplified for full lateral restraint
segments. In such cases, le r satisfies certain upper limits (AS 5.3.2.4). Since
the unbraced length is small, the moment capacity in such case reaches Msx.
However, the program uses the general expression for arbitrary braced seg-
ments.
The program allows program determination of unbraced length lLTB, overwrit-

ing the length factor, or overwriting the precise bracing points. This has been
discussed in the section entitled Member Unsupported Length in Chapter 2.
The user should use judgment to match the program definition of bracing
points with the code specified bracing points (AS 5.4).
For nonprismatic members, the determination of Mb involves

(i) the properties of minimum cross section, or

(ii) the reduction of Mo with a factor αst.
However, the program is yet to implement this clause. The program just takes
the section properties at any cross-section by interpolation and then uses this
section property assuming prismatic section. The user should check the validity
of this assumption.
If the member is subjected to bending moment about the non-principal axis, the
bending moment is resolved about the principal axis. Then the program goes
through the interaction of combined forces and moments check (AS 5.7.1,
5.7.2).
3.7.2 Nominal Shear Capacities

The nominal shear strengths are calculated for shears along the geometric axes
for all sections. For I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, T-Shape, Double
Angle, Pipe, Circular and Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide
with their geometric axes. For Angle sections, principal axes do not coincide
with their geometric axes.
In calculating nominal capacities for shear, Vv , it is assumed no intermediate

stiffeners are used to enhance shear strength of a section (AS 5.10.1).
Since the program does not design web stiffeners, it assumes the web is always
unstiffened. The unstiffened web should always satisfy the following slender-
ness limits:
d1 fy
≤ 180 if web bounded on two sides (AS 5.10.1)
t 250
d1 fy
≤ 90 if web bounded on one side (AS 5.10.1)
t 250
where,
d1 is the clear depth of the web between flanges, ignoring fillets and
welds,
t is the thickness of the web.

All sections consisting of flat plate elements, such as I-Shape, Box, Channel,
Double Channel, T-Shape, Angle, and Double Angle sections, are checked for
this limit as appropriate. This is described earlier in the section entitled Classi-
fication of Section for Local Buckling. If any section violates the appropriate
limit, it is declared as Too Slender, and a further check is not completed.
The program assumes that the shear stress distribution is uniform through the
web of the member. For members with unequal flanges, varying web thickness,
or holes, the user will need to check shear capacity independently.
3.7.2.1 Shear Capacity in the Major Direction

A member subject to design shear force, V*, along the major direction (2-2 axis
or y-axis) should satisfy the following condition:
V* ≤φVv
where,
φ = The capacity factor, which is 0.9 by default. It can be modified in

the preferences.
Vv = The nominal shear capacity of the web in the major geometric axis.
V* = The design shear force in the major geometric axis.
3.7.2.2 Uniform Shear Stress Distribution

The nominal shear capacity, Vv, of a web is taken as follows:
Vv = Vu (AS 5.11.2)
where, Vu is the nominal shear capacity of the web assuming approximately

uniform shear stress distribution. For shapes with well defined web, such as I-
Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, and T-Shape sections, Vu is calculated
as follows:
dp 82
When ≤
tw  fy 
 
 250 

Vu = Vw, (AS 5.11.2)
where,
Vw = 0.6 fyAw (AS 5.11.4)
Aw is the gross sectional area of the web. It is taken as follows:
dt w for I-Shape sections,

dt for Channel sections,
 w
Aw =  dt w for T-Shape sections, (AS 5.11.4)
2 dt for Double Channel sections, and
 w
2ht w for Box sections.
d 82
When >
tw  fy 
 
 250 
Vu = Vb (AS 5.11.2)
Vb = αv Vw (AS 5.11.5.1)
2
 
 
 82 
αv =   ≤1 (AS 5.11.5.1)
 dp   fy  
  tw   
  250  

For Pipe sections, Vu is calculated as follows:
Vu = 0.36 fy Ae (AS 5.11.2, 5.11.4)
Ae = max(An, 0.9Ag) (AS 5.11.4)
For angle and double-angle sections, Vv for one of the geometric axis is taken
as follows:
Vu = Vw = 0.6 fy Aw (AS 5.11.2, 5.11.4)

bt angle section

Aw =  (AS 5.11.4)
2bt double angle section
For solid circular sections, rectangular, and general sections and Section De-
signer sections, Vv for the major axis is taken as follows:
Vu = Vw = 0.6 fy Aw, (AS 5.11.2, 5.11.4)
where Aw is the shear area obtained from elastic shear distribution.
When the bending moment is significant (M* > 0.75φMs), the shear capacity is
reduced as follows:
Vvm = Vv for M* ≤ 0.75φMs (AS 5.12.3)
  1.6 M *  
= Vv 2.2 −   0.75φMs ≤ M* ≤ φMs (AS 5.12.3)
  φM s  
where,
Vvm = The reduced nominal shear capacity of the web.
Vv = The nominal shear capacity of a web in shear alone.
Ms = The nominal section moment capacity.
However the program reports Vvm as equivalent to Vm.
3.7.2.3 Shear Capacity in the Minor Direction

The nominal shear strength, Vv, for minor direction shear in I-Shapes, Boxes,
Channels, Double Channels, and T-Shapes is calculated in the same way as for
major direction, except Aw and h t w is taken as follows.
Where, Aw is taken as follows:

2 b f t f for I-Shape sections,


2 b f t f for Channel sections,

Aw = b f t f for T-Shape sections,

 4b f t f for Double Channel sections, and
2 b f t f for Box sections.

Vu is calculated in the same way as that for major direction shear, except that
h t w is taken as follows:
b f ( 2t f ) for I-Shape sections,


b f tf for Channel sections,
h 
= b f tf for T-Shape sections,
tw 
b f 2t f for Double Channel sections, and
b f tf for Box sections.

