Assessing work-related social skills: Existing approaches and instruments

Jonathan Perry & David Felce

Welsh Centre for Learning Disabilities

Cardiff University

The importance of social relations and social competence to human beings

According to Myers & Diener (1995), happiness is related to “knowing a person’s

traits, whether the person enjoys a supportive network of close relationships, whether the
person’s culture offers positive interpretation for most daily events, whether the person is
engaged in work and leisure, and whether the person has faith which entails social
support, purpose and hope” (p. 17). Social relationships and work are important elements
in this quotation. Social relationships have been found to mediate stress and be positively
associated with quality of life (House, 1981; Hughes et al., 1995; Schalock, 2000). For
adults, working is clearly important in its own right, but it also contributes to social
connectedness. Work settings are the second most important context for social
relationships after the family home (Stewart, 1985). Moreover, social relationships are
important to working. Studies conducted to find out why people with disabilities lose
their jobs have shown that social factors are as important as any inability to carry out the
tasks of the job (Ford et al., 1984; Greenspan & Shoultz, 1981; Hanley-Maxwell et al.,
1986; Wehman et al., 1982; 1987). Therefore, there are life enhancement opportunities
and job maintenance necessities to establishing social competence in the workplace
among people with intellectual disabilities.

Social competence

Greenspan and Granfield (1992) set out a model of general competence which
contains two components: instrumental and social competence. Both subdivisions contain
intellectual and non-intellectual components. The intellectual component of social
competence is reflected in two constructs: practical intelligence and social intelligence.
Practical intelligence refers to activities of daily living typically measured by adaptive

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behaviour checklists. Social intelligence refers "to a person's ability to understand and to
deal effectively with social and interpersonal objects and events. Included in this
construct are such variables as role-taking, empathic judgement, person perception, moral
judgement, referential communication, and interpersonal tactics" (Greenspan, 1979 p.
483). Such a construct can be further divided into: awareness (e.g., perspective-taking,
person perception, social inference, social comprehension) and skill (e.g., referential
communication, problem solving). The non-intellectual component of social competence
contains personality dimensions: temperament and character. Temperament may be
thought of as an inherited trait, whereas character may be considered susceptible to
environmental and/or self control. Together, these personality aspects of social
competence are closely related to the maladaptive or aberrant behaviour sections of most
widely available adaptive behaviour rating scales.

In similar vein, Haccou (2004) recognises that competence is a broader, more

situation specific construct than skill. In general, competence is a person's ability to
perform a certain task in a certain context at a certain moment. However, that
performance is defined not only by the person's skill (i.e., the ability to emit the
behaviour) but also by their attitude (personal traits and motivation), underlying
knowledge (information) and experience.

Such a view is supported by definitions of ‘occupational’ competence as "being

able to perform 'whole' work roles , to the standards expected in employment, in real
working environments" (Reid et al., 1992, p.236) … "… as opposed to mastery or
excellence, it is the necessary skills, knowledge, attitudes and experience required in
order to perform an occupational role to a satisfactory standard". Social competence in
the workplace would, therefore, refer to the satisfactory performance of the social aspects
of being a worker. These might be categorised as work-related, that is directly related to
doing the job (e.g., following directions, requesting assistance, sharing work information,
responding to managerial feedback ) or non-work-related, that is social behaviours
unrelated to job duties but important for establishing relationships (e.g., teasing, joking,
sharing information about interests, confiding, eliciting confidences).

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Measuring social competence or social skills

The complexity in the conceptualisation of social competence set out above raises
a number of difficulties for assessment. Greenspan and Granfield (1992) recognise that
there are significant obstacles to measuring social intelligence. McGrew et al. (1996)
state that "although there have been efforts to operationalize the measurement of the
social intelligence construct, none to date has produced a practically useful assessment
tool similar in psychometric stature to the current collection of standardized measures of
intelligence and adaptive behavior" (p. 543).

It is clear from a variety of behavioural checklists or scales (see below) that the
assessment of social skills has been undertaken more successfully and that such
assessments have to some extent been a substitute for the assessment of social
competence. Schumaker and Hazel (1984) define a social skill as "any cognitive function
or overt behavior in which an individual engages while interacting with another person"
(p. 422). Cognitive functions include such capacities as empathy or understanding other
people's feelings, discriminating and making inferences about social cues, and predicting
and evaluating the consequences of social behaviour. Overt behaviours include the non-
verbal (e.g., eye contact, facial expression) and verbal (e.g., speech) components of social
expression. Citing Libet and Lewinsohn (1973) and Trower et al. (1978), they go on to
define social competence as involving "an individual's generative use of a variety of
cognitive and overt social skills that leads to positive consequences for him/her and those
interacting with him/her" (p. 422). Social competence is therefore seen as a composite of
four sets of skills: (a) discriminating situations in which social behaviour is appropriate
(e.g., determining whether someone is ready or too busy to talk), (b) choosing appropriate
verbal and non-verbal social skills (e.g., to fit the age, gender, or authority of the other
person), (c) performing these social skills fluently (e.g., according to current social
mores), and (d) accurately perceiving the other person's verbal and non-verbal cues and
adjusting to this feedback (e.g., stopping talking when the other person has tried to
speak). Possession of social skills may be a necessary condition, but fluent performance
of social skills is based not only on proficiency but also on motivation to use such skills,
which in turn is an issue of social understanding and of valuing the positive consequences
which successful social exchanges bring.

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 Moreover, the emphasis on satisfactory performance in the definitions of
occupational competence above suggests that competence may be a relative rather than
an absolute state (e.g., while generally behaving in a socially appropriate manner may be
important, it may not always be necessary to behave correctly; as there may be a certain
tolerance of inconsistency or of differences between individuals, such as relative shyness,
boisterousness etc.). In addition, judgements of competence may be holistic rather than
based on discrete elements (i.e., although a person may lack certain desirable skills,
strengths in other areas may compensate for the deficits so as to allow the person to be
seen overall as a sufficiently proficient worker). Therefore, although ratings of social
skills may be a guide to social competence, ideal proficiency may overestimate actual
environmental requirements.

