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The University of Nottingham

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

A LEVEL 4 MODULE, AUTUMN SEMESTER 2014-2015

ADVANCED RHEOLOGY AND MATERIALS

Time allowed TWO Hours

Candidates may complete the front cover of their answer book and sign their desk card but
must NOT write anything else until the start of the examination period is announced

Answer ALL questions in Section A, THREE questions in Section B

and TWO questions in Section C

Only silent, self contained calculators with a Single-Line Display or Dual-Line Display are
permitted in this examination.

Dictionaries are not allowed with one exception. Those whose first language is not English
may use a standard translation dictionary to translate between that language and English
provided that neither language is the subject of this examination. Subject specific translation
dictionaries are not permitted.

No electronic devices capable of storing and retrieving text, including electronic dictionaries,
may be used.

DO NOT turn examination paper over until instructed to do so

ADDITIONAL MATERIAL: Formula Sheet

Graph paper

INFORMATION FOR INVIGILATORS:

Question papers should be collected in at the end of the exam – do not allow candidates to
take copies from the exam room.

Turn over
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SECTION A

Answer ALL SIX questions in this section

1. Figure 1 shows measurements of viscosity as a function of shear rate for a

biological fluid. Data sets 1 and 2 were acquired using two different rheometic
techniques: one with a capillary rheometer and one with a cone-and-plate
rheometer. Suggest which fluid model is suitable to represent this fluid behaviour,
and identify which part of the data is likely to have been obtained with which
measurement technique.

Figure 1
[5]

2. By manipulation of the necessary equations, show that a power law fluid produces a
straight line with gradient 1-1/n on a log-log graph of viscosity vs shear stress,
where n is the power law exponent. [5]

3. Explain the difference between transient shear rheometry and oscillatory shear
rheometry, and state the purpose of each type of rheometry. [5]

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4. Explain why the Bagley correction is needed in capillary rheometry, and explain the
reason why most research-grade capillary rheometers extrude from two barrels
simultaneously. [5]

5. Using a diagram, explain the procedure for estimating a fluid’s relaxation time from
oscillatory rheometric frequency sweeps. [5]

6. Sketch the typical layout for carrying out extensional rheometric measurements,
and give an example of an application where such measurements are required. [5]

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SECTION B

Answer THREE questions in this section

7. Three fluids can be represented by the following models:

(i) Newtonian, with viscosity 100 Pa s

(ii) Power law fluid, with a consistency index of 100 Pa s0.5 and a power law
index of 0.5
(iii) Newtonian, with viscosity 10 Pa s

Sketch the three fluid behaviours on a single log-log graph of shear stress vs shear
rate (between  = 1 s-1 and 1000 s-1), remembering to use logarithmic axes.
Clearly identify the three fluids, and, using the graph or otherwise, determine at
which shear rates fluid (ii) has the same viscosity as fluid (i) and fluid (iii). [10]

8. A rheologist uses a cone-and-plate rotational rheometer with cone angle  to

measure the properties of an unknown fluid.

(a) Show that the shear rate is constant everywhere in the fluid in this fluid
geometry. [6]

(b) Explain the difference between a rheometer and a viscometer. [4]

9. The Kelvin model is one of the viscoelastic models used to represent fluid
viscoelasticity. Derive from first principles the governing differential equation of a
Kelvin viscoelastic model with spring stiffness E and dashpot viscosity . [10]

10. Explain the steps required to fit the parameters of a complex rheological model
such as the Carreau-Yasuda model to experimental data using a numerical tool
such as an Excel spreadsheet. [10]

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SECTION C

Answer TWO questions in this section

11. The rheological properties of a fluid are being measured with a capillary rheometer.

(a) The rheologist suspects that wall slip might be occurring. Using a diagram,
sketch the velocity profiles of a Newtonian fluid through a capillary with and
without wall slip. [6]

(b) The rheologist makes measurements of volume flow rate at constant wall
shear stress using circular capillaries of different radii, as shown in Table
11. Using these measurements, determine the wall slip velocity and the
slip-corrected shear rate.

