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Figure 1
History of Internetworking: -
The first networks were time-sharing networks that used mainframes and attached terminals. Both IBM’s
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and Digital’s network architecture implemented such environments.
Local-area networks (LANs) evolved around the PC revolution. LANs enabled multiple users in a relatively
small geographical area to exchange files and messages, as well as access shared resources such as file servers
and printers.
Wide-area networks (WANs) interconnect LANs with geographically dispersed users to create connectivity.
Some of the technologies used for connecting LANs include T1, T3, ATM, ISDN, ADSL, Frame Relay, radio links,
and others. New methods of connecting dispersed LANs are appearing everyday.
Today, high-speed LANs and switched internet works are becoming widely used, largely because they operate
at very high speeds and support such high-bandwidth applications as multimedia and videoconferencing.
Internetworking evolved as a solution to three key problems: isolated LANs, duplication
of resources, and a lack of network management. Isolated LANs made electronic communication between
different offices or departments impossible. Duplication of resources meant that the same hardware and
software had to be supplied to each office or department, as did separate support staff. This lack of network
management meant that no centralized method of managing and troubleshooting networks existed.
Internetworking Challenges
A reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how communications should take place. It addresses all the
processes required for effective communication and divides these processes into logical groupings called layers.
When a communication system is designed in this manner, it’s known as layered architecture.
Think of it like this: You and some friends want to start a company. One of the first things you’d do is sit down
and think through what must be done, who will do them, what order they will be done in, and how they relate
to each other. Ultimately, you might group these tasks into departments. Let’s say you decide to have an order-
taking department, an inventory department, and a shipping department. Each of your departments has its own
unique tasks, keeping its staff members busy and requiring them to focus on only their own duties.
Similarly, software developers can use a reference model to understand computer communication processes
and to see what types of functions need to be accomplished on any one layer. If they are developing a protocol
for a certain layer, all they need to concern themselves with is the specific layer’s functions, not those of any
other layer. Another layer and protocol will handle the other functions. The technical term for this idea is
binding. The communication processes that are related to each other are bound, or grouped together, at a
particular layer.
The OSI model is hierarchical, and the same benefits and advantages can apply to any layered model. The
primary purpose of all models, and especially the OSI model, is to allow different vendors to interoperate. The
benefits of the OSI model include, but are not limited to, the following:
• Dividing the complex network operation into more manageable layers
• Changing one layer without having to change all layers. This allows application developers to specialize
in design and development.
• Defining the standard interface for the “plug-and-play” multi-vendor integration
Application
Application Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Transport Data-Link
Physical
The OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication between computers, but the model itself is
not a method of communication. Actual communication is made possible by using communication protocols. In
the context of data networking, a protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how computers
exchange information over a network medium. A protocol implements the functions of one or more of the OSI
layers.
A wide variety of communication protocols exist. Some of these protocols include LAN protocols, WAN
protocols, network protocols, and routing protocols. LAN protocols operate at the physical and data link layers
of the OSI model and define communication over the various LAN media. WAN protocols operate at the lowest
three layers of the OSI model and define communication over the various wide-area media. Routing protocols
are network layer protocols that are responsible for exchanging information between routers so that the
routers can select the proper path for network traffic. Finally, network protocols are the various upper-layer
Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system to a software application in
another must pass through the OSI layers. For example, if a software application in System A has information to
transmit to a software application in System B, the application program in System A will pass its information to
the application layer (Layer 7) of System A. The application layer then passes the information to the
presentation layer (Layer 6), which relays the data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on down to the
physical layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical network medium and is
sent across the medium to System B. The physical layer of System B removes the information from the physical
medium, and then its physical layer passes the information up to the data link layer (Layer 2), which passes it
to the network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches the application layer (Layer 7) of System B. Finally,
the application layer of System B passes the information to the recipient application program to complete the
communication process.
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
The Logical Link Control (LLC) sub layer of the data link layer manages communications between devices over a
single link of a network. LLC is defined in the IEEE 802.2 specification and supports both connectionless and
connection-oriented services used by higher-layer protocols. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of fields in data link
layer frames that enable multiple higher-layer protocols to share a single physical data link. The Media Access
Control (MAC) sub layer of the data link layer manages protocol access to the physical network medium. The
IEEE MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which enable multiple devices to uniquely identify one another
at the data link layer.
Information Formats
The data and control information that is transmitted through internetworks takes a variety of forms. The terms
used to refer to these information formats are not used consistently in the internetworking industry but
sometimes are used interchangeably. Common information formats include frames, packets, datagrams,
segments, messages, cells, and data units.
A frame is an information unit whose source and destination are data link layer entities. A frame is composed of
the data link layer header (and possibly a trailer) and upper-layer data. The header and trailer contain control
information intended for the data link layer entity in the destination system. Data from upper-layer entities is
encapsulated in the data link layer header and trailer. Figure 1-9 illustrates the basic components of a data link
layer frame.
Figure 7: Data from Upper-Layer Entities Makes Up the Data Link Layer Frame
Figure 7
A packet is an information unit whose source and destination are network layer entities. A packet is composed
of the network layer header (and possibly a trailer) and upper-layer data. The header and trailer contain
control information intended for the network layer entity in the destination system. Data from upper-layer
entities is encapsulated in the network layer header and trailer. Figure 1-10 illustrates the basic components of
a network layer packet.
Figure 8
The term datagram usually refers to an information unit whose source and destination are network layer
entities that use connectionless network service.
The term segment usually refers to an information unit whose source and destination are transport layer
entities.
A message is an information unit whose source and destination entities exist above the network layer (often at
the application layer).
A cell is an information unit of a fixed size whose source and destination are data link layer entities. Cells are
used in switched environments, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Switched Multimegabit Data
Service (SMDS) networks. A cell is composed of the header and payload. The header contains control
information intended for the destination data link layer entity and is typically 5 bytes long. The payload
contains upper-layer data that is encapsulated in the cell header and is typically 48 bytes long.
The length of the header and the payload fields always are the same for each cell.
Figure 1picts the components of a typical cell.