Competence may also be situation specific (i.e., a person's ability to follow an

instruction may be adequate in a situation where instructions are simple and to be acted
on immediately, as in a flow of requests such as "pass me the hammer", "pass me a nail",
"hold that end" etc. but not if they are more complex, require to be remembered and
require reaction to a changing situation, as in the following: "check the pizza after 5
minutes, if the crust is golden brown, take it out; if not leave it for another minute and
check again"). In such cases, while highly developed social competence which is portable
from one setting to another may be a long-term instructional objective, more limited
social competence matched to the specific setting may be an adequate short-term goal.
Generalised social competence should not be inferred from such a restricted definition,
but on the other hand, it may not be a necessary developmental target. Where the severity
of intellectual disabilities or other disability (e.g., autism) makes generalised social
competence an unrealistic objective, it is important to restrict teaching to the particular
requirements of the setting (and to follow a 'place and train' supported employment model
rather than a 'train and place' vocational readiness model).

In the absence of any adequate measure of social intelligence, the assessment of

social competence necessarily relies on the assessment of the possession of social skills,
despite the limitations of this approach. This could be complemented by the assessment
of: (a) maladaptive behaviour, in order to gain information relevant to motivation,
temperament or character, and (b) the appropriateness and adequacy of social behaviour

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in situ. However, in what is to follow, it must be remembered that researchers have
repeatedly emhasised that most assessment items in social skills inventories have been
selected for their face validity only. No-one has identified specific social skills that are
critical for social competence, which could therefore be seen as key teaching priorities.
The use of such assessment items as a guide to the selection of teaching targets in social
skills training is similarly limited. With this kept very much in mind, we can proceed to
the remit for this report, which was to review assessments of ‘vocational’ social skills.

Approaches to assessment

Schumaker & Hazel (1984) provide a typology of assessment approaches with a general
discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each type. They set a number of
criteria for ideal measurement of social skills functioning. An assessment must measure
whether or not skills are present in the person’s repertoire (overt and cognitive
behaviours), the quality of behavioural performance (sequences, timing, contexts,
content), the person’s physical appearance, and the use of skills in situations of interest
and the consequences of those behaviours. Overall, it is important to distinguish between
performance deficits and skill deficits. Moreover, in order to be psychometrically
acceptable, assessment devices must be reliable and valid, sensitive to changes in the
person, non-reactive, and capable of yielding diagnostic information specific to the skills
that should be taught. In addition, they must be quick and easy to use and not require
additional resources.

Four general approaches to social skills assessment are reviewed:

Observation and Coding of Behaviour. Social interactions of the person of interest

are defined in terms of a series of observational codes. The occurrence of these
coded behaviours is then observed and recorded to yield data on the frequency
and/or duration of their occurrence.

Advantages: (a) when used in natural contexts it reflects the behaviours a person
would typically exhibit, (b) it can be reliable if efforts are made to train the
observers and to carry out adequate inter-observer reliability checks, (c) it can be
used repeatedly in natural environments to evaluate change.

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Disadvantages: (a) general measures of the frequency or duration of social
interaction do not have social validity or long-term predictive validity so specific
behaviours to be observed within interactions should be defined and coded
separately, adding to practical complexity, (b) the quality of behaviours is
difficult to distinguish and therefore rarely coded, (c) normative cut-off levels
with regard to performance of social skills have not been determined for
identifying individuals who need training, (d) the method is time-consuming and
difficult, (e) opportunities for the use of social skills of interest cannot be
guaranteed during scheduled observation sessions.

Observational checklists. Behaviours of interest which could occur in a specific

kind of interaction are listed. After watching an interaction, which could be in a
role-playing situation, naturally occurring situation, or a contrived situation within
the natural milieu, the rater indicates how well each behaviour was performed.
Role-play is quick and easy to do, but may not accurately reflect behaviours that
occur in natural situations. Observation in natural situations is optimal but
behaviours might not occur or might be inhibited by the observer’s presence.
Contrived situations programmed to occur without the advance knowledge of the
target person can be a good compromise.

Advantages: (a) the approach can be easy to use - little time is required to train
individuals to use checklists reliably or to record all behaviours in an interaction,
(b) it can allow the recording of overt verbal and non-verbal behaviours, the
circumstances surrounding the interaction, and the consequences of the behaviour,
(c) sequences and timing of behaviours can be recorded, enabling pinpointing of
specific behaviours to be taught, (d) it is more possible to specify and record
quality levels within responses, (e) it can be non-reactive and used repeatedly.

Disadvantages: (a) normative cut-off points have not been identified for
identifying social skill training needs, (b) behaviours not represented on the
checklist are not recorded.

Sociometric Assessment. This refers to the practice of determining how well-liked

or socially accepted individuals are. A measure might be devised comprising a

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series of items representing a range of social relationship attributes each assessed
via a Likert-type or visual analogue scale. In a work setting, for example, the
workforce in a particular area might be asked to rate colleagues. The ratings are
averaged to obtain a measure of social acceptance.

Advantages: (a) the measure addresses the ultimate outcome precisely, that is, the
feelings of the specific peer group in a particular setting about an individual’s
social competence (a form of social validity), (b) the approach has been shown to
have good predictive validity and to be sensitive to changes in social behaviour,
(c) it has acceptable test-retest reliability, (d) it has been found to demonstrate
concurrent validity with behavioural measures, (e) normative data can be
obtained, (f) administration is quick and easy.

Disadvantages: (a) may be insensitive to change in situations where friendships,

likes and dislikes have become more stable, (b) results provide no diagnostic
information about which social skills to teach, (c) measures cannot be used too
often because they are reactive, (d) arguably, any use of ‘negative nomination’
(i.e., to identify individuals who are socially less acceptable or liked) might
encourage the rejection of people with disabilities or other differences.

Behavioural rating scales. These list several behaviours or descriptive items and
the respondent (person themselves or significant other) indicates whether the skill
is present in the person's repertoire or how well the behaviour is ‘emitted’.

Advantages: (a) quick and easy, (b) may indicate deficits from which targets can
be chosen for intervention, (c) normative data can be collected and criterion cut-
off points identified.