Table 11
Capillary Volume flow
radius rate
(mm) (mm3 s-1)
5 10600
8 42220
10 81680
16 329740
[10]

(c) Suggest two ways in which the wall slip may be reduced. [4]

12. An engineer is responsible for a plastics extrusion line extruding molten

polystyrene.

(a) The polystyrene is extruded through a 5 mm diameter circular die at 170oC.

When extruding with a short die 10 mm in length the extrudate swells to 7
mm in diameter, and when extruding with a long die 100 mm in length the
extrudate swells to only 5.2 mm in diameter. Explain why changing the
length of the die produces this effect. [5]

(b) In both dies, the polystyrene is extruded at a volumetric flow rate of

654.5 mm3s-1. If the relaxation time of the fluid at 170oC is 0.9 s, calculate
the Deborah numbers for each die length, and comment on the values. [8]

(c) Polystyrene obeys time-temperature superposition according to the WLF

equation with parameters C1=9 and C2 = 100oC at a reference temperature
of 170oC. If the extrusion is to be carried out using the long die at a lower
temperature of 160oC, determine the Deborah number and comment on the
amount of die swell expected. [7]

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13. A fluid travels through a contraction undergoing elongation such that its
deformation gradient tensor at any point in time t can be expressed by

e2 At 0 0 
 
F  0 e At 0 
 
 0 0 e At 

where A is a constant.

(a) Show that the fluid is deforming at constant volume. [5]

(b) By appropriate manipulation of the tensorial quantities, show that the rate
of deformation tensor is given by

2 A 0 0 
D   0  A 0 

 0 0  A
[11]

(c) If the fluid is a generalised Newtonian fluid with viscosity , write down
expressions for the non-zero components of the stress tensor. [4]

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Rheological constitutive equations

In the equations below, τ is the shear stress, γɺ is the shear strain rate, and η is the apparent viscosity.

Newtonian

τ = µγɺ
where µ is the Newtonian viscosity.

Power-law

τ = mγɺ n
where m is the consistency index and n is the exponent.

Carreau

−p
η = η0 1 + ( γλ
ɺ )2 

 
where η0 is the zero shear viscosity, and λ and p are parameters.

Carreau-Yasuda

n −1
η − η∞ 
= 1 + ( γλ
ɺ )a  a
η0 − η∞  
where η0 is the zero shear viscosity, η∞ is the infinite shear rate viscosity, and λ , n and a
are parameters.

Bingham plastic

τ = τ y + µ0γɺ
where τ y is the yield stress and µ0 is the viscosity at large shear rates.

Herschel-Bulkley

τ = τ y + mγɺ n
where τ y is the yield stress, m is the consistency index and n is the exponent.
Casson

τ = τ y + ηC γɺ
where τ y is the yield stress and ηC is the Casson viscosity at large shear rates.

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Rheometry

Couette-cell rheometer (cup-and-bob)

κΩ
Shear rate γɺ =
(1 − κ )
T
Shear stressτ =
2π R 2 Lκ 2

where Ω is the angular velocity of the cup, R is the cup radius, κ R is the bob radius, L
is the length and T is the torque.

Cone-and-plate rheometer

Ω
Shear rate γɺ =
θ
3T
Shear stressτ =
2π R 3

where Ω is the angular velocity of the cone, R is the plate radius, θ is the cone angle,
and T is the torque.

Parallel plate rheometer

rΩ
Shear rate γɺ =
H

Shear stress at the rim τ =

 (
2T  3 d ln T / 2π R
+
3
) 
π R3  4 d ln γɺR 
 

where r is the radius, Ω is the angular velocity of the cone, R is the plate radius at the
rim, H is the gap, T is the torque, and γɺR is the shear rate at the rim.

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Pouseille flow in uniform circular channel

Governing equations:

r ∆P
Shear stressτ = −
2 ∆L
1/ n
r ∆P  1 ∆P 
Shear rate (Newtonian) γɺ = − ; Shear rate (Power-law) γɺ = −   r1/ n
2µ ∆L  2m ∆L 

where ∆P is the pressure drop across length ∆L , r is the radial distance from the axis, µ
is the Newtonian viscosity, m is the consistency index and n is the exponent.