The nominal shear capacity, Vv, for minor direction shears in Double Angle,
Angle, Rectangular, Circular, Pipe, and General sections and Section Designer
sections is calculated in the same way as that for major direction shear, except
that Aw and Vw are taken approximately.
3.7.3 Nominal Compressive Capacities

Normally a concentrically loaded member subjected to a design axial force, N*,
should satisfy the following two conditions:
N* ≤ φNs (AS 6.1)
N* ≤ φNc (AS 6.1)
where,
φ = The capacity factor for axial compression. It is equal to 0.9 by

default (AS Table 3.4). However, it can be modified by the user
through the preferences.
Ns = The nominal section capacity in compression.

Nc = The nominal member capacity in compression.
Members subjected to combined actions of axial compression, bending mo-

ment, and shear forces are checked using interaction equations described later
in this chapter. These equations use both Ns and Nc extensively.
3.7.3.1 Nominal Section Capacity

The nominal section capacity, Ns, of a concentrically loaded compression
member is given as follows:
Ns = kf An fy (AS 6.2.1)
where,
An = The net area of the cross-section.
kf = The form factor. It is calculated as follows:
Aeff
= (AS 6.2.2)
Ag
where,
Aeff = The effective area of the whole section, and
Ag = The gross area of the section.
An = The net area of the cross-section. It is obtained by deducting from

the gross area the sectional area of all penetrations and holes, in-
cluding fastener holes (AS 9.1.10). It is set equal to Ag by default.
The program allows the user to overwrite An Ag , namely the net
area of the total area ratio. By default its value is 1. A value
smaller than or equal to 1 is expected.
For sections comprised of flat plate elements, such as I-Shape, Box, Channel,
Double Channel, T-Shape, Angle, and Double Angle sections, the effective ar-
ea of the whole section, Aeff, is calculated as the summation of effective areas
of all the individual flat plate elements.
Aeff = Ag − Σ(b − be)t (AS 6.2.2)

where, the effective width of the individual flat plate elements, be, is calculated
as:
 λ ey 
=be b  ≤b ( AS 6.2.4)
 λe 
The yield slenderness limit, λey, has been described earlier. It is taken from AS
Table 6.2.4, which has been reproduced earlier in this document in the section
entitled Classification of Section for Local Buckling. Similarly, the clear width
of the individual flat plate elements, b, and the element slenderness, λe, have
been described earlier.
For pipe sections, the effective area of the section, Aeff, is calculated as follows:
de
Aeff= Ag ⋅ (AS 6.2.2)
d0
where,
 λ ey  3λ ey  
2
de = min do , do    (AS 6.2.4)

 λe  λ e  
The yield slenderness limit, λey, the element slenderness λe, and outside diame-
ter do have been described in the section entitled Classification of Sections for
Local Buckling.
Since, for axially compact sections λe ≤ λey, for all flat plate or circular ele-
ments,
Aeff = Ag (axially compact sections) ( AS 6.2.4)

Aeff < Ag (axially slender sections) ( AS 6.2.4)
This means that for axially compact sections, kf = 1 and for all slender sections
kf ≤ 1.
kf = 1 (axially compact sections)

kf ≤ 1 (axially slender sections)

For rectangular, circular, general, and Section Designer sections, kf factors are
not calculated and assumed to be 1.
The kf factor can be overwritten for any section.
3.7.3.2 Nominal Member Capacity

The nominal member capacities are determined using the geometric slender-
ness ratios and effective lengths described in the following subsections and in
Section 2.7.
The nominal member capacity, Nc, for a member having a constant cross-
section is calculated as follows:
Nc = αc Ns ≤ Ns (AS 6.3.3)
where,
Ns = the nominal section capacity, determined in accordance with AS

6.2.1 as described previously (AS 6.2.1)
αc = the member slenderness reduction factor,
   90  2  
= ξ 1 − 1 −     (AS 6.3.3)
   ξλ   

2
 λ 
  +1+ η
ξ =  90  2
(AS 6.3.3)
 λ 
2 
 90 
η = 0.0326 (λ − 13.5) ≥ 0 (AS 6.3.3)
λ = λn + αaαb (AS 6.3.3)
le fy
λn = kf (AS 6.3.3)
r 250

2100 ( λn − 13.5 )
αa = (AS 6.3.3)
λn2 − 15.3λn + 2050
αb = The appropriate member section constant, given in AS Tables

6.3.3.(1) and 6.3.3.(2). However, the program depends on user
overwrites.
kf = The form factor described previously.
If the kf factor is equal to 1.0, the αb factor is taken from Table 3-8 (AS Table
6.3.3(1)). If the kf factor is less than 1.0, the αb factor is taken from Table 3-9
(AS Table 6.3.3(2)). There is a minor exception in Table 3-8 from the original
AS Table 6.3.3(1). For welded H and I sections, flanges and webs are assumed
to be fabricated from flame-cut plates.
Table 3-8 Values of Member Section Constant (αb) for kf = 1.0

(AS Table 6.3.3(1))
Compression member
Section description
section constant, αb
– Hot-formed RHS and CHS
− 1.0
– Cold-formed (stress relieved) RHS and CHS
− 0.5 – Cold-formed (non-stress relieved) RHS and CHS
– Hot-rolled UB and UC sections
(flange thickness up to 40 mm)
0
– Welded H and I sections fabricated from flame-cut plates*
– Welded box sections
– Tees flame-cut from universal sections, and angles
– Hot-rolled channels
0.5 – Weld H and I sections fabricated from as-rolled plates*
– Other sections not listed in this Table
(flange thickness over 40 mm)
1.0
– Welded H and I sections fabricated from as-rolled plates*
(flange thickness over 40 mm)
*Note: For welded H and I sections, flanges and webs are assumed to be fabricated
from flame-cut plates.
Table 3-9 Values of Member Section Constant (αb) for kf < 1.0
(AS Table 6.3.3(2))