Disadvantages: (a) responses to items tend to be global indicators of a person’s

abilities; correlations with behavioural observations are not necessarily high (i.e.,
may be an inaccurate representation of actual behaviour in a specific setting);
performance deficits as opposed to skill deficits may be obscured.

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 Schumaker & Hazel (1984) conclude, as others have done since that time, that
none of the measurement types is ideal. Use of a combination of measurement
approaches is, therefore, advocated. For example, one type of instrument might be used
as a global screening device to identify social status and another to pinpoint particular
performance problems requiring intervention. Preferably, assessments should be based on
relevant situations in the natural environment (i.e., in this case, settings in the workplace
where the person of interest needs to behave in a socially acceptable or sufficiently
positive way).

Method of identifying published social skills assessments

A search of the published literature on social skills assessments was undertaken

(NB THIS USED ENGLISH LANGUAGE DATABASES AND KEY WORDS -
ATLAS WILL ALSO IDENTIFY EUROPEAN NON-ENGLISH LANGUAGE
ASSESSMENTS. WA ALREADY IDENTIFIED SOME SOUCES, BUT WE THINK
THAT MORE WILL BE EXPECTED). This was supplemented by asking leading
academics from a range of English and non-English speaking countries who are
knowledgeable about vocational or other training of people with intellectual disabilities
to provide references to social skills assessments known to them (see Appendix 1 for
those who were contacted). Directly field-testing assessment instruments was not part of
this stage of the project. The remainder of this report summarises the literature identified
by the search procedure described below. As such, it is based on the work of others who
have discussed and field-tested measures, as opposed to direct experience of the measures
by the current authors.

A number of online databases at the University of Wales College of Medicine

(now part of Cardiff University) were interrogated to search for relevant literature. These
included: Psychinfo, which lists abstracts for the professional and academic literature in
psychology and related disciplines (psychiatry, education, linguistics, neurosciences,
etc.), and Medline, which lists abstracts in biomedicine, allied health, biological and
physical sciences, humanities and information science as they relate to medicine and
health care. The literature search was restricted to material published since 1980.
Searches were undertaken using various combinations of the following terms: social,

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interpersonal, skills, competence, assessments, measures, instruments, learning
disabilities, intellectual disabilities, mental retardation, workplace, work, vocational. In
addition, journals which might not have been included in the online databases, but which
were likely to include literature on behavioural training, vocational training or intellectual
disability (e.g., Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Research in Developmental
Disabilities, American Journal on Mental Retardation, European Journal of Special
Education, British Journal of Special Education) were searched manually.

Annotated directory of assessment instruments

The following is a list of assessment instruments together with the names of

authors, a brief description, and, where available, details of psychometric properties and
user-friendliness. Measures are grouped according to whether they are specifically
measures of social skills or more generically of adaptive behaviour, whether vocationally
oriented or not, and by age group (see Table 1 for a descriptive summary of the
characteristics of each measure). The majority of instruments were designed for use with
children, and do not relate specifically to vocational social skills. The dearth of
employment-related social skills assessments in comparison with strategies for teaching
social skills is something which (Meyer et al., 1990, p. 57) commented on:

"Despite the increased quantity and sophistication of efforts to teach social

skills, two issues remain unresolved. On the one hand, no overall
conceptualization of social competence exists to guide researchers or
practitioners. On the other hand, no one has identified specific social skills that
are critical for social competence and which might be considered intervention
priorities".

According to the comments of the experts in the field who were approached in the course
of the current project this statement appears to be a fairly accurate reflection of the
current situation.

The measures identified are first listed below and then described one by one.
Their characteristics are summarised in Table 1, which also includes contact details of
publishers or distributors.
1. General behavioural rating scales which include a section on social skills

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Adaptive Behavior Scales (ABS)
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS)
The Inventory for Client and Agency Planning (ICAP)
Responsibility and Independence Scale for Adolescents (RISA)

2. Social skills assessments

(a) Adults
Matson Evaluation of Social Skills in Individuals with Severe Retardation (MESSIER)
Scale for the Evaluation of Social Abilities (VAS)
Assessment of social competence for children and young adults with developmental
disabilities (ASC)

Social Performance Survey Schedule-Revised (SPSS-R)

(b) Children & adolescents

Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY)
School Social Behavior Scales (SSBS-2)
Home & Community Social Behavior Scales (HCSBS)
Social Skills Rating System (SSRS)
Waksman Social Skills Rating Scale (WSSRS)
Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment (WSSCSA)
The School Social Skills Rating Scale (SSSRS)
Social Behavior Assessment Inventory (SBAI)

3. Vocational assessment scales which include a section on social skills

Vocational Assessment and Curriculum Guide (VACG)
Transition Behavior Scales (2nd ed.) (TBS)
Transition Planning Inventory (TPI)
Occupational Skills Assessment Instrument (OSAI)

4. Dedicated vocational social skills assessments

Social Competence in the Workplace – experimental version (SCW)

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Table 1 Social Skills Rating Scales

Target Age Psycho-

Acronym Date Focus Administration
group range metrics
dedicated general
(see key dedicated gen self- profess- time
social adaptive ID others training software
below) vocational eric completion ional (mins)
skills behaviour
ABS 1993 x x √ √ x 3-80 √ x √ x 30-45 √ √
VABS 1984 x x √ √ x all √ x √ x 20-90 √ √
ICAP 1986 x x √ √ x all √ x √ √ 15 x x
RISA 1990 x x √ x √ 12-20 √ x √ √ 30-45 x x
MESSIER 1995 √ x x √ x ? √ x √ √ ? √ x
VAS ? √ x x x √ ? √ x √ √ ? x x
ASC 1985 √ x x x √ all √ x √ √ 45 √ x
SPSS-R 1983 √ x x √ x adults x x √ √ ? x x
MESSY 1983 √ x x x √ children √ √ √ √ 15 x x
SSBS 2002 √ x x x √ 5-18 √ x √ x 5-10 x x
HCSBS 2002 √ x x x √ 5-18 √ x √ √ 5-10 x x
SSRS 1990 √ x x x √ 3-18 √ √ √ √ 10-25 √ √
WSSRS 1985 √ x x x √ 5-18 √ x √ x 15-20 x x
WSSCSA 1988 √ x x x √ 5-18 √ x √ x 10 x x
SSSRS 1984 √ x x x √ 5-18 √ x √ x 10 x x
SBAI 1992 √ x x √ x grade k-9 √ x √ x 30-45 x x
VACG 1982 x √ x √ x adults √ x √ √ x x
TBS-2 2000 x √ x x √ 12-18 √ √ √ x 15-20 x x
TPI 1997 x √ x x √ 14-25 √ √ √ √ ? x x
OSAI 1980 x √ x x √ ? √ x √ x ? x x
SCW 2004 √ √ x x √ ? ? x √ √ ? x x