Figure 9
Data unit is a generic term that refers to a variety of information units. Some common data units are service
data units (SDUs), protocol data units, and bridge protocol data units (BPDUs). SDUs are information units from
upper-layer protocols that define a service request to a lower-layer protocol. PDU is OSI terminology for a
packet. BPDUs are used by the spanning-tree algorithm as hello messages .
MAC Addresses
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses consist of a subset of data link layer addresses. MAC addresses identify
network entities in LANs that implement the IEEE MAC addresses of the data link layer. As with most data-link
addresses, MAC addresses are unique for each LAN interface. Figure 1-14 illustrates the relationship between
MAC addresses, data-link addresses, and the IEEE sub layers of the data link layer.
Figure 10: MAC Addresses, Data-Link Addresses, and the IEEE Sub layers of the Data Link Layer
Are All Related
Figure 10
MAC addresses are 48 bits in length and are expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits. The first 6 hexadecimal digits,
which are administered by the IEEE, identify the manufacturer or vendor and thus comprise the
Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI). The last 6 hexadecimal digits comprise the interface serial number, or
another value administered by the specific vendor. MAC addresses sometimes are called burned-in addresses
(BIAs) because they are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are copied into random-access memory
(RAM) when the interface card initializes. Figure 1-15 illustrates the MAC address format.
Figure 11
Mapping Addresses
Because internetworks generally use network addresses to route traffic around the network, there is a need to
map network addresses to MAC addresses. When the network layer has determined the destination station's
network address, it must forward the information over a physical network using a MAC address. Different
protocol suites use different methods to perform this mapping, but the most popular is Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP). Different protocol suites use different methods for determining the MAC address of a device.
The following three methods are used most often. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) maps network addresses
to MAC addresses. The Hello protocol enables network devices to learn the MAC addresses of other network
devices. MAC addresses either are embedded in the network layer address or are generated by an algorithm.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is the method used in the TCP/IP suite. When a network device needs to
send data to another device on the same network, it knows the source and destination network addresses for
the data transfer. It must somehow map the destination address to a MAC address before forwarding the data.
First, the sending station will check its ARP table to see if it has already discovered this destination station's
MAC address. If it has not, it will send a broadcast on the network with the destination station's IP address
contained in the broadcast. Every station on the network receives the broadcast and compares the embedded
IP address to its own. Only the station with the matching IP address replies to the sending station with a packet
containing the MAC address for the station. The first station then adds this information to its ARP table for
future reference and proceeds to transfer the data.
When the destination device lies on a remote network, one beyond a router, the process is the same except that
the sending station sends the ARP request for the MAC address of its default gateway. It then forwards the
information to that device. The default gateway will then forward the information over whatever networks
necessary to deliver the packet to the network on which the destination device resides. The router on the
destination device's network then uses ARP to obtain the MAC of the actual destination device and delivers the
packet. The Hello protocol is a network layer protocol that enables network devices to identify one another and
indicate that they are still functional. When a new end system powers up, for example, it broadcasts hello
messages onto the network. Devices on the network then return hello replies, and hello messages are also sent
at specific intervals to indicate that they are still functional. Network devices can learn the MAC addresses of
other devices by examining Hello protocol packets.
.
Figure 12: Each Network Interface Must Be Assigned a Network Address for Each Protocol
supported
Figure 12
TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is a condensed version of the OSI model. It is comprised of four, instead of seven, layers:
• The Process/Application layer
• The Host-to-Host layer
• The Internet layer
• The Network Access layer
Figure given bellow shows a comparison of the TCP/IP or DoD model and the OSI reference model. As you can
see, the two are similar in concept, but each has a different number of layers with different names.
A vast array of protocols combines at the DoD model’s Process/Application layer to integrate the various
activities and duties spanning the focus of the OSI’s corresponding top three layers (Application, Presentation,
and Session). The Process/Application layer defines protocols for node-to-node application communication and
also controls user-interface specifications. The Host-to-Host layer parallels the functions of the OSI’s Transport
Ways of Communication
Unicasting
• Communication between two devices is one-on-one. Create least traffic while
communicating. Best in when one device want to communicate with one device only as no
extra bothering the other hosts on the segment. Cannot be use in one-on-many devices to
communicate as one hub device need to send the many copies of the same packet to all the
hosts and will get the Acks from them.
Broadcasting
• Communication between two devices is one-on-all. One-n-all means all the host in the
network on the same switch. When host send the packet on broadcast address then the switch
will duplicate the packet and will send it on all the host in the network.
Multicasting
• Communication with one-on-one and one-on-many has too many limitations like large traffic
to handle and security breach. It is used when one-on-group one way communication is
required. For example live telecasting of video stream on internet, in this case the users are
group of people who may need the particular stream but not all the hosts. So the user will join
the particular multicast group to get that particular stream.
IP Addressing
One of the most important topics in any discussion of TCP/IP is IP addressing. An IP address is a
numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network. It designates the location of a device on
the network. An IP address is a software address, not a hardware address—the latter is hardcoded on
a network interface card (NIC) and used for finding hosts on a local network. IP addressing was
designed to allow a host on one network to communicate with a host on a different network,
regardless of the type of LANs the hosts is participating in.
IP stands for Internet Protocol, it's a communications protocol used from the smallest private network
to the massive global Internet. An IP address is a unique identifier given to a single device on an IP
network. The IP address consists of a 32-bit number that ranges from 0 to 4294967295. This means
that theoretically, the Internet can contain approximately 4.3 billion unique objects. But to make such
Network Addressing
The Technical Zone Page 23
The network address uniquely identifies each network. Every machine on the same network shares that
network address as part of its IP address. In the IP address 172.16.30.56, for example, 172.16 is the network
address.
The node address is assigned to, and uniquely identifies, each machine on a network. This part of the address
must be unique because it identifies a particular machine—an individual—as opposed to a network, which is a
group. This number can also be referred to as a host address. In the sample IP address 172.16.30.56, .30.56 is
the node address. The designers of the Internet decided to create classes of networks based on network size.
For the small number of networks possessing a very large number of nodes, they created the rank Class A
network. At the other extreme is the Class C network, which is reserved for the numerous networks with a small
number of nodes. The class distinction for networks between very large and very small is predictably called the
Class B network. Subdividing an IP address into a network and node address is determined by the class
designation of one’s network.