Compression member
section constant, αb Section description
– Hot-formed RHS and CHS
− 0.5 – Cold-formed RHS and CHS (stress relieved)
– Cold-formed RHS and CHS (non-stress relieved)
0 (flange thickness up to 40 mm)
– Welded box sections
– Weld H and I sections
0.5
1.0 – Other sections not listed in this Table
For compression members, the effective lengths, le, are determined as,
le = kel
where the effective length factor ke takes the form keb (effective length factor
for braced condition, keb ≤ 1) or kes (effective length factor for sway condition,
kes > 1) depending on whether the P-∆ analysis is performed and whether the
member is declared to be a Braced Frame or Sway Frame.
keb if P-∆ analysis is done for Braced or Sway frames,


ke = keb, if Braced frames,
k
 es , if Sway frames and P-∆ analysis is not done.
(AS 6.3.2, 4.6.3.3, App G)
If the user overwrites the keb and kes, the appropriate overwritten values are
used.
The nominal member capacity for axial compression, Nc , depends on the slen-
derness ratio, ke l r , where
ke l k l k l 
= max  e33 33 , e 22 22  .
r  r33 r22 
For all sections except Single Angles, the principal radii of gyration r22 and r33
are used. For Single Angles, the minimum (principal) radius of gyration, rz , is

used instead of r22 and r33 , conservatively, in computing ke l r . ke33 and ke22 are
two values of ke for the major and minor axes of bending.
For members having variable cross-sections, the nominal member capacity,

Nc, should be determined using procedures described in the section for pris-
matic sections, with the following exception:
(a) The nominal section capacity, Ns, is the minimum value for all cross-
sections along the length of the member, and
(b) The modified member slenderness, λn, given in earlier in this section
(AS 6.3.3) is replaced by the following:
 N 
λn = 90  s  (AS 6.3.4)
 N om 
where Nom is the elastic flexural buckling load of the member in axial
compression determined using a rational elastic buckling analysis.
However, the program has yet to implement this clause. The program takes the
section properties of any cross-section by interpolation and then uses this sec-
tion property assuming prismatic section. The user should check the validity of
this assumption.
3.7.4 Nominal Tensile Capacity

This section applies to the members subject to axial tension.
Normally a concentrically loaded member subjected to a design axial tensile

force, N*, should satisfy the following conditions:
N*≤ φNt (AS 7.1)
where,
φ = The capacity factor for axial compression. It is equal to 0.9 by

default (AS Table 3.4). However, it can be overwritten by the
user through the preferences.
Nt = The nominal section capacity in tension.

The nominal section capacity of a tension member is calculated as follows:
Nt = min(Ag fy, 0.85kt An fu) (AS 7.2)
where,
Ag = The gross area of the cross-section,
fy = The yield stress used in design,
kt = The correction factor for distribution of forces. It depends on

connection configuration and shape (AS 7.3). It is set to 1.0 and
can be overwritten by the user.
An = The net area of the cross-section. It is obtained by deducting

from the gross area the sectional area of all penetrations and
holes, including fastener holes (AS 9.1.10). It is set equal to Ag.
The program allows the user to overwrite An /Ag, namely the net
area of the total area ratio. By default, its value is 1. A value
smaller than or equal to 1 is expected.
fu = The tensile strength used in design.
3.8 Members Subjected to Combined Forces

Previous sections of this design manual address members subject to only one
type of force, namely axial tension, axial compression, flexure, or shear. This
section addresses the design of members subject to a combination of two or
more of the individual forces. Both the section capacities and member capaci-
ties are considered.
In the calculation of the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios, first, for each station
along the length of the member, the actual member force/moment components
are calculated for each design combination. Then, the corresponding capacities
are calculated. Then, the D/C ratios are calculated at each station for each
member under the influence of each of the design combinations. The control-
ling D/C ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and design
combination. A D/C ratio greater than the D/C ratio limit (whose default value
is 1.0) indicates exceeding a limit state.
Members Subjected to Combined Forces 3 - 51

During the design, the effect of the presence of bolts or welds is not consid-
ered.
3.8.1 Section Capacity

From the factored axial loads and bending moments at each station and the fac-
tored strengths for axial tension and compression and major and minor axis
bending, a D/C ratio is produced for each of the load combinations as follows.
3.8.1.1 Uniaxial Bending About the Major Axis

For uniaxial bending about the x-axis (section major axis), the following condi-
tion is checked:
M x*
≤1 (AS 8.3.1)
φM rx
where,
φ = The capacity factor (AS Table 3.4).
Mrx = The nominal section moment capacity, reduced by axial

force.
Msx, Msy = The nominal section moment capacities about the x- and y-
axes respectively.
Ns = The nominal section axial load capacity.
For doubly symmetric I sections and rectangular and square hollow compact
sections, Mrx is calculated by one of the following equations, as appropriate:
(a) For compression members where kf is equal to 1.0 and for tension mem-
bers:
 N* 
M=
rx 1.18M sx 1 −  ≤ M sx (AS 8.3.2(a))
 φN s 
(b) For compression members where kf is less than 1.0:
3 - 52 Members Subjected to Combined Forces

 N*   82 − λ w 
M rx =M sx 1 −  1 + 0.18    ≤ M sx (AS 8.3.2(b))
 φN s   82 − λ wy 
λw and λwy are the values of λe and λey for the web, as described in Sec-
tion 3.5.
For all other sections, Mrx is calculated as follows:
 N* 
=
M rx M sx 1 −  (AS 8.3.1)
 φN s 
3.8.1.2 Uniaxial Bending About the Minor Axis