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Key

Acronym Title Authors Publisher/Distributor Email URL

ABS AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scales Nihira, Leland, Lambert ProEd proedrd2@aol.com www.proedinc.com
VABS Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales Sparrow, Balla, Cicchetti AGS customerservice@agsnet.com www.agsnet.com
Inventory for Client and Agency Bruininks, Hill, Weatherman, Riverside rpcsupport@hmco.com www.riverpub.com
ICAP
Planning Woodcock
Responsibility and Independence Salvia, Niesworth, Schmidt Riverside rpcsupport@hmco.com www.riverpub.com
RISA
Scale for Adolescents
Matson Evaluation of Social Skills in Matson, LeBlanc Weinheimer Scientific Publishers johnmatson@aol.com N.A.
MESSIER
Individuals with Severe Retardation
Scale for the Evaluation of Social Nota & Soresi Dept. of Developmental Psychology and laura.nota@unipd.it N.A.
VAS
Abilities Socialization, University of Padua, Italy
Assessment of social competence for Meyer, Reichle, McQuarter, Syracuse University (details to follow) (details to follow) (details to follow)
ASC children and young adults with Evans, Neel, Kishi
developmental disabilities
Social Performance Survey Schedule- Matson, Helsel, Bellack, ? ? ?
SPSS-R
Revised Senatore
Matson Evaluation of Social Skills Matson, Rotatori, Helsel IDS sales@idspublishing.com www.idspublishing.com
MESSY
with Youngsters
SSBS School Social Behavior Scales Merrell Assessment Intervention Resources info@assessment-intervention.com www.assessment-intervention.com
Home & Community Social Behavior Merrell, Calderella Assessment Intervention Resources info@assessment-intervention.com www.assessment-intervention.com
HCSBS
Scales
SSRS Social Skills Rating System Gresham, Elliott American Guidance Service, Inc. agsmail@agsnet.com www.agsnet.com
WSSRS Waksman Social Skills Rating System Waksman M.D. Angus & Associates Ltd. mdangus@psychtest.com www.psychtest.com
Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Walker, McConnell Wadsworth Publishing www.thomson.com/learning/learnin www.wadsworth.com
WSSCSA
Competence and School Adjustment g_email_us.jsp
SSSRS School Social Skills Rating Scale Brown, Black, Downs Slosson Educational Publications Inc. slosson@webt.com www.slosson.com
Social Behavior Assessment Inventory Stephens, Arnold Psychological Assessment Resources, Custserv@parinc.com www.parinc.com
SBAI Inc.
Vocational Assessment and Rusch, Schutz, Mithaug, Exceptional Education Telephone: 206-262-9538
VACG
Curriculum Guide Stewart
Transition Behavior Scales Mc Carney & Anderson Hawthorne Educational Services, Inc. info@hes-inc.com. www.hes-inc.com
TBS-2

TPI Transition Planning Inventory Clark, Patton PRO-ED proedrd2@aol.com www.proed.com

Occupational Skills Assessment Mathews, Whang, Fawcett Research and Training Center on RTCIL@ku.edu www.rtcil.org/catalog.htm
OSAI Instrument Independent Living, University of
Kansas, USA
Social Competence in the Workplace Nota, Soresi Dept. of Developmental Psychology and laura.nota@unipd.it N.A.
SCW Socialization, University of Padua, Italy

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 In addition, it is worth noting that numerous systems are available to teach social
skills and that many such training packages include assessment instruments. For example,
the Life Centered Career Education curriculum (LCCE) is widely used in the United
States. This is a comprehensive package which contains lesson plans covering three
broad areas, one of which is personal social skills. 371 lessons cover this area. The LCCE
includes two assessment instruments designed to test knowledge and performance of the
skills taught. [See: Life Centered Career Education: A Competency Based Approach, 5th
Edition (Brolin, 1997) & Life Centered Career Education: Modified Curriculum for
Individuals with Moderate Disabilities (Loyd & Brolin, 1997)].

General behavioural rating scales which include a section on social skills (Appendix 2
reproduces a website source of information on adaptive and maladaptive behaviour rating
scales)

1. The Adaptive Behavior Scale – (Part One) (ABS) (Nihira et al., 1993)
Adaptive behaviour refers to how well individuals cope with both the natural and
social demands of their environment (Heber, 1961). The Adaptive Behavior Scales (Part
One) are measures of such ability (Part Two covers maladaptive behaviour). There are
two versions, each covering similar areas. One is intended for children aged 3 to 19 who
are in school.. The other version is intended for adults aged 18 to 80 in residential or
community settings. Part One of the ABS - Residential and Community (2nd edition) (A
BS-RC2) consists of 73 items spanning 10 domains. The two domains relevant to social
skills are language development (10 items covering expression, verbal comprehension,
and social language development) and socialisation (7 items covering cooperatiion,
consideration of others, awareness of others, interaction with others, participation in
group activities, selfishness and social maturity). Items are structured so that the
respondent either has to select one of several possible responses, or select all statements
which apply. The ABS-RC2 is administered by interview with a person who knows the
individual well. It generally takes about 30 minutes to complete.
Domain raw scores are converted to standard scores and percentiles. Factor raw
scores are used to generate quotients and percentiles. The scale’s normative sample
consists of more than 4,000 persons with developmental disabilities residing in the