Figure summarizes the three classes of networks: -
Network –Id
• Can be defined as the Id to represent the no. of host addresses in the same network in the
topology. Cannot be assign to any host in the network. When all the host past is zero then it
is called network-id. Or simply the first address of the network is always Network-Id
Broadcast-Id
• Address on which if packets are send these will be receive by all the hosts in the network. T his
address is used when all the host in the network are suppose to get the same message. Cannot
be assign to any host in the network. When all the host bits are one then it is called
broadcast-id. Simply the last address of the network is called broadcast-id.
Class A Addresses
In a Class A network address, the first byte is assigned to the network address and the three remaining bytes
are used for the node addresses. The Class A format is Network.Node.Node.Node For example, in the IP
address 49.22.102.70, 49 is the network address, and 22.102.70 is the node address. Every machine on this
particular network would have the distinctive network address of 49. Class A addresses are one byte long, with
So while assigning IP addresses to host, two addresses can never assign one Network-Id and other is
Broadcast-Id. Always subtract 2 from the total no of IPs in the network.
Subnetting
The word subnet is short for sub network--a smaller network within a larger one. The smallest subnet
that has no more subdivisions within it is considered a single "broadcast domain," which directly
correlates to a single LAN (local area network) segment on an Ethernet switch. The broadcast domain
serves an important function because this is where devices on a network communicate directly with
each other's MAC addresses, which don't route across multiple subnets, let alone the entire Internet.
MAC address communications are limited to a smaller network because they rely on ARP broadcasting
to find their way around, and broadcasting can be scaled only so much before the amount of broadcast
traffic brings down the entire network with sheer broadcast noise. For this reason, the most common
smallest subnet is 8 bits, or precisely a single octet, although it can be smaller or slightly larger.
Subnetting is just the concept of borrowing the bits from the host part to reduce the host part and to
include it in the network part. With this the no. of available network will be increase and the no of
hosts the subnetted will be decreased. This way more efficient assignment of IP addressing in the
network is possible with least possible wasting of IPs as they very limited in no .in IPv4
Subnets have a beginning and an ending, and the beginning number is always even and the ending
number is always odd. The beginning number is the "Network ID" and the ending number is the
"Broadcast ID." You're not allowed to use these numbers because they both have special meaning with
special purposes. The Network ID is the official designation for a particular subnet, and the ending
number is the broadcast address that every device on a subnet listens to.
With the Subnetting one bigger network can break down into smaller no. of Sub networks. With each
sub network they must have their own Network-Id and Broadcast-Id.
For example
192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0
Network-Id 192.168.0.0 Broadcast-Id 192.168.0.255
By doing binary of last octet we will get following
192.168.0.00000000
Now here we have last 8 digits as host bits and first 24 bits are for network and are reserve.
Lets we have N no. of requirement of IP addresses
Now we have to find out how many bits are suppose to require to reserve for hosts and rest left bits
are subnet bits
With N no. of hosts we require one Network-Id and Broadcast-Id so total no. of IPs required are
N + 2. To generate N options we need M(say) bits to reserve for network.
N + 2 ≤ 2^M (General for all classes)
RJ-45 connector
Pin Wire Pair (T is tip, R is Ring)
1 Pair 2 T2
2 Pair 2 R2
3 Pair 3 T3
4 Pair 1 R1
5 Pair 1 T1
6 Pair 3 R3
7 Pair 4 T4
8 Pair 4 R4
Straight-Through
In a UTP implementation of a straight-through cable, the wires on both cable ends are in the same order.
You can use a straight-through cable for the following tasks:
Connecting a router to a hub or switch
Connecting a server to a hub or switch
Connecting workstations to a hub or switch
Crossover
In the implementation of a crossover, the wires on each end of the cable are crossed. Transmit to
receive and receive to Transmit on each side, for both tip and ring.
You can use a crossover cable for the following tasks:
Connecting uplinks between switches
Connecting hubs to switches
Connecting a hub to another hub
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the center
conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent
lights, motors, and other computers.
BNC connector
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials. It
transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it
ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the
standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It
also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication
possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services.
Switches
Switch is an intelligent device that forwards only those packets that are meant for that subnet.
Here we will discuss in detail 3com super stack 3300 switch in detail: -
3com Switch:
The Super Stack 3 Switch 3300 connects your existing 10Mbps devices, connects high-performance
workgroups with a 100Mbps backbone or server connection, and connects power users to dedicated
100Mbps ports - all in one switch. In addition, as part of the 3Com Super Stack 3 range of products,
you can combine it with any Super Stack 3 system as your network grows.
Front view:
Rear View:
Switches occupy the same place in the network as hubs. Unlike hubs, switches examine each packet and process
it accordingly rather than simply repeating the signal to all ports. Switches map the Ethernet addresses of the
nodes residing on each network segment and then allow only the necessary traffic to pass through the switch.
When a packet is received by the switch, the switch examines the destination and source hardware addresses and
compares them to a table of network segments and addresses. If the segments are the same, the packet is
dropped ("filtered"); if the segments are different, then the packet is "forwarded" to the proper segment.
Additionally, switches prevent bad or misaligned packets from spreading by not forwarding them.
Hubs
In data communications, a hub is the pivot of convergence where data arrives from one or more directions and is
forwarded out in one or more directions. A hub usually includes a switch (in telecommunications, a switch is a
network device that selects a path or circuit for sending a unit of data to its next destination) of some kind. The
distinction seems to be that the hub is the point where data comes together and the switch is what determines
how and where data is forwarded from the place where data comes together. A hub is a hardware device that acts
as a central connecting point and joins lines in a star network configuration.
Routers
A router is a device that interconnects two or more computer networks, and selectively interchanges
packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address information that a router can use to
determine if the source and destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be
transferred from one network to another. A router is a device whose software and hardware are
customized to the tasks of routing and forwarding information. A router has two or more network
interfaces, which may be to different types of network or different network standards.
Types of routers
Basically these are of two types–
1) Modular: - these routers do not have fixed interfaces. These can be added and removed
according to need.
2) Non-modular routers:- These routers have fixed interfaces and these cannot be removed.