For uniaxial bending about the y-axis (section minor axis), the following con-
dition is checked:
M *y
≤ 1.0 (AS 8.3.3)
φM ry
where,
φ = The capacity factor.
Mry = The nominal section moment capacity reduced by the axial ten-
sile or compressive force.
Mry is calculated by one of the following, as appropriate:
(a) For doubly symmetric I sections that are compact:
  N * 2 
M ry = 1.19 M sy 1 −    ≤ M sy (AS 8.3.3(a))
  φN s  
(b) For rectangular or rectangular box compact sections:
  N* 
M ry= 1.18M sy 1 −    ≤ M sy (AS 8.3.3(b))
  φN s  
(c) For all other cases,

  N* 
=
M ry M sy 1 −   (AS 8.3.3)
  φN s  
3.8.1.3 Biaxial Bending

For biaxial bending of a compression member, the following condition is
checked:
N* M *x M *y
+ + ≤1 (AS 8.3.4(a))
φN s φM sx φM sy
In addition, to use the preceding equation for doubly symmetric I sections and
rectangular and square hollow sections, the following ratio is also calculated.
However, the equation that gives the smaller ratio is used (AS 8.3.4(b)):
γ γ
 M *x   M *y 
  +  ≤ 1 (AS 8.3.4(b))
 φM rx   φM ry 
where Mrx and Mry are calculated in accordance with clause 8.3.2 and 8.3.3, and
they are described earlier, and
 N* 
=
γ 1.4 +   ≤ 2.0 (AS 8.3.4)
 φN s 
3.8.2 Member Capacity

For bending about a single axis or bending about both axes, the program
checks each member for the conditions described in the following text for in-
plane and out-of-plane capacities.
3.8.2.1 In-Plane Bending Capacity

For a compression members bent about a principal axis, the following condi-
tion is evaluated:
M*
≤ 1.0 (AS 8.4.2.2)
φM i

where,
M* = The design bending moment about the principal axis.
Mi = The nominal in-plane member moment capacity.
 N* 
= M s 1 − 
 φN c 
Ms = The nominal section moment capacity for bending about the same
principal axis as the design bending moment.
N* = The design axial compressive force.
Nc = The nominal member capacity in axial compression determined in

accordance with Section 3.7.3 for buckling about the same princi-
pal axis, with the effective length factor (ke) taken as 1.0 for both
braced and sway members.
For doubly symmetric I sections, rectangular, and hollow box compact sec-
tions, Mi can be calculated as,
   1 + β 3   N*   1 + βm  
3
N*  
M i = M s  1 −  m
  1 −  + 1.18   1 −   (AS 8.4.2.2)
   2    φN c   2   φN c  
≤ Mrx or Mry as appropriate
where,
βm = The ratio of the smaller to the larger end bending moment,

taken as positive when the member is bent in reverse curva-
ture for members without transverse load, or
Mrx or Mry = The nominal section moment capacity about the appropriate
principal axis determined in accordance with the formula
given earlier in Section 3.8.1.1 and 3.8.1.2.
For tension members subjected to bending moments, this stress ratio is not cal-
culated for in-plane capacity (AS 8.4.2.3).

3.8.2.2 Out-of-Plane Bending Capacity

For a member with axial compression and bending about the x-axis, the follow-
ing condition is checked:
M *x
≤ 1.0 (AS 8.4.4.1)
φM ox
where,
φ = The capacity factor (see Table 3.4).
Mox = The nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity.

 N* 
= M bx 1 − 
 φN cy
 
Mbx = The nominal member moment capacity of the member without
full lateral restraint and bent about the major principal x-axis, de-
termined in accordance with Clause 5.6 using a moment modifi-
cation factor (αm) appropriate to the distribution of design bend-
ing moments along the member.
Ncy = The nominal member capacity is axial compression, determined

in accordance with Clause 6.3 for buckling about the minor prin-
cipal y-axis.
However, for members without transverse loads that are of compact doubly
symmetric I section and are fully or partially restrained at both ends, and have
a form factor (kf) of unity, Mox is calculated as follows:
 N*  N* 
M ox =
αbc M bxo 1 − 1− ≤ M rx ,
  φN oz  
 (AS 8.4.4.1)

 φN cy  
where,
1 − βm  1 + βm   
3
1 N*
= +   0 . 4 − 0 .23  (AS 8.4.4.1)
αbc 2  2   φN cy 

Mbxo = The nominal member moment capacity without full lateral

restraint and with a uniform distribution of design bending
moment so that αm is unity, determined in accordance with
AS Clause 5.6.
Ncy = The nominal member capacity in axial compression, deter-

mined in accordance with Clause 6.3 for buckling about the
minor principal y-axis.
βm = The ratio of the smaller to the larger end bending moment,

taken as positive when the member is bent in reverse curva-
ture.
Noz = The nominal elastic torsional buckling capacity of the member,

calculated as follows:
GJ + ( π2 EI w lz2 )
N oz = (AS 8.4.4.1)
(Ix + I y ) A
E, G = the elastic moduli
A, Iw, Ix, Iy, and J = the section constants
lz = the distance between partial or full torsional restraints
For a member with axial tension and bending about the x-axis, the following
condition is checked:
M x*
≤ 1.0 (AS 8.4.4.2)
φM ox
where,
Mox = The nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity.
 N* 
= M bx 1 +  ≤ M rx (AS 8.4.4.2)
 φN t 
Mbx = The nominal member moment capacity, as defined previously.