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community or in residential settings from 43 states in the US. The assessment has been
extensively examined with respect to reliability and validity, and the evidence supporting
the scale’s technical adequacy is provided in the manual. Internal consistency reliabilities
and stability for all scores exceed 0.8. [The ABS is available from: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal
Creek Blvd., Austin, TX 78757-6897; Telephone: 800-897-3202; Fax: 512-451-8542; E-
mail: proedrd2@aol.com; Web: www.proedinc.com]

2. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) (Sparrow et al., 1984)

The VABS were developed from the Vineland Social Maturity Scales and
measure personal and social skills. There are three versions: the Interview Edition -
Survey Form, the Interview Edition - Expanded Form, and the Classroom Edition. All
three versions cover the same domains in more or less detail: communication, daily living
skills, socialization and motor skills. The communication domain (receptive, expressive
and written) and the socialization domain (interpersonal relationships, play & leisure
time, coping skills) are relevant to social skills.
The Interview Edition - Survey Form is most similar in content to the original
Vineland, it includes 297 items of which 67 relate to communication and 66 relate to
socialization. It is administered to a parent or caregiver in a semi structured interview
format. It is intended for children aged 0-19 and adults with intellectual disabilities. It
takes 20-60 minutes to administer.
The Interview Edition - Expanded Form includes 577 items of which 133 relate to
communication and 134 relate to socialization. This form yields a more comprehensive
assessment of adaptive behaviour and provides a systematic basis for preparing
individual educational or treatment programmes. Also administered as a semi-structured
interview, the Expanded Form includes a Score Summary and Profile Booklet, as well as
a Program Planning Report for preparing individual programmes. The Expanded Form
can be used by itself, or as a follow-up to obtain more information about deficits
suggested by the Survey Form. It is intended for children aged 0-19 and adults with
intellectual disabilities. It takes 60-90 minutes to administer.
The Classroom Edition includes 244 items that assess adaptive behaviour in the
classroom, of which 63 relate to communication and 53 socialization. This edition is
administered in the form of a questionnaire completed by a teacher. Although no

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qualifications are required to administer this version, a qualified professional is needed to
interpret the scores. It is intended for children aged 3-13 and takes 20 minutes to
administer.
Domain and adaptive behaviour composite scores can be calculated, together with
conversion to percentiles. Age equivalents are also provided. The VABS was
standardized on a representative national sample (n=3000) selected to match US census
data. Supplementary norm groups of individuals with disabilities provide more data for
interpretation of the Survey Form and the Expanded Form. Computer scoring and
reporting software is available for all three versions. Details of internal, test-retest, and
inter-rater reliability are provided. All are satisfactory. [The VABS is available from
AGS Publishing, 4201 Woodland Road, Circle Pines, Minnesota, 55014-1796, USA.
Web: www.agsnet.com.]

3. The Inventory for Client and Agency Planning (ICAP) (Bruininks et al., 1986)
The ICAP has been included in this section because one of its main functions is to
measure adaptive behaviour. This is interpreted by the authors as referring to an
individual’s ability to meet effectively social and community expectations for personal
independence, maintenance of physical needs, acceptable social norms, and interpersonal
relationships. ‘Social and communication skills’ is one of the four sections into which
adaptive behaviour is divided in the ICAP. It is a 16 page booklet that also assesses
maladaptive behaviour and gathers additional information to determine the type and
amount of special assistance that people with disabilities may need. It can be completed
in about 15 minutes by a parent, teacher, or carer who is well acquainted with the person
being assessed. It is suitable for all agencies (norms are presented for the 0 to 40+ age
range). It can be used at three levels: for individualised planning, for service
management, and for national statistics. The ICAP includes an overall Service Score, a
combined measure of adaptive and maladaptive behavior that indicates overall level of
care, supervision, or training required.
The ICAP assumes that functional independence is socially defined, and that an
individual’s performance must be considered within the context of the environments and
social expectations that affect his or her functioning. It has 77 adaptive behaviour items
divided into four areas: Motor Skills; Social and Communication Skills; Personal Living

15
Skills; and Community Living Skills. Each ICAP adaptive behaviour item is a statement
of a task (for example: “Washes, rinses, and dries hair”). The respondent rates the subject
on each task, using a scale from 0 to 3. This scale assesses the quality of performance and
the individual’s motivation. That is, even though someone may be able to perform a task,
he/she may not do so independently, either because he does not realize that it is necessary
to do so, or because he refuses to do so (a behavior problem).
From infant to adult levels, the ICAP yields a range of adaptive behavior scores
that include age equivalent, percentile rank, standard scores, and others. The ICAPs
psychometric properties are well established. Computer software is available to facilitate
scoring, and there is a Spanish version of the scale. [The ICAP website provides
comprehensive information on the scale: www.cpinternet.com/~bhill/icap/index.htm. It is
available from the Riverside Publishing Company: www.riverpub.com.]

4. Responsibility and Independence Scale for Adolescents (RISA) (Sabourin et al.,

1989)
The RISA is a norm-referenced, individually administered instrument specifically
designed to measure adolescents' adaptive behaviour in terms of responsibility and
independence. It can be used with adolescents aged 12 to 20 years. Whereas most
measures of adaptive behaviour target low-level skills, the RISA assesses higher level
behaviours. The RISA measures adaptive behaviour in nine functional areas: domestic
skills, money management, citizenship, personal planning, transportation skills, career
development, self-management, social maturity, and social communication.
It is the ‘Responsibility’ domain which is most relevant to this inventory. It refers
to a broad class of adaptive behaviors that meet social expectations and standards of
reciprocity, accountability, and fairness and that enable personal development through
self- and social management, age-appropriate behavior, and social communication. The
RISA assumes that an individual who is responsible will be dependable, trustworthy, and
able to shape, as well as comply with, social rules.
According to the manual, the RISA correlates well with the Scales of Independent
Behavior and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, it has acceptable content validity,
and high levels of internal consistency and test-retest reliability. It has been standardised
on an American sample of 2,400 people. The RISA is administered in a standardized

16
interview format to a respondent who is familiar with the adolescent and takes 30-45
minutes. [It is available from the Riverside Publishing Company: www.riverpub.com.]