Ports
We can connect to a Cisco router to configure it, verify its configuration and check the statistics by
using various ports. There are many ports but the most important is the console port.
Console Port: -
Router Components
Some of the parts of a cisco router are: Chassis, motherboard, processor, RAM, NVRAM, flash memory,
Power supply, Rom etc.
ROM:
• The ROM in a router contains the bootstrap program that searches for a suitable system image
when the router is switched on. When the router is switched on, the ROM performs a Power-on
self-test (POST) to check the hardware. POST checks if everything is working in a proper way
or not. The ROM also provides a monitor mode that can be used for recovering from a crisis.
The Technical Zone Page 35
The information present in the ROM can be erased. ROM contains the basic information which
interprets the information to the device.
Flash Memory:
• Flash memory is an erasable, reprogrammable ROM that holds the system image and the
microcode. Flash memory gets its name from the fact that sections of its memory cells are
erased in a single action or flash. Flash memory is commonly called Flash. Flash is a variation of
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory). The process of erasing and
rewriting in EEPROM is slow, while flash is erased and rewritten faster. Flash memory holds
the Operating System of a router. The operating system of a Cisco router is IOS (Internetwork
Operating System). When a router is switched on, it checks for the compressed form of IOS in
Flash memory. If the IOS is present, then it continues else it checks it in the TFTS (Trivial File
Transfer Server).
RAM:
• This is much faster to read from and write to than other kinds of storage, provides catching,
buffers network packets, and stores routing table information. RAM contains the running
configuration file, which is the current configuration file. All configuration changes are saved to
this file unless we explicitly save the changes to the NVRAM. Information in the RAM requires a
constant power source to be sustained. When the router is powered down, or there is a power
cycle, data stored in RAM ceases to exist. NVRAM is Nonvolatile Random Access Memory.
Information in NVRAM is retained in storage when the router is switched off or rebooted.
NVRAM
• (NVRAM) is the general name used to describe any type of random access memory which does
not lose its information when power is turned off. The Startup-configuration is stored in the
NVRAM of Router. If the router get reboot it will search the NVRAM for startup-config. If
available then the router will copy that Startup-config and put it in running configuration.
Internal part of a router
CPU:-
• As the function of the CPU, it executes instructions coded in the operating system and its
subsystems to perform the basic operations necessary in order to accomplish the functionality
of the router, for example, all of the routing functions, network module high-level control, and
system initialization.
Motherboard Same function as of Computer or Laptop.
Router Interface Types
Network Module It is type of circuit board on which WIC cards are installed and have permanent Fast
Ethernet or Ethernet slots.
WIC Cards Are used to connect the router to other routers in the network or with the Wide area
Network like lease lines or frame-relay switch.
• Smart serial
• Serial
Fast Ethernet Cards with max-speed of 100Mbps per second. And follow the Ethernet standards
Ethernet Cards with max-speed of 10Mbps per second. And follow the Ethernet Standards
Boot Sequence
Complete these steps:
1. After you power on the router, the ROM monitor starts first. ROMMON/BOOTSTRAP functions
are important at router boot, and complete these operations at boot up:
cisco 2611 (MPC860) processor (revision 0x203) with 56320K/9216K bytes of memory.
Processor board ID JAD05020BV5 (1587666027)
M860 processor: part number 0, mask 49
Bridging software.
X.25 software, Version 3.0.0.
2 Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 interface(s)
2 Serial(sync/async) network interface(s)
32K bytes of non-volatile configuration memory.
16384K bytes of processor board System flash (Read/Write)
router>
To use the CLI, press Enter after the router finishes booting up. After you do that, the router will
respond with messages that tell you all about the status of each and every one of its interfaces and then
display a banner and ask you to log in
Merge TFTP configuration with current router Router# copy tftp running-config
configuration held in DRAM
Backup the IOS onto a TFTP server Router# copy flash tftp
Upgrade the router IOS from a TFTP server Router# copy tftp flash
Set the enable secret password to peter. Router(config)# enable secret peter
This password overrides the enable password
Set the clock rate for a router with a DCE Router(config-if)clock rate 64000
cable to 64K
Shows all logs that the router has in its memory Router# show log
Ping
Ping is a computer network administration utility used to test whether a particular host is
reachable across an Internet Protocol (IP) network and to measure the round-trip time for
packets sent from the local host to a destination computer, including the local host's own
interfaces.
By default the packet will take the source address of the outgoing interface from which the packet
is suppose to leave for the destination.
Ping operates by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) echo request packets to the
target host and waits for an ICMP response. In the process it measures the round-trip time and
records any packet loss. The results of the test are printed in form of a statistical summary of
the response packets received, including the minimum, maximum, and the mean round-trip
times, and sometimes the standard deviation of the mean.
Command can be used in given formant for any device whether Microsoft OS or the Cisco Routers
C:\> ping Address(IP or www.xyz.com)
C:\>ping 127.0.0.254
Pinging 127.0.0.254 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 127.0.0.254: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.254: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.254: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Reply from 127.0.0.254: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Extended Ping
Ping has various options depending on the implementation that enable special operational
modes, such as to specify the packet size used as the probe, automatic repeated operation for
The Technical Zone Page 42
sending a specified count, request timeout and the source address that is carry by the ping
packet.
Router# ping
Protocol [ip]: ip
Target IP address: 1.1.1.1
Repeat count [5]: 1000
Datagram size [100]: 200
Timeout in seconds [2]: 1
Extended commands [n]: y to (change the Source address use y )
Source address or interface: 1.1.1.1
Type of service [0]:
Set DF bit in IP header? [no]:
Validate reply data? [no]:
Data pattern [0xABCD]:
Loose, Strict, Record, Timestamp, Verbose[none]:
Sweep range of sizes [n]:
Type escape sequence to abort.
Sending 1000, 200-byte ICMP Echos to 1.1.1.1, timeout is 1 seconds:
Packet sent with a source address of 1.1.1.1
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Success rate is 100 percent (1000/1000), round-trip min/avg/max = 1/1/4 ms
Traceroute
Traceroute is a computer network tool used to show the route taken by packets across an IP network.
It is used to find out on which router the packets are actually dropped if the packet is unable to reach
the destination. It is very useful tool for network professional.