Nt = The nominal section capacity in axial tension, as defined previ-

ously.
Mrx = The nominal section moment capacity reduced by axial force, as

defined previously.
3.8.2.3 Biaxial Bending Capacity

For compression members, the following unity check is evaluated:
1.4
 M *y 
1.4
 M *x 
  +  ≤1 (AS 8.4.5.1)
 φM cx  
 φM iy 
where,
Mcx = The lesser of the nominal in-plane member moment capacity (Mix)
and the nominal out-of-plane member moment capacity (Mox) for
bending about the major principal x-axis. Mix and Mox have been
defined previously.
Miy = The nominal in-plane member moment capacity for bending about
the minor principal y-axis, as defined previously.
For tension members, the following unity check is evaluated:

1.4
 M *y 
1.4
 M *x 
  +  ≤1 (AS 8.4.5.2)
 φM tx  
 φM ry 
where
Mtx = The lesser of the nominal section moment capacity (Mrx) reduced
by axial tension and the nominal out-of-plane member moment
capacity (Mox) for bending about the major principal x-axis. Mrx
and Mox have been defined previously.
Mry = The nominal section moment capacity reduced by axial tension, as

defined previously

3.9 Shear Check

From the factored shear force values and the factored shear strength values at
each station, for each of the load combinations, D/C ratios for shear in major
and minor directions are produced as follows:
Vf 2
, and
Vr 2
Vf 3
Vr 3
Shear Check 3 - 59
Chapter 4
Design Output
The program has the capacity to create design output in four major ways –
graphical display, file output, tabular display, and member specific detailed de-
sign information.
The graphical display includes input and output design information for members
visible in the active window; the display can be sent directly to a printer or saved
to a file. The file output includes both summary and detail design data that can be
saved in RTF, HTML and plain text formats. The tabular display output in-
cludes both summary and detail design data that can be displayed or saved in
many formats, including Excel, Access, RTF, HTML and plain text. The
member specific detailed design information shows the details of the calcula-
tion.
The following sections describe some of the typical graphical display, file out-
put, tabular display output, and member specific detailed design information.
Some of the design information is very specific to the chosen steel design code.
This manual addresses "AS 4100-1998" design code related output information
only.
4-1
4.1 Display Design Information on the Model

The graphical display of design output includes input and output design infor-
mation for all steel frame members that are visible in the active window. The
graphical output can be produced in color or in gray-scaled screen display. The
active screen display can be sent directly to the printer or saved to a file in sev-
eral formats.
Input and output design information for the AS 4100-1998 code includes the
following.
Table 4-1 Graphical Display of Design Information

Design Input Information Design Output Information
 Design sections  P-M stress ratio values with members
 Design framing type color-coded based on the ratio
 Live load reduction factors  P-M colors and shear stress ratio val-
ues
 Unbraced length ratios, L-factors,
 P-M ratio colors and no values
for major and minor direction of bending,
and for lateral-torsional buckling  Identify the P-M failure
 Effective length factors for braced condition, keb,  Identify the shear failure
for major and minor directions of bending
 Identify all failures
 Effective length factors for sway condition,
kes-factors, for major and minor directions
of bending
 Effective length factors, kt, kr, and kl, for
lateral-torsional buckling
 cm factors for major and minor directions of
bending
 αm and αs factors for major direction of bending
 δb factors for major and minor directions of
bending
 δs factors for major and minor directions of
bending
 Yield stress, fy
 Nominal axial capacities (Ns, Nt)
 Nominal bending capacities (Ms33, Ms22, Mb)
 Nominal shear capacities (Vv2, Vv3)
Note that only one of the listed items can be displayed on the model at a time.
Use the Design menu > Steel Frame Design > Display Design Info command
to plot design input and output values directly on the model. The Display Steel
Design Results form shown in Figures 4-1 and 4-2 will display.
4-2 Display Design Information on the Model

Chapter 4 Design Output
Figure 4-1. Choice of design input data for display on the model
in the active window
Figure 4-2. Choice of design output data for display on the model
in the active window
Choose the Design Output or Design Input option. One item can be selected
from the drop-down list. For example, the P-M interaction ratios can be dis-
played by choosing the Design Output option and selecting P-M Ratio Colors &
Values from the drop-down list. Click the OK button to display the PM-Ratio in
the active window. A typical graphical display is shown in Figure 4-3.
Display Design Information on the Model 4-3

Figure 4-3. A typical graphical display
The graphics can be displayed in 3D or 2D mode. The standard view transfor-

mations are available for all steel design information displays. Several buttons
on the toolbar can be used to switch between 3D and 2D views. Alternatively,
click the View menu and the Set 3D View or Set 2D View commands.
The onscreen graphical display can be sent to printer using any of the following
commands. Use the File menu > Print Graphics command to print the active
window. To capture the graphical display in a file for printing through another
application, use the File menu > Capture Enhanced Metafile command to
create an .emf file, or use the File menu > Capture Picture command to create
a bitmap (.bmp) file. Create a screen capture of the active window using the Alt+
Print Screen keyboard keys or create a screen capture of the entire window
using the Ctrl + Print Screen keyboard keys. Then use the Ctrl+V keyboard
keys to paste the saved image into Paint or other graphical program.
By default the graphical displays are in color. It may be advantageous to view or

present the display in gray-scale graphics or using a white background. Use the
Options menu > Color command to set these options.
4-4 Display Design Information on the Model

4.2 Display Design Information in Tables

In addition to model definition and analysis results, the design information for
all steel frame members or for only selected members can be displayed in tabular
spreadsheet format. Currently, the program generates design summary data,
PMM design details and shear design details. The tabular spreadsheet output can
be displayed by selecting the Display menu > Show Tables command to access
the Choose Tables for Display form, an example of which is shown in Figure
4-4. That form can be used to choose which tables or sets of tables are to be
displayed.
The names of the tables are displayed in a tree structure, which can be collapsed
or expanded by clicking on an item in the tree. Click on the small check boxes
preceding the items to select those tables for display. If a branch of the tree is
selected, all of the tables under that branch are selected. The selected set of ta-
bles can be saved as a Named Set using the Save Named Set button. This named
set can be used in the future for quick selection. If one or more frame members
are selected on the structural model before accessing the Choose Tables for
Display form, the Selection Only check box will be checked when the form
displays and, the program will display information for the selected members
only; uncheck the check box to display information for all applicable members
in the model. If the Show Unformatted check box is checked, the numbers will
be displayed unformatted, instead of being displayed using a limited number of
decimal digits. The unformatted option provides higher precision output that can
then be copied into other programs.
Display Design Information in Tables 4-5