Social skills assessments - Adults

1. Matson Evaluation of Social Skills in Individuals with Severe Retardation

(MESSIER) (Matson, 1995)
The MESSIER is an 85-item questionnaire designed to asses social strengths and
weaknesses in people with severe intellectual disability. The items are grouped into six
subscales: (i) positive verbal (e.g.: “Responds to voice of caregiver or another person”,
“Says ‘please’ when asking for something”, “Labels own emotional state – e.g. ‘I’m
sad’”, “Responds appropriately when introduced to strangers”); (ii) positive non verbal
(e.g.: “Looks at face of caregiver when spoken to”, “Extends hand toward familiar
people”, “Has appropriate posture”); (iii) positive general (e.g.: “Shows affection toward
familiar people”; “Participates in a game or activity with others without prompting”;
“Shares without being told to do so”; “Follows facility rules”), (iv) negative verbal (e.g.:
“Exhibits inappropriate repetitive vocalizations”; “Talks with food in mouth”), (v)
negative non verbal (e.g.: “Engages in self-injury or other inappropriate behavior to avoid
social contact”; “Pushes, hits, kicks, etc., peers or caregivers”), and (vi) negative general
(e.g.: “Follows caregivers around excessively”; “Disrupts activities of others”). The
factor analysis of the MESSIER yielded two dimensions: one factor describing positive
social behaviors and the other describing negative social behaviors.
The scale's authors report high stability across raters and good stability over time
and good internal consistency (Matson et al., 1999). High convergent validity with
equivalent domains of the VABS has also been reported (Matson, 1998). [The MESSIER
is available from Scientific Publishers via its main author: johnmatson@aol.com]

2. Scale for the Evaluation of Social Abilities (VAS) (Nota & Soresi, undated)
There are two versions of the VAS. The Junior School Version comprises 22
items which describe childrens’ prosocial behaviour in school. The teacher rates the child
according to the accuracy of each description and its frequency of occurrence. Ratings are
based on teachers’ observations of the child’s performance of each behaviour. The adult
version uses the same format as the junior version. It comprises 16 items, all of which are

17
relevant to vocational environments. Both scales are quick and easy to administer. High
levels of internal consistency and reliability are reported by the authors of the scale. [The
VAS is available from Laura Nota at the Dept. of Developmental Psychology and
Socialization, University of Padua, Italy, laura.nota@unipd.it]

3. Assessment of social competence for children and young adults with

developmental disabilities (ASC) (Meyer et al., 1985)
The ASC can be used with children and adults, with or without intellectual
disabilities. It consists of 252 discrete behaviours that have been organised into 11
functions: initiate, self-regulate, follow rules, provide positive reinforcement, provide
negative feedback, obtain cues, offer assistance, accept assistance, indicate preference,
cope with negatives, and terminate. The items within each of the functions are grouped
into eight levels representing a hierarchy of increasing social sophistication. Thus,
assessment progresses from the earliest manifestation of each function to mastery levels
of performance as displayed by adults. The ASC categorises behaviours according to
their apparent function for the individual. The initial list of items was based on existing
assessments of social and adaptive behaviour and a review of the literature citing discrete
social skills which were targets of interventions. The ASC was designed to measure
social competence at all levels of social and intellectual functioning. The ASC has been
used in schools, community settings and workplaces. It takes about 45 minutes to
complete. The authors report acceptable levels of reliability and validity with adults and
children (Meyer et al., 1990). [The ASC can be obtained from Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York, USA.]

4. Social Performance Survey Schedule-Revised (SPSS-R) (Matson et al., 1983)

The SPSS-R is a revision of the SPSS (Lowe & Cautella, 1978) which comprised
100 items to assess adults’ positive and negative social behaviour. The revised SPSS was
designed for people with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities and contains 57 of
the original SPSS items. Family members or care staff rate the frequency with which
each behaviour is emitted using a 5-point Likert-type scale. The behaviours which are
rated include eye contact, interruption, threats, and reading social cues. Four factors
emerged from a principal components analysis on data from 207 adults with intellectual

18
disabilities (Matson et al., 1983): ‘appropriate social skills’, ‘communication skills’,
‘inappropriate assertion’, and ‘sociopathic behavior’. The original SPSS has been found
to be psychometrically robust. However, research testing the psychometric properties of
the revision is limited and normative data is unavailable (Bielecki & Swender, 2004).
[We are not certain of its current availability]

Social skills assessments - Children & adolescents

1. Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY) (Matson et al.,

1983)
The MESSY can be used for children aged 4 - 18 years. Items were selected to
include a wide range of verbal and nonverbal behaviour. The instrument consists of a 62-
item Self-Rating version and a 64-item Teacher Rating scale. The items refer to discrete,
observable behaviours rather than to global personality traits. For example, the MESSY
has items like, “Makes other people laugh” rather than, “Has a good sense of humor.”
The MESSY provides scales for both appropriate and inappropriate social skills
so that users do not focus exclusively on the negative aspects of a child’s behaviour but
also take into account positive aspects. Examples of appropriate skills are, “Helps a
friend who is hurt” and “Walks up to people to start a conversation.” Examples of
inappropriate skills are, “Gives other children dirty looks” and “Wants to get even with
someone who hurt him/her.” It takes about 15 minutes to complete.
The MESSY is an established instrument that has been reviewed favourably and
is frequently used. The norms, based on 1,164 children, are broken down by age and
gender. Alpha coefficient of internal reliability is .93 (Teacher Form) and .80 (Self-
Report Form). Two studies (total n=744) have investigated the factor validity, concurrent
validity, and construct validity of the MESSY. Scores on the Messy were shown to
correlate (a) positively with the results of teacher ratings’, popularity in the classroom,
and with children’s proposed solutions to social dilemmas, and (b) negatively with
symptoms of psychopathology, such as anxiety and depression, and with the Child
Behavior Checklist, and the Pier-Harris Self-Concept scale. Hearing and vision
disabilities were shown to be associated with low scores. [The MESSY is available from
IDS Publishing Corporation. P.O. Box 389. Worthington, Ohio, 43085, USA. Web:
www.idspublishing.com.]