Traceroute works by increasing the "time-to-live" value of each successive batch of packets sent. The
first three packets sent have a time-to-live (TTL) value of one (implying that they are not forwarded
by the next router and make only a single hop). The next three packets have a TTL value of 2, and so
on. When a packet passes through a host, normally the host decrements the TTL value by one, and
forwards the packet to the next host. When a packet with a TTL of one reaches a host, the host
discards the packet and sends an ICMP time exceeded packet to the sender, or an echo reply if its IP
address matches the IP address that the packet was originally sent to. The traceroute utility uses these
returning packets to produce a list of hosts that the packets have traversed in transit to the
destination.
Command for Microsoft Operating systems.
C:\>tracert www.google.com
1 2 ms 2 ms 1 ms 10.16.32.96
2 18 ms 18 ms 16 ms 122.160.236.2
3 17 ms 16 ms 16 ms ABTS-North-Static-014.236.160.122.airtelbroadband.in
[122.160.236.14]
4 18 ms 15 ms 15 ms 125.19.65.101
5 75 ms 85 ms 74 ms 203.101.100.210
6 77 ms 96 ms 76 ms 72.14.216.229
7 82 ms 82 ms 81 ms 66.249.94.170
8 88 ms 89 ms 92 ms 72.14.238.90
9 83 ms 83 ms 81 ms maa03s01-in-f104.1e100.net [209.85.231.104]
Trace complete
C:\>tracert 4.2.2.2
Tracing route to vnsc-bak.sys.gtei.net [4.2.2.2]
over a maximum of 30 hops:
1 2 ms 1 ms 1 ms 10.16.32.96
2 16 ms 20 ms 17 ms ABTS-North-Static-002.236.160.122.airtelbroadband.in
[122.160.236.2]
3 18 ms 17 ms 16 ms ABTS-North-Static-006.236.160.122.airtelbroadband.in
[122.160.236.6]
4 17 ms 19 ms 16 ms 125.19.65.101
5 71 ms 69 ms 73 ms 203.101.95.30
6 225 ms 222 ms 221 ms so-5-3-0-dcr2.par.cw.net [195.10.54.77]
7 221 ms 221 ms 231 ms xe-4-3-0-xcr1.par.cw.net [195.2.9.233]
8 216 ms 225 ms 215 ms xe-0-1-0-xcr1.fra.cw.net [195.2.9.225]
9 328 ms 322 ms 319 ms 212.162.4.201
10 304 ms 307 ms 304 ms vnsc-bak.sys.gtei.net [4.2.2.2]
Trace complete.
Routed Protocols
- Protocol that can be routed by a router. It is used between routers to carry user traffic. A router must
be able to interpret the logical internetwork as specified by that routed protocol. Examples of routed
protocols include AppleTalk, DECnet, and IP, IPX etc.
Routing Protocols
- Protocol that accomplishes routing through the implementation of a specific routing algorithm.
Examples of routing protocols include IGRP, OSPF, and RIP. It is used between routers to maintain
tables. Dynamic Routing is performed by Routing Protocols
Routing
Load Balancing
Load sharing, also known as load balancing, allows routers to take advantage of multiple paths to the
same destination by sending packets over all the available routes.
Load sharing can be equal cost or unequal cost, where cost is a generic term referring to whatever
metric (if any) is associated with the route.
Equal-cost load sharing distributes traffic equally among multiple paths with equal metrics.
Unequal-cost load sharing distributes packets among multiple paths with different metrics. The
traffic is distributed inversely proportional to the cost of the routes. That is, paths with lower costs are
assigned more traffic, and paths with higher costs are assigned less traffic.
Loopbacks: - a loopback device is a virtual network interface implemented in software only and not
connected to any hardware, but which is fully integrated into the router’s internal network
infrastructure. Any traffic that router sends to the loopback interface is immediately received on the
same interface.
Any address can be given to loopbacks and it behave as the real interface to all the other devices the
traffic send to the loopback is equivalent to the traffic send to the real interface or host and proper
reply is send to the sender. As is testing environment we cannot create a large real networks so the
loopbacks are the only tool which helps in creating the large virtual network.
Router(config)#interface loopback ?
<0-2147483647> Loopback interface number
As shown above the no. of loopbacks that can be created on any router is from 0-2147483647
And there values can be loopback no. for the identification of the particular loopback
The loopback no. is locally significant on the router and it must be different for all the loopbacks in
particular router and need not to be different on other routers. Example like Loopback 0 can be
created on all the routers in the network but every loopback must have differnet network address.
Static Routing
Static routing is the process of an administrator manually adding routes in each router’s routing
table. There are benefits and disadvantages to all routing processes. Static routing is not really a
protocol, simply the process of manually entering routes into the routing table via a configuration file
that is loaded when the routing device starts up.
In these systems, routes through a data network are described by fixed paths (statically). These routes
are usually entered into the router by the system administrator. An entire network can be configured
using static routes, but this type of configuration is not fault tolerant. When there is a change in the
Static Routing work good with Small networks and where small series of routers are placed as these
routers are not capable of taken another burden of routing protocols and where topology is like hub
and spoke.
But when it comes to the large Network the static routing get very complicated and admin has to
manually design the network by him-self for all best routes and the backup routes and with addition
of new router the whole topology may be needed to revise for the better utilization of the recourses
Default Routing
Default Routing is the routing in which all the packets to unknown addresses are routed through
particular interface of the router and this interface will act as the default gateway for that particular
router and one router can only have on gateway.
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 (Interface out address) (Next hop address) (Admin
Distance)
Ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 int Serial x/y A.B.C.D 20
Admin Distance is use to give the priority of the default route.
And with this command one can set the default gateway to the router and when using the Show ip
route command then the Gateway to last resort will be set to the next hop address of the Adjacent
router.
Default routing works well in Hub and Spoke Topology in which all routers at spokes should have
default route to the hub router and hub router is configured with static routes to all spokes routers
Networks
Router#show ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2
i - IS-IS, su - IS-IS summary, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2
ia - IS-IS inter area, * - candidate default, U - per-user static route
o - ODR, P - periodic downloaded static route
Figure 2
R1(config)ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 serial 0/0 192.168.0.2
Dynamic routing
Dynamic Routing is the process of routing protocols running on the router communicating with
neighbor routers. The routers then update each other about all the networks they know about. If a
change occurs in the network, the dynamic routing protocols automatically inform all routers about
the change. If static routing is used, the administrator is responsible for updating all changes by hand
into all routers.