Figure 4-4. Choice of design data tables for tabular display
Use the other buttons in the form to tailor the data display. For example, click the
Select Load Patterns button to specify which load patterns are to be included in
the display of model definition data; click the Select Load Case and Modi-
fy/Show Options to specify which load cases are to be included and how
analysis results are displayed.
After selecting all of the tables for steel frame design and the display options,
click the OK button to display a form showing one of the selected design tables,
with a drop-down list in the upper right-hand corner of the form that can be used
to select other tables for display. A typical design table is shown in Figure 4-5.
4-6 Display Design Information in Tables

Figure 5-5. A typical tabular display of design data
Use the scroll bars on the bottom and right side of the tables to scroll right and
left or up and down if portions of the data table can not be displayed in the form's
display area. The columns can be resized by clicking the left mouse button on
the separator of the headers, holding down the left mouse button and then
dragging the mouse to the left or right. Reset the column widths to their default
values by selecting the Format-Filter-Sort menu > Reset Default Column
Widths command on the form. The table can be split into two or more tables by
clicking on the small black rectangular area near the bottom-left corner of the
table, holding down the left mouse button, and then dragging the mouse button
to the left or right. Repeat this process to add more splits. Use the split and
horizontal scroll bar to put two columns side by side for easier comparison. The
splits can be removed by selecting the Format-Filter-Sort menu > Remove
Splits command on the form. Alternatively, remove the split by clicking, hold-
ing and dragging the left mouse button to merge the split key to its original lo-
cation.
Select multiple consecutive columns by putting the cursor on the header, holding
down the mouse button, and then dragging the mouse button left or right. Al-
ternatively, depress the Shift key and click the left mouse button to select a range
of columns.
Display Design Information in Tables 4-7

Each of the individual fields (columns) can be formatted. Fields with text in-
formation can be set for specific types of alignment (center, left, right) and to
specific widths. In addition to setting the alignment and column widths, fields
with numeric data can be set for the maximum number of characters, zero tol-
erance, number of decimal digits and so forth. The tables can be formatted, fil-
tered and sorted using multiple criteria accessed using the Format-Filter-Sort
menu on the form. Filtering and sorting features can be useful in identifying
critical cases. After specifying the table formatting information, save it to a
format file that can be used in the future by selecting the appropriate feature
available under the Format-Filter-Sort menu.
The current table (i.e., the table in the active window) can be exported to Excel,
Access, .rtf, .html, and plain text formats. In both Excel spreadsheet and Access
database formats, the tables can have many columns, making the tables very
wide. In .rtf and .html formats, the tables are split at convenient points to make a
reasonably printable document. In plain text format, the tables can be saved with
or without the splits. To export a table to Excel, for example, select the File
menu > Export Current Table > To Excel command. The program will export
the entire table to an Excel spreadsheet workbook and will automatically open
the file in MS Excel. Similarly, if the table is exported to other formats, the
default editor specific to that format will open the document, provided that the
editor is available in the computer. The table will be saved in that format only if
the relevant editor is not available. Instead of exporting or displaying the cur-
rently displayed table, the entire set of available tables can be exported and
displayed in the afore-mentioned formats by selecting the File menu and the
appropriate submenu command. With these exporting and display features, the
tables can be saved in many required formats and can be printed. Many other
features of the design tables are left for the user to discover by using the pro-
gram.
The preceding description is for SAP2000. ETABS differs slightly.
4.3 Display Detailed Member Specific Information

The program has the capability to display the design details for a specific
member. The information includes member identification, shape name, section
properties, design combination name, design combination forces, and other de-
4-8 Display Detailed Member Specific Information

sign input data to check the design results. The information also includes stress
ratios for P-M-M and other interactions, demand/capacity ratios from shear,
nominal strengths, design factors such as ke, braced, ke, sway, kt, kl, kr, αm, αs, δb,
δs, kf, kt(axial), αb, ze, and so forth. The design details are displayed in a summary
form and also are displayed for a specific load combination and for a specific
station of a frame member.
When the design results are displayed on the model in the active window, the
detailed design information can be accessed by right clicking on the desired
frame member to display the Steel Stress Check Information form. Alterna-
tively, click the Design menu > Steel Frame Design > Interactive Steel
Frame Design command and then right click on the frame member. An example
of that form is shown in Figure 4-6.
The Steel Stress Check Information form identifies the frame members and the
analysis and design section, and includes a display area of mostly de-
mand/capacity ratio data and a set of buttons that access forms that provide
further details about the selected frame member. The display area reports the
load combinations, the stress check stations, the P-M-M interaction ratio along
with its axial and flexural components, and the shear stress ratios. The load
combination is reported by its name, while the station is reported by its location,
which is measured from the I-end of the column. The number of reported line
items in the text box is equal to the number of design combinations multiplied by
the number of stations. Only one line item is highlighted in blue when the form
first displays. That item highlights the largest demand/capacity ratio from
P-M-M, major and minor shear or any other considered interaction ratio, unless
a line item(s) has design overstress or an error. In that case, the item with the
overstress or error will be selected and highlighted. If many line items are
overstressed or have an error, the last among all such line items will be selected
and highlighted.
Display Detailed Member Specific Information 4-9