Flow rates and wall shear rates:

Newtonian fluids

π R 4 ∆P 4Q
Flow rate Q = ; Wall shear rate γɺw = −
8µ ∆L π R3
Power law fluids

Flow rate Q =
nπ 3+ 1  1 ∆P 
R n
1/ n
; Wall shear rate γɺw = −
( 3n + 1) 4Q

( 3n + 1)  2m ∆L  4n π R3

where ∆P is the pressure drop across length ∆L , R is the channel radius, µ is the
Newtonian viscosity, m is the consistency index and n is the exponent.

Corrections for capillary rheometers

Slip correction:

4 4
γɺa,slip-corrected = vavg − vslip
R R
where vavg = Q / π R 2 and vslip is the slip velocity.

Bagley correction:

∆Pcapillary = ∆Pmeasured − ∆PL / R =0

where ∆PL / R =0 is the extrapolated pressure drop at L / R = 0 .

Rabinowitsch correction:

1  d ln γɺa 
γɺw = γɺa   3 + 
 4  d ln τ w  

where γɺa = 4Q / π R3 .

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Viscoelasticity

Storage modulus, loss modulus and loss tangent

G ' , the storage modulus, is the amplitude of the portion of the stress wave τ 0 cos(δ ) that
is in phase with the strain wave, divided by the amplitude of the strain wave γ 0 – it tells
us about the size of the elastic response.
 τ cos(δ ) 
G' =  0 
 γ0 
G '' , the loss modulus, is the amplitude of the portion of the stress wave τ 0 sin(δ ) that is
out of phase with the strain wave, divided by the amplitude of the strain wave γ 0 – it tells
us about the size of the viscous response.
τ sin(δ ) 
G '' =  0 
 γ0 
tan δ , the loss tangent, refers to the angle δ by which the output stress wave lags behind
the input strain wave.

Time-temperature superposition

WLF equation:

−C1 (T − T0 )
log10 aT =
C2 + (T − T0 )

where aT is the shift factor at temperature T , C1 and C2 are constants, and T0 is the
reference temperature.

Maxwell Model

Governing equation:
σɺ σ
εɺ = +
E η

where the relaxation time τ is given by τ = η / E

Kelvin model

Governing equation:
σ = Eε + ηεɺ

where the retardation time τ ′ is given by τ ′ = η / E .

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Tensorial representation

Deformation gradient, velocity gradient and rate of deformation tensors

F , the deformation gradient tensor, is a second order tensor that relates the deformed
configuration x to the undeformed configuration X . The condition for isochoric
( )
deformation is det F ≡ 1 .
∂x
F=
∂X
L , the velocity gradient tensor, is a second order tensor related to Fɺ , the time derivative,
and F −1 , the inverse of the deformation gradient tensor.
L = Fɺ F −1
D , the rate of deformation tensor, is obtained from the symmetric part of L , the velocity

( )
gradient tensor. The condition for isochoric deformation is trace D ≡ 0 .

( ) 12 ( L + LT )
D = symm L =
Rotation of tensors

If new coordinate axes xˆ ' are related to original coordinate axes x̂ by a rotation R
xˆ ' = Rxˆ
then second order tensors A and A ' in the original and new coordinate axes respectively
are related by
A ' = RT AR
Properties of stress tensors

It is usual to separate the stress tensor σ into a hydrostatic pressure p and a deviatoric
stress tensor σ
σ = − pI + σ
where I is the identity tensor. The eigenvectors of a stress tensor define the directions of
principal stress, and the eigenvalues are the principal stresses. When a stress tensor is
aligned to its principal directions, the shear stresses are equal to 0. The shear stress is
always a maximum when aligned at 45o to the directions of principal stress.

Generalised Newtonian fluid

σ = 2 η ( γɺ ) D
where σ is the stress tensor and η ( γɺ ) is a scalar function of shear rate.

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