Dynamic routing that adjust automatically to network topology or traffic changes. Also called adaptive
routing. Use a route that a network routing protocol adjusts automatically for topology or traffic
changes. The success of dynamic routing depends on two basic router functions:
• Maintenance of a routing table
• Timely distribution of knowledge in the form of routing updates to other routers
This is the process of using protocols to find and update routing tables on routers. This is easier than
static or default routing, but one can use it at the expense of router CPU processes and bandwidth on
the network links.
A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by a router when it communicates between neighbor
routers.
Figure 3
Path Determination
• All networks within an internetwork must be connected to a router, and wherever a router has
an interface on a network that interface must have an address on the network. This address is
the originating point for reach-ability information.
As shows in the above figure
A simple three-router inter-network. Router A knows about networks 192.168.1.0,
192.168.2.0, and 192.168.3.0 because it has interfaces on those networks with corresponding
addresses and appropriate address masks. Likewise, router B knows about 192.168.3.0,
192.168.4.0, 192.168.5.0, and 192.186.6.0; Router C knows about 192.168.6.0, 192.168.7.0, and
198.168.1.0. Each interface implements the data link and physical protocols of the network to
which it is attached, so the router also knows the state of the network (up or down).
Each router knows about its directly connected networks from its assigned addresses and
masks. And Network that are not directly connected to router must be known to router via
static routing or dynamic routing
Metrics
• When there are multiple routes to the same destination, a router must have a mechanism for
calculating the best path. A metric is a variable assigned to routes as a means of ranking them
from best to worst or from most preferred to least preferred.
Different Routing Protocols uses different metrics so there is no comparison between the two
or more routing protocols which one is better. Metric is only used to find the best route with-in
the routing protocol.
Hop Count
• Hop count is simply counting the no. of hops the network is away. Hops are no of routers which
are on the way to the network. RIP works on the basis of Hop counts and when hop count is
considered no other parameters are consider. Like if the path with lower hop count is bad and
path with higher hop count is good RIP will always use lower hop count rather than good one.
Bandwidth
• A bandwidth metric would choose a higher-bandwidth path over a lower-bandwidth link.
However, bandwidth by itself still may not be a good metric. What if one or both of the T1 links
are heavily loaded with other traffic and the 56K link is lightly loaded? Or what if the higher-
bandwidth link also has a higher delay?
Load
• This metric reflects the amount of traffic utilizing the links along the path. The best path is the
one with the lowest load.
Delay
• Delay is a measure of the time a packet takes to traverse a route. A routing protocol using delay
as a metric would choose the path with the least delay as the best path. There may be many
ways to measure delay. Delay may take into account not only the delay of the links along the
route but also such factors as router latency and queuing delay. On the other hand, the delay of
a route may be not measured at all; it may be a sum of static quantities defined for each
interface along the path. Each individual delay quantity would be an estimate based on the type
of link to which the interface is connected.
Reliability
• Reliability measures the likelihood that the link will fail in some way and can be either variable
or fixed. Examples of variable-reliability metrics are the number of times a link has failed or the
number of errors it has received within a certain time period. Fixed-reliability metrics are
based on known qualities of a link as determined by the network administrator. The path with
highest reliability would be selected as best.
Cost
The Technical Zone Page 57
• This metric is configured by a network administrator to reflect more- or less-preferred routes.
Cost may be defined by any policy or link characteristic or may reflect the arbitrary judgment
of the network administrator. The term cost is often used as a generic term when speaking of
route choices. For example, "RIP chooses the lowest-cost path based on hop count." Another
generic term is shortest, as in "RIP chooses the shortest path based on hop count." When used
in this context, either lowest-cost (or highest-cost) and shortest (or longest) merely refer to a
routing protocol's view of paths based on its specific metrics.
Cost is the value derived by using the metric for that particular protocol.
Example RIP use directly HOP count
OSPF calculate value with the given formulae (100/Bandwidth in Mbps)
For serial link of T1 line OSPF cost is 64 and for fast Ethernet it is 1
Convergence
• A dynamic routing protocol must include a set of procedures for a router to inform other
routers about its directly connected networks, to receive and process the same information
from other routers, and to pass along the information it receives from other routers. Further, a
routing protocol must define a metric by which best paths may be determined. RIP converge
very slowly where as EIGRP converge very fast. Faster the convergence higher is the
bandwidth used for updates of that protocol. Slower is the convergence protocol will take large
time to recover from failure.
Administrative distance: -
Admin Distance is the measure used by Cisco routers to select the best path when there are two or
more different routes to the same destination from two different routing protocols. Administrative
distance defines the reliability of a routing protocol. Each routing protocol is prioritized in order of
most to least reliable (believable) using an administrative distance value. This value is assigned on
basis of the reliability and convergence value of the routing protocol. RIP 120 EGP 140 ODR 160
External EIGRP 170 Internal BGP 200 Unknown 255
Protocol Default Admin Dist Protocol Default Admin-Dist
Directly connected 0 RIP 120
Static route 1 EGP 140
EIGRP summary 5 ODR 160
route
External BGP 20 External EIGRP 170
EIGRP 90 Internal BGP 200
OSPF 110 Unknown 255
IS-IS 115
Routing by Rumors means that each router relies on the information obtained for m the neighbor
and do not verify itself so potentially fear of loops in the network
Periodic Updates
Periodic updates means that at the end of a certain time period, updates will be transmitted. This
period typically ranges from 10 seconds for AppleTalk's RTMP to 90 seconds for Cisco's IGRP. At issue
here is the fact that if updates are sent too frequently, congestion may occur; if updates are sent too
infrequently, convergence time may be unacceptably high.
Neighbors
In the context of routers, neighbors always mean routers sharing a common data link. A distance
vector routing protocol sends its updates to neighboring routers and depends on them to pass the
update information along to their neighbors. For this reason, distance vector routing is said to use
hop-by-hop updates.