Figure 4-6. A typical member specific steel stress check information summary
The stress check information is always reported for the design section. If the
member is assigned an individual section, the analysis and design section are
always the same. If the member is assigned an Auto Select Section (a list of
sections), the analysis and design section can be different, unless the design has
converged.
The Overwrites and Details buttons near the bottom of the Steel Stress Check
Information form can be used to access the Steel Frame Design Overwrites form,
and the Steel Stress Check Data form, which displays detailed information about
the selected frame element. While the latter form displays information in a
non-editable format, the Overwrites form display the overwrite data in editable
format. This allows the user to enter an interactive mode of design.
 Overwrites button. Click this button to access the Steel Frame Design
Overwrites form. Use that form to make revisions to the steel frame design
overwrites and then immediately review the new design results as a summary
using the Steel Stress Check Information form, or in detail by clicking the
Details button to access the Steel Stress Check Data form. Clicking the OK
button on the Steel Frame Design Overwrites form temporarily saves any
4 - 10 Display Detailed Member Specific Information

changes. To make the changes permanent, click the OK button on the Steel
Stress Check Information form. To disregard the changes, click the Cancel
button on the Steel Stress Check Information form. An example of an Over-
writes form is shown in Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-7. A typical member specific Steel Frame Design Overwrites form
 Details button. Click this button to access the Steel Stress Check Data form.
Use the form to review all of the design details for the highlighted item. An
example of a Steel Stress Check Data form is shown in Figure 4-8. The in-
formation includes the member ID, load combo and station identifications,
steel design sections, section properties, design combination forces, stress ra-
tios for P-M-M and other interactions, stress ratios for shear, nominal
strengths, and design factors such as, ke, braced, ke, sway, kt, kl, kr, αm, αs, δb,
δs, kf, kt(axial), αb, ze, and so forth. Values that are not applicable are reported as
Display Detailed Member Specific Information 4 - 11

N/A. Similarly, N/C and N/N indicate an item is “Not Calculated” and “Not
Needed.”
Figure 4-8 A typical Steel Stress Check Data form
Before clicking the button, highlight an item for the desired design station
and design load combination in the Steel Stress Check Information display
area by clicking on the line. The data subsequently displayed will relate to
the highlighted item. By default, the most critical line item is selected
when the form first displays, as described previously.
To increase or decrease the width of the Steel Stress Check Data form, put
the cursor near the right edge of the form, click the left mouse button, and
drag the mouse cursor towards the left or right. Similarly, the height of the
form can be increased or decreased.
The text in the form can be dragged in any direction by positioning the
cursor in the middle of the form, and then clicking the left mouse button
and dragging the text in the desired direction.
4 - 12 Display Detailed Member Specific Information

Use the Units drop-down list in the upper right-hand corner of the form to
change the units used to display the data. Data displayed on the form can be sent
directly to the printer by selecting the File menu > Print command on the form.
The program allows limited page setup options using the Print Setup Com-
mand on the File menu on the form.
The Steel Stress Check Information form also includes a Tabular Data button
that when clicked displays member specific design details in a spreadsheet type
format. The tabular display of design information has been described in the
previous section. In that case, the information displayed is specific to the se-
lected member only. The tabular output is shown for all stations and all design
load combinations for the selected member. An example of design details table
that displays after clicking the Tabular Data button is shown in Figure 4-9. This
button is available in SAP2000, but not in ETABS.
Figure 4-9 Member specific design details in tabular format
4.4 Save or Print Design Information as Tables

In addition to model definition and analysis results, the design information for
all steel frame members or for selected frames only can be saved in tabular
format. Currently for AS 4100-1998 code, the program saves design summary
data, PMM design details, and shear design details.
Save the file output by selecting the File menu > Print Tables command to
access the Choose Tables for Printing form. An example of that form is shown in
Figure 4-10. Use the options on the form to choose which table or set of tables to
Save or Print Design Information as Tables 4 - 13

save in a file or print. This form is very similar to the Choose Tables for Display
form, which has been described earlier in this chapter in the "Display Design
Information in Tables" section.
Figure 4-10 Choice of design tables for saving in a file or printing
The name of the tables are displayed in a tree structure, which can be collapsed
or expanded by clicking on an item in the tree. Click on the small check boxes
preceding the items to select those tables for printing or saving to a file. If a
branch of the tree is selected, all of the tables under that branch are selected.
When all options for printing or saving the data to file have been specified, the
settings can be saved as a Named Set using the Save Named Set button. The
Named Set can be easily recalled in the future, reducing the need to reselect the
options and ensuring that output is consistent from one printing effort to another.
4 - 14 Save or Print Design Information as Tables

If one or more structural members are selected before the Choose Tables for
Printing form is accessed, the Selection Only check box will be checked, and the
program will save or print the data for the selected members only; uncheck the
check box to save or print the data for all appropriate members.
The output can be generated in a variety of formats, including rich text format
(.rft), plain text with and without splits or page breaks (.txt), and hyperlink text
markup language (.htm) by choosing the appropriate option on the right side of
the form.
Printed output can be specified to have a landscaped orientation, in which the

width of the resulting printout on a given page is longer than the height of the
printout.
Filtering criteria can be applied if those criteria were specified using the For-
mat-Filter-Sort menu > Format Table command when the selected data tables
were displayed using the Display menu > Show Tables command. The output
also can be specified to include hyperlinked contents to facilitate accessing
specific areas of the printout.
There are other buttons on the form that do not affect saving or printing design
information. For example, the Select Load Patterns button affects only sav-
ing/printing model definition data. The Select Load Cases and Modify/Show
Options buttons affect only saving/printing analysis results.
After clicking all the necessary tables for steel frame design and all necessary
options, clicking the OK button will save/print the design tables.
Although the File name > Print Tables command path is dedicated for sav-
ing/printing design information, it is not the only path to do so. Design tables can
be saved in different formats using the path Display menu > Show Tables
command.
The preceding description applies to SAP2000. ETABS differs slightly.
4.5 Error and Warning Messages

Error messages and warnings may be displayed in the steel frame design output.
Those messages and warnings are assumed to be self explanatory.
Error and Warning Messages 4 - 15

Appendix A
Supported Design Codes
The program supports a wide range of steel frame design codes, including the
following:
 AISC-ASC 01
 AISC-ASD 89
 AISC 360-05/IBC 2006

