Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Velocity
f(x) f(x-2)
What is a wave?
f(x-1) f(x-3)
Forward [f(x-vt)] and
backward [f(x+vt)]
propagating waves
∂2 f 1 ∂2 f
− =
0
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
f ( x=
, t ) f ( x ± vt )
∂f ∂f ∂ u ∂f ∂f ∂u
Now, use the chain rule: = =
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂t ∂u ∂t
∂f ∂f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f ∂f ∂2 f 2 ∂ f
2
So = ⇒ = 2 and = ±v ⇒ =v
∂x ∂u ∂x 2
∂u ∂t ∂u ∂t 2
∂u 2
∂2 f 1 ∂2 f ∂2 f 1 2 ∂2 f
− 2 2 = 2 − 2 v 2
=0
∂x 2
v ∂t ∂u v ∂u
The 1D wave equation for light waves
∂2 E ∂2 E where E is the
− µε 2 = 0 light electric field
∂x 2
∂t
E (=
x, t ) B cos[k ( x ± vt )] + C sin[k ( x ± vt )]
or kx ± (kv)t
, t ) B cos(kx ± ω t ) + C sin(kx ± ω t )
E ( x=
as long as:
A cos(θ) = B and A sin(θ) = C
Definitions: Amplitude and Absolute phase
E(x,t) = A cos[(k x – ω t ) – θ ]
A = Amplitude
θ = Absolute phase (or initial phase)
kx
Definitions
Spatial quantities:
Temporal quantities:
The Phase Velocity
Since ν = 1/τ :
v=λv
k = ∂ϕ /∂x
And
– ∂ϕ /∂t This formula is useful
v = ––––––– when the wave is
∂ϕ /∂x really complicated.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Animation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mclp9QmCGs
1. The animation shows the Tacoma Narrows Bridge shortly before its collapse.
What is its frequency?
A .1 Hz
B .25 Hz
C .50 Hz
D 1 Hz
2. The distance between the bridge towers (nodes) was about 860 meters
and there was also a midway node. What was the wavelength of the standing
torsional wave?
A 1720 m
B 860 m
C 430 m
D There is no way to tell.
P = x+iy
= A cos(ϕ) + i A sin(ϕ)
where i = (-1)1/2
Euler's Formula
P = A exp(iϕ)
where
A = Amplitude
ϕ = Phase
Proof of Euler's Formula exp(iϕ) = cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ)
x x2 x3
Use Taylor Series: f ( x) =f (0) + f '(0) + f ''(0) + f '''(0) + ...
1! 2! 3!
x x 2 x3 x 4
exp( x) =+
1 + + + + ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
cos( x) =−
1 + − + + ...
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x3 x5 x 7 x9
sin( x) = − + − + + ...
1! 3! 5! 7! 9!
If we substitute x = iϕ iϕ ϕ 2 iϕ 3 ϕ 4
exp(iϕ ) =+
1 − − + + ...
into exp(x), then: 1! 2! 3! 4!
ϕ2 ϕ4 ϕ ϕ 3
=1 − + + ... + i − + ...
2! 4! 1! 3!
= cos(ϕ ) + i sin(ϕ )
Complex number theorems
=
If exp(iϕ ) cos(ϕ ) + i sin(ϕ )
exp(iπ ) = −1
exp(iπ / 2) = i
=
exp(- iϕ ) cos(ϕ ) − i sin(ϕ )
1
=
cos( ϕ) [exp(iϕ ) + exp(−iϕ )]
2
1
=
sin(ϕ) [exp(iϕ ) − exp(−iϕ )]
2i
A1exp(iϕ1 ) × A2 exp(iϕ 2 )= A1 A2 exp [i (ϕ1 + ϕ 2 ) ]
A1exp(iϕ=
1 ) / A2 exp(iϕ 2 ) A1 / A2 exp [i (ϕ1 − ϕ 2 ) ]
More complex number theorems
Any complex number, z, can be written:
z = Re{ z } + i Im{ z }
So
Re{ z } = 1/2 ( z + z* )
and
Im{ z } = 1/2i ( z – z* )
| z |2 = z z* = Re{ z }2 + Im{ z }2
A2 = Re{ z }2 + Im{ z }2
d
exp(ikx) = ik exp(ikx)
dx
Proof :
d
[cos(kx) + i sin(kx)] =
−k sin(kx) + ik cos(kx )
dx
1
=
ik − sin(kx) + cos(kx)
i
− 1/ i i, so := ik [i sin(kx) + cos(kx) ]
But =
Waves using complex numbers
The electric field of a light wave can be written:
E(x,t) = A cos(kx – ωt – θ)
=
E ( x, t ) A exp i ( kx − ω t − θ )
{ }
E ( x, t ) = { A exp(−iθ )} exp i ( kx − ω t )
where we've separated the constant stuff from the rapidly changing stuff.
x2 + y 2
E ( x, y, z , t ) = E0 exp − exp[i (kz − ω t )]
2
w
exp(-x2) z
w
y
t2 x2 + y 2
E ( x, y, z , t ) = E0 exp − 2 exp − exp[i (kz − ω t )]
τ
2
w
∂ ∂ ∂
The Del operator: ∇ ≡ , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
Calculus , by Schey
∇f ≡ , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z If you want to
know more about
vector calculus,
The gradient points in the direction of steepest ascent. read this book!
Div, Grad, Curl, and all that
∂f x ∂f y ∂f z
∇⋅ f ≡ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
A 2D source with a y
large divergence:
x
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇ f
2
≡ ∇ ⋅∇f = ∇⋅ , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
= + +
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
∂2 fx ∂2 fx ∂2 fx ∂2 f y ∂2 f y ∂2 f y ∂2 fz ∂2 fz ∂2 fz
∇=
2
f 2 + + 2 , + + , 2 + + 2
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2 2 2
∂2 E ∂2 E ∂2 E ∂2 E
or + 2 + 2 − µε 2 = 0
∂x 2
∂y ∂z ∂t
whose solution is: = {
}
E ( x, y, z , t ) Re E0 exp[i (k ⋅ r − ω t )]
where k ≡ ( k x , k y , k z ) r ≡ ( x, y , z )
and k ⋅ r ≡ kx x + k y y + kz z
k 2 ≡ k x2 + k y2 + k z2
The 3D wave equation for a light-wave
electric field is actually a vector equation.
And a light-wave electric field can point in any direction in space:
2 ∂ E 2
∇ E − µε 2 = 0 Note the arrow over the E.
∂t
whose solution is: = {
E ( x, y, z , t ) Re E0 exp[i (k ⋅ r − ω t )]
}
where:
E0 = ( E0 x , E0 y , E0 z )
Vector Waves
We must now allow the field E and its complex field amplitude E0 to
be vectors:
{ )}
(
E ( r , t ) Re E0 exp i k ⋅ r − ωt
=
E0 =+
(Re{Ex } i Im{Ex }, Re{E y } + i Im{E y }, Re{Ez } + i Im{Ez })
Boundary Conditions
Often, a wave is constrained
by external factors, which we
call Boundary Conditions.
Node Anti-node