At time t1, the first updates have been received and processed by the routers. Look at R1 table at t 1.
R2's update to R1 said that R2 can reach networks 10.0.0.0 and 10.0.2.0, both 0 hops away. If the
networks are 0 hops from R2, they must be 1 hop from R1. R1 incremented the hop count by 1 and
then examined its route table. It already knew about 10.0.0.0, and the hop count (0) was less than the
hop count R2 advertised, (1), so R1 disregarded that information.
Network 10.0.2.0 was new information, however, so R1 entered this in the route table. The source
address of the update packet was router R2's interface (10.0.0.2) so that information is entered along
with the calculated hop count.
Notice that the other routers performed similar operations at the same time t 1 R3, for instance,
disregarded the information about 10.0.3.0 from R2 and 10.0.4.0 from R4 but entered information
about 10.0.0.0, reachable via R2's interface address 10.0.2.1, and 4.0.0.0, reachable via R3's interface
10.0.3.2 Both networks were calculated as 1 hop away. At time t 2, the update period has again expired
and another set of updates has been broadcast. R2 sent its latest table; R1 again incremented R2's
advertised hop counts by 1 and compared. The information about 10.0.0.0 is again discarded for the
same reason as before. 10.0.2.0 is already known, and the hop count hasn't changed, so that
information is also discarded. 10.0.3.0 is new information and is entered into the route table.
The network is converged at time t 3. Every router knows about every network, the address of the
next-hop router for every network, and the distance in hops to every network.
Distance vector algorithms provide road signs to networks. They provide the direction and the
distance, but no details about what lies along the route. And like the sign at the fork in the trail, they
are vulnerable to accidental or intentional misdirection. Following are some of the difficulties and
refinements associated with distance vector algorithms.
Figure 5
Link state protocols, sometimes called shortest path first or distributed database protocols, are built
around a well-known algorithm from graph theory, E. W. Dijkstra'a shortest path algorithm.
Asynchronous Updates
Figure1 shows a group of routers connected to an Ethernet backbone. The routers should not broadcast their
updates at the same time; if they do, the update packets will collide. Yet this situation is exactly what can
happen when a several routers share a broadcast network. System delays related to the processing of updates
in the routers tend to cause the update timers to become synchronized. As a few routers become
synchronized, collisions will begin to occur, further contributing to system delays and eventually all routers
sharing the broadcast network may become synchronized.
The invalidation timer, which distance vector protocols use to limit the amount of time a route can stay in a
routing table without being updated. RIP calls this timer the expiration timer, or timeout. Cisco's IOS calls it
the invalid timer. The expiration timer is initialized to 180 seconds whenever a new route is established and
is reset to the initial value whenever an update is heard for that route. If an update for a route is not heard
within that 180 seconds (six update periods), the hop count for the route is changed to 16, marking the route
as unreachable.
Another timer, the garbage collection or flush-timer, is set to 240 seconds–60 seconds longer than the
expiration time. The route will be advertised with the unreachable metric until the garbage collection timer
expires, at which time the route is removed from the routing table.
Max-Hop-Count
RIP prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely by implementing a limit on the number of hops
allowed in a path from the source to a destination. The maximum number of hops in a path is 15. If a router
receives a routing update that contains a new or changed entry, and if increasing the metric value by 1
causes the metric to be infinity (that is, 16), the network destination is considered unreachable. The
downside of this stability feature is that it limits the maximum diameter of a RIP network to less than 16
hops.
Split Horizon
According to the distance vector algorithm as it has been described so far, at every update period each router
broadcasts its entire route table to every neighbor. But is this really necessary? Every network known by R1
A route pointing back to the router from which packets were received is called a reverse route. Split
horizon is a technique for preventing reverse routes between two routers.
Besides not wasting resources, there is a more important reason for not sending reachability information
back to the router from which the information was learned. The most important function of a dynamic
routing protocol is to detect and compensate for topology changes—if the best path to a network becomes
unreachable, the protocol must look for a next-best path.
Look yet again at the converged internetwork of Figure 2 and suppose that network 4.0.0.0 goes down. R4
will detect the failure, flag the network as unreachable, and pass the information along to R3 at the next
update interval. However, before R4's update timer triggers an update, something unexpected happens. R3's
update arrives, claiming that it can reach 4.0.0.0, one hop away! R4 has no way of knowing that R3 is not
advertising a legitimate next-best path. It will increment the hop count and make an entry into its route table
indicating that 4.0.0.0 is reachable via R3's interface 10.0.3.1, just 2 hops away.
Now a packet with a destination address of 4.0.0.0 arrives at R3. R3 consults its route table and forwards the
packet to R4. R4 consults its route table and forwards the packet to R3, R3 forwards it back to R4, ad
infinitum. A routing loop has occurred.
Implementing split horizon prevents the possibility of such a routing loop. There are two categories of split
horizon: simple split horizon and split horizon with poisoned reverse. The rule for simple split horizon is,
when sending updates out a particular interface, do not include networks that were learned from updates
received on that interface.
Figure 2
The routers in Figure 2 implement simple split horizon. R3 sends an update to R4 for network 10.0.0.0,
10.0.3.0 and 1.0.0.0 networks 4.0.0.0 are not included because this was learned from R4. Likewise, updates
to router B include 10.0.3.0, 10.0.2.0, and 4.0.0.0 with no mention of 10.0.0.0, 1.0.0.0.
Simple split horizon works by suppressing information. Split horizon with poisoned reverse is a
modification that provides more positive information.
The rule for split horizon with poisoned reverse is, when sending updates out a particular interface,
designate any networks that were learned from updates received on that interface as unreachable.
Triggered Updates
Holddown Timers
Triggered updates add responsiveness to a reconverging internetwork. Holddown timers introduce a certain
amount of skepticism to reduce the acceptance of bad routing information. If the distance to a destination
increases (for example, the hop count increases from 2 to 4), the router sets a holddown timer for that route.
Until the timer expires, the router will not accept any new updates for the route.
Obviously, a trade-off is involved here. The likelihood of bad routing information getting into a table is
reduced but at the expense of the reconvergence time. Like other timers, holddown timers must be set with
care. If the holddown period is too short, it will be ineffective, and if it is too long, normal routing will be
adversely affected.