 AISC-LRFD 99
 AISC-LRFD 93
 API-RP2A-LRFD 97
 API-RP2A-WSD 2000
 AS 4100-1998
 ASCE 10-97
 BS5950 90
 BS5950 2000
 Chinese 2002
Appendix A - 1
 CAN/CSA-S16-01
 CISC 95
 Eurocode 3-2005
 Eurocode 3-1993
 Indian IS:800-1998
 Italian UNI 10011
 Norsok N-004
 UBC97-ASD
 UBC97-LRFD
Among all of the listed design codes, ASCE 10-97, API-WSD 2000, and
API-LRFD 97 codes are available only in SAP2000. ETABS does not support
those codes. The "Chinese 2002" code is available only in the specialized Chi-
nese version of SAP2000 and ETABS. The specialized Indian version of the
programs support only the Indian IS 800-1998 code.
This is a growing list that gets outdated often.
Appendix A - 2
Bibliography
AISC, 2005a. ANSI/AISC 360-05: An American National Standard – Speci-

fication for Structural Steel Building, American Institute of Steel Con-
struction. One East Wacker Drive, Suite 700, Chicago, Illinois, 60601.
March 9.
AISC, 2005b. Commentary on the Specification for Structural Steel Buildings,

American Institute of Steel Construction. One East Wacker Drive, Suite
700, Chicago, Illinois, 60601. March 9.
Boresi, A. P., 1985. Advanced Mechanics of Materials, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
ISBN 0-471-88392-1.
CSI, 2009. Automatic Lateral Load Manual. Computers and Structures, Inc.,
1995 University Avenue, Berkeley, California, 94704.
IBC, 2006. International Building Code, International Code Council, 4051 West
Flossmoor Road, Country Club Hills, Illinois, 60478. January.
SA, 1998. AS 4100-1998 Australian Standard Steel Structures, Standards

Australia (Standards Association of Australia), 1 The Crescent, Home-
bush, NSW 2140, Australia. ISBN 07337 1981 3.
SA, 2007. AS 1170.4-2007 Australian Standard Structural Design Actions,

Part 4 : Earthquake Actions in Australia, Standard Australia, GP Box 476,
Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia. ISBN 07337 8349X.
Bibliography - 1
SA/SNZ, 2002a. AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 Australian/New Zealand Standard

Structural Design Actions, Part 0 : General Principles, Jointly published
by Standards Australia International, Ltd., GPO Box 5420, Sydney, NSW
2001, Australia, and Standards New Zealand, Private Bag 2439, Wel-
lington, 6020, New Zealand. ISBN 07337 4469 9
SA/SNZ 2002b. AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 Australia/New Zealand Standard

Structural Design Action, Part 2 : Wind Actions, Jointly published by
Standards Australia International, Ltd., GPO Box 5420, Sydney, NSW
2001, Australia, and Standards New Zealand, Private Bag 2439, Wel-
lington, 6020, New Zealand. ISBN 07337 4473 3
White, D.L. and J. F. Hajjar, 1991. “Application of Second-Order Elastic

Analysis in LRFD: Research to Practice,” Engineering Journal, ACI, Vol.
28, No. 4, pp. 133–148.
Bibliography - 2

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Steel Frame Design Manual

ISO ETA122815M10 Rev. 0

Copyright  Computers & Structures, Inc., 1978-2015

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any

Further information and copies of this documentation may be obtained from:

Computers & Structures, Inc.

info@csiamerica.com (for general information)

CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE

THIS PRODUCT IS A PRACTICAL AND POWERFUL TOOL FOR STRUCTURAL

THE INFORMATION PRODUCED BY THE SOFTWARE MUST BE CHECKED BY

1.1 Organization 1-3

1.2 Recommended Reading 1-3

2 Modeling, Analysis and Design Prerequisites

2.1 Check and Design Capability 2-1

2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections 2-2

2.3 Design and Check Stations 2-3

2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios 2-3

2.5 Design Load Combinations 2-4

2.6 Notional Load Patterns 2-6

2.7 Second Order P-Delta Effects 2-6

2.8 Member Unsupported Lengths 2-9

2.9 Effective Length Factor (ke) 2-11

2.10 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 2-14

2.11 Supported Framing Types 2-16

2.12 Frame Design Procedure Overwrites 2-17

2.13 Interactive Design 2-17

2.14 Automated Iterative Design 2-18

2.15 Choice of Units 2-18

3 Steel Frame Design Using AS 4100-1998

3.1 Notations 3-1

3.2 Design Preferences 3-6

3.3 Overwrites 3-8

3.4 Design Load Combination 3-15

3.5 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling 3-16

3.6 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 3-29

3.7 Calculation of Nominal Strengths 3-33

3.7.1 Nominal Flexural Capacities 3-33

3.8 Members Subjected to Combined Forces 3-51

3.9 Shear Check 3-58

4.1 Display Design Information on the Model 4-2

4.2 Display Design Information in Tables 4-5

4.3 Display Detailed Member Specific Information 4-8

4.4 Save or Print Design Information as Tables 4-13

4.5 Error and Warning Messages 4-15

Appendix A Supported Design Codes

The design/check of steel frames is seamlessly integrated within the program.

The design is based on a set of user-specified loading combinations. However,

Currently, the software does not automate the following:

1.2 Recommended Reading/Practice

This chapter provides an overview of the basic assumptions, design precondi-

For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is

• Reference to the AS 4100-1998 code is identified with the prefix "AS."

2.1 Check and Design Capability

To check the adequacy of a section, the program checks the demand/capacity

2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

2-2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

2.3 Design and Check Stations

2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios

Design and Check Stations 2-3

 The nominal capacities are calculated for compression, tension, bending

 Factored forces are compared to nominal capacities to determine D/C rati-

2.5 Design Load Combinations

2-4 Design Load Combinations