Route Poisoning
Route poisoning is a method to prevent routing loops within networks topology. Distance-vector routing
protocols in routers use route poisoning to indicate to other routers that a route is no longer reachable and
should be removed from their routing tables. A variation of route poisoning is split horizon with poison
reverse whereby a router sends updates with unreachable hop counts back to the sender for every route
received to help prevent routing loops In RIP router send metric of 16 hops to the neighbor router, which by
default the neighbor router take it as unreachable.
Passive Interface
Passive interface is used in Routing Protocol configuration to suppress the update on particular interface.
This command is used on the interface of the router on which network is connected and we don’t expect any
router on that network. This is enabled under routing protocol configuration as below: -
Router(config-router)# passive-interface Serial/Fastehternet x/y
Router(config-router)# passive-interface default is used to suppress update or hello packet on all
interfaces .
When using this command in RIP all the broadcast or multicast updates to that interface will be blocked and
if the router on the other side is sending the update RIP will receive the update and add the information in
the Routing Table but do not send any update to that interface.
Discontiguous Networks
When two subnetted networks are separated by the different networks with two or more routers it is called
Discontiguous networks. For example: -
Figure 5
In the above Figure 5 Networks 10.0.3.0/24 and 10.0.4.0/24 are separated from 10.1.1.0/24 and 10.2.1.0/24
with 1.1.1.0/30 and 2.2.2.0/30.
All routing Protocols support contiguous Networks but all routing protocols donot support Discontiguous
Networks. RIP ver1 do not support Discontiguous Networks.
• Command—Indicates whether the packet is a request or a response. The request asks that a router
send all or part of its routing table. The response can be an unsolicited regular routing update or a
reply to a request. Responses contain routing table entries. Multiple RIP packets are used to convey
information from large routing tables.
• Version number—Specifies the RIP version used. This field can signal different potentially
incompatible versions.
• Zero—This field is not actually used by RFC 1058 RIP; it was added solely to provide backward
compatibility with pre-standard varieties of RIP. Its name comes from its defaulted value: zero.
• Command—Indicates whether the packet is a request or a response. The request asks that a router
send all or a part of its routing table. The response can be an unsolicited regular routing update or a
reply to a request. Responses contain routing table entries. Multiple RIP packets are used to convey
information from large routing tables.
• Version—Specifies the RIP version used. In a RIP packet implementing any of the RIP 2 fields or
using authentication, this value is set to 2.
• Unused—Has a value set to zero.
• Address-family identifier (AFI)—Specifies the address family used. RIPv2’s AFI field functions
identically to RFC 1058 RIP’s AFI field, with one exception: If the AFI for the first entry in the
message is 0xFFFF, the remainder of the entry contains authentication information. Currently, the
only authentication type is simple password.
• Route tag—Provides a method for distinguishing between internal routes (learned by RIP) and
external routes (learned from other protocols).
• IP address—Specifies the IP address for the entry.
• Subnet mask—Contains the subnet mask for the entry. If this field is zero, no subnet mask has been
specified for the entry.
• Next hop—Indicates the IP address of the next hop to which packets for the entry should be
forwarded.
• Metric—Indicates how many internetwork hops (routers) have been traversed in the trip to the
destination. This value is between 1 and 15 for a valid route, or 16 for an unreachable route.
Classfull Networks
When routing protocol do not send the subnet mask information with the update packet, and the
Router receiving that update will assume that the complete network is running on sending router and keep
the Classfull entry of that route. Hence when come to discontiguous networks the router receiving the update
with lower hopcount will be selected the best path to that network.
For Example
When R1 send the update of RIP Ver1 it will update the R2 router that it contained the Network 10.0.3.0 and
10.0.4.0 but do not send the subnet mask info so the R2 will assume that it contained the complete network
10.0.0.0/8 Similarly it will get update from R3 regarding the network 10.1.1.0 and 10.2.1.0 but it will again
assume the same thing and since both the information is with 1 hop away info it will load balance for
network 10.0.0.0/8 and hence no router will get the complete packets and other thing communication cannot
be possible between two subnetted networks 10.0.0.0/8 on R1 & R3
Classless Network
When routing protocol send the subnet mask information with the update packet and receiving router
enter the complete information of all the subnetworks of the particular network along with the subnet mask
info. So this way subnetted networks can be supported by router and other way discontiguous network
support.
One can enable Rip on the Router by giving the “router rip” command on the privilege mode following by
the interfaces on which update is supposed to be send and the network of which the advertisement is need to
send.
For both the interface on which advertisement is set to send and the network of which update is send are set
by the same command.
Router(config)# router rip
Router(config-router)# network A.B.C.D
By the above commands only RIP Ver1 will be enabled and to enable RIP Ver2 add the following
commands
Router(config-router)# version 2
Router(config-router)# no auto-summary
Router 0 Router R1
router rip router rip
passive-interface default passive-interface default
no passive-interface Serial0/0 no passive-interface Serial0/0
no passive-interface Serial0/1 no passive-interface Serial0/1
network 3.0.0.0 network 192.168.1.0
network 1.0.0.0 network 192.168.2.0
network 30.0.0.0 network 2.0.0.0
network 192.168.1.0
network 192.168.3.0
Router R2 Router R3
router rip router rip
passive-interface default passive-interface default
no passive-interface Serial0/0 no passive-interface Serial0/0
no passive-interface Serial0/1 no passive-interface Serial0/1
network 1.0.0.0 network 192.168.0.0
network 10.0.0.0 network 192.168.3.0
network 20.0.0.0
network 192.168.0.0
network 192.168.2.0
After enabling RIP Ver2 on all routers the following above outputs are as below
When enabling RIP Ver2 enable it on all the routers in the topology and note that all the routers in
the topology support RIP Ver2
If all the routers are not enabled with Ver2 then the routers working with RIP V1 will send only Ver1
updates and hence the routers down the line will only get Ver1 updates
After Invalid Timer expires the routes receive from faulty routers will upon possibly down status.
Rip Commands
• Show ip routes
• Show ip route rip to see rip route only
• Clear ip route * to clear routing table entries and then new table will be formed with new updates
• Debug ip rip events