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2. School Social Behavior Scales, 2nd Edition (SSBS-2) (Merrell, 2002)
The SSBS-2 is a revision of the original SSBS, which was first published in 1993,
and is in wide use nationally and internationally. The first edition SSBS is no longer
available. The SSBS-2 measures social competence and antisocial behavior in children
and adolescents aged 5-18 years. It takes teachers or other professionals in school settings
5-10 minutes to complete. It provides comprehensive ratings of both social skills and
antisocial problem behaviors of children and adolescents in school settings. The SSBS-2
includes two co-normed scales. The Social Competence scale includes 32 items that
measure adaptive, prosocial skills and includes three subscales: Peer Relations, Self
Management/Compliance, and Academic Behavior. The Antisocial Behavior scale
includes 32 items that measure socially-relevant problem behaviours and also includes
three subscales: Hostile/Irritable, Antisocial-Aggressive, and Defiant/Disruptive.
The SSBS-2 was standardized with a national sample of 2,280 students in grades
K-12. The norming sample closely approximates the 2000 US Census, in terms of gender,
ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and special education participation. Raw scores are
converted to T-scores, percentile ranks, and descriptive Social Functioning Levels.
Internal consistency reliability of the SSBS-2 is .96-.98 for the two total scale scores, and
.94-.96 for the six subscales. Test-reliability of the SSBS-2 has been documented in the
.86-.94 range at 1-week intervals, and .60-.83 at three-week intervals. Interrater reliability
coefficients for ratings provided by teachers and classroom aides has been documented at
.72-.86 for the Social Competence scores, and .53-.71 for the Antisocial Behavior scores.
Extensive evidence for the validity of the SSBS-2 is documented in the User’s Guide. It
is available from: Assessment-Intervention Resources, 2285 Elysium Avenue, Eugene,
OR 97401, USA. Web: www.assessment-intervention.com.]

3. Home & Community Social Behavior Scales (HCSBS) (Merrell & Caldarella,
2002)
The HCSBS is a counterpart to the SSBS-2 and is designed to be completed by
home- and community-based raters. It covers essentially the same ground as its
counterpart but excludes ‘academic achievement’. The HCSBS includes two co-normed
scales. The Social Competence scale includes 32 items that measure adaptive, prosocial
skills on two subscales: Peer Relations, and Self-Management/Compliance. The

20
Antisocial Behavior scale includes 32 items that measure socially linked problem
behaviours on two subscales: Defiant/Disruptive and Antisocial-Aggressive.
The HCSBS was standardized with a national sample of ratings of 1,562 children
and adolescents ages 5-18 years. The norm sample closely approximates the 2000 US
Census in terms of gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and special education
participation. Raw scores are converted to T-scores, percentile ranks, and descriptive
Social Functioning Levels. Internal consistency reliability of the HCSBS is .96-.97 for
the two total scale scores, and .94 for the four subscales. Test-reliability of the HCSBS at
1-2 week intervals has been documented at .84 for the Social Competence scale and .91
for the Antisocial Behavior scale total scores. Interrater reliability coefficients from
mother’s and father’s rating the same child have been documented at .86 for the Social
Competence total score, and .71 for the Antisocial Behavior total score. Extensive
validity evidence for the HCSBS is documented in the User’s Guide. [It is available from:
Assessment-Intervention Resources, 2285 Elysium Avenue, Eugene, OR 97401, USA.
Web: www.assessment-intervention.com.]

4. Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) (Gresham & Elliott, 1990)

The SSRS is a nationally standardised series of questionnaires that obtain
information on the social behaviours of children and adolescents (aged 3-18 years) from
teachers, parents, and the students themselves. Each questionnaire takes 10-25 minutes to
complete. Items on each scale are rated according to perceived frequency and importance.
There are three scales. The Social Skills Scale measures positive social behaviours:
cooperation, empathy, assertion, self-control and responsibility. The Problem Behaviors
Scale measures behaviours that can interfere with the development of positive social
skills: externalizing problems (e.g., aggressive acts and poor temper control),
internalizing problems (e.g., sadness and anxiety) and hyperactivity (e.g., fidgeting and
impulsive acts). The Academic Competence Scale provides a quick estimate of academic
functioning. Teachers rate reading and mathematics performance, general cognitive
functioning, as well as motivation and parental support. Although the SSRS can be
administered by a range of personnel, it must be interpreted by professionals trained in
psychological testing. In a review of 6 scales which measure children’s social skills, the

21
SSRS was considered to be the most comprehensive because of its multi-source approach
and intervention linkage (Demaray et al., 1995)
Standard scores can be converted to percentile rank scores. The SSRS was
standardized on a national sample of over 4,000. It provides separate norms for boys and
girls and for students with and without disabilities. High levels of internal consistency,
test-retest reliability, content, construct and concurrent validity are reported by the
authors. Computer software (ASSIST) facilitates scoring and reporting and provides
behavioural objectives and suggestions for planning intervention. A scannable version of
ASSIST provides group reporting options. It sorts and arranges information by groups,
individuals, classrooms, grades, schools, districts, gender, ethnicity, and time. [It is
available from the American Guidance Service, Inc., 4201 Woodland Road, Circle Pines,
MN 55014, USA.]

5. Waksman Social Skills Rating Scale (WSSRS) (Waksman, 1985)

The WSSRS is intended for children and adolescents (years K to 12 of the

American school system). It can be used to identify social skills deficits, to select skills to
be targeted in training, and to evaluate the success of social skills training. It comprises
21 norm-referenced items to which responses are made on 4-point Likert scales. The
major scale concerns social skills. Two subscales relate to aggression and passivity.
There are separate forms for boys and girls. It is completed by teachers and takes 15-20
minutes. The authors of the scale report high internal consistency. However, Demaray et
al. (1995) report deficiencies in other psychometric properties. These authors also
suggested that in spite of the scale’s brevity and ease of administration, its utility is
undermined by its focus on skill deficits rather than prosocial behaviour. [It is available
from M.D. Angus and Associates Limited. Web: www.psychtest.com.]

6. Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment

(WSSCSA) (Walker & McConnel, 1995)
There are two versions of the Walker-McConnell Scale. The Adolescent Version
contains four, analytically derived, sub-scales (Self Control, Peer Relations, School
Adjustment, and Empathy) totaling 53 items across the four sub-scales. The Scale relies
on teacher ratings of the frequency with which social skills are estimated to occur for

22
each student rated. The 53 items of the Adolescent Scale typically require no more than
10 minutes to complete for each student. The Elementary Version consists of three,
analytically derived, sub-scales (Teacher-Preferred Social Behavior, Peer-Preferred
Social Behavior, and School Adjustment) totaling 43 items across the three sub-scales.
The Scale relies on teacher ratings of the frequency with which social skills are estimated
to occur for each student rated. The 43 items of the Elementary Scale typically require no
more than 10 minutes to complete for each student.
The psychometric properties of the scales are not reported on the publisher’s
website. However, properties of the elementary version are described by Demaray et al.
(1995). They note that the manual reports excellent internal consistency, adequate
interrater reliability, and adequate to excellent test-retest reliability. Content,
discriminant, construct and criterion-related validity are also reported. Demaray et al.
(1995) note that some of the samples used to test reliability and validity were rather
small. In addition they point out that the sample with which the elementary scale was
standardised was not representative of the U.S. population. [Web: www.wadsworth.com.]

7. The School Social Skills Rating Scale (SSSRS) (Brown et al., 1984)
The SSSRS is designed to assist school personnel, specifically classroom teachers
in identifying student deficits in school-related social behaviors. It is intended for
children in grades 1-12 (of the US school system). The 40-item scale of observable pro-
social skills has been socially validated and determined to be important for student school
success in the areas of: (i) Adult Relations (12 items), (ii) Peer Relations (16 items), (iii)
School Rules (6 items), and (iv) Classroom Behaviors (6 items). It takes 10 minutes to
administer.
The SSSRS is a criterion-referenced instrument that yields knowledge of a
student’s social strengths and deficiencies. Ratings are done on a six point Likert Scale,
over the previous months’ observations, and test-retest and the inter-rater reliability data
indicate the scale has comparable reliability with residential, special education, and
regular education students. The manual describes conditions under which the 40 skills
should be used. [It is available from Slosson Educational Publications Inc. Web:
www.slosson.com]

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8. Social Behavior Assessment Inventory (SBAI) (Stephens & Arnold, 1992)
The SBAI measures the level of social behaviours exhibited by children and
adolescents in classroom settings. It was designed as a companion instrument to Social
Skills in the Classroom. It is appropriate for special education classes or any classroom
where behaviour problems may exist. It consists of 136 items that describe social skills
commonly observed in the classroom. A teacher or other individual (such as a parent)
who has observed a student’s behaviour rates each item on a 4-point scale describing both
the presence and level of the behaviours exhibited by the student. It takes 30-45 minutes
to administer.Results from the 4 behaviour scales (Environmental, Interpersonal, Self-
Related, and Task-Related) and 30 subscales can be used to develop social skills
instructional strategies.
In their review of the SBAI, Demaray et al. (1995) noted that whilst the manual
reported high levels of internal consistency and interrater reliability, there was no
information on test-retest reliability. They felt that the manual included evidence of
adequate content, construct and convergent validity. [It is available from Psychological
Assessment Resources, Inc. 16204 N. Florida Avenue, Lutz, FL 33549, USA.
Web:www.parinc.com.]

Vocational assessment scales which include a section on social skills

1. Vocational Assessment and Curriculum Guide (VACG) (Rusch et al., 1982)

The VACG is an evaluation instrument based on an ecological analysis of
employment opportunities. It includes a variety of general work and social skills based on
an empirical analysis of job demands. Rusch et al. (1982) surveyed employers in service
and light industries to determine the skill demands of their entry-level jobs. The results of
this survey provided the item pool for the VACG.
The VACG has been designed as a behaviour rating scale that provides a measure
of the vocational and social skills of persons with disabilities. It comprises the domains:
attendance/endurance, independence, social skills, grooming/eating, reading/writing, and
mathematics. There are 66 items on the VACG, each beginning with the phrase, “Does
the worker,” followed by a description of the behaviour being assessed. Several possible
responses are provided that indicate levels of performance displayed by the worker, and
raters are instructed to select the phrase that best describes the individual’s current level

24
of functioning. The VACG was designed to be used by classroom teachers, rehabilitation
workers, adult service providers, parents, and paraprofessionals to determine an
individual’s general skill level in relation to standards suggested as important for success
in occupations within the food service industry, janitorial work, and light industry.
Psychometric properties of the VACG were reported by Menchetti & Rusch
(1988). Test-retest coefficients ranged from .69 to .96 (mean = .79). Internal consistency,
estimated by alpha coefficients, ranged from .59 to .91 (mean = .76) for VACG domain
scores. The alpha coefficient for the total test score was .95. Empirical validation results
suggest that domain scores differentiated between subjects with intellectual disabilities
having only sheltered work experience and those who were employed successfully in the
competitive workforce. [It is published by Exceptional Education, P.O. Box 15308,
Seattle, WA 98155, USA]

2. Transition Behavior Scales (2nd ed.) (TBS-2) (McCarney & Anderson, 2000)
The TBS-2 is based on the behavioural literature on what predicts employment
and transition success. There are two versions, a student self-report version and school
version completed by one or more teachers. They are designed for any disability group,
for adolescents aged 12 to 18 years. There are 62 items which span three subscales: work-
related behaviours, interpersonal relations and social/community expectations. The
subscales are based on a factor analysis of the original item-pool. Each item is scored on
a 6-point rating scale. Scores can be converted to percentile ranks based on national
norms. The TBS-2 School Version was standardized on a total of 2,624 students from 20
states representative of the US. The TBS-2 School and Self-Report Versions provide
separate norms for male and female students. It takes 15-20 minutes to complete.
The Transition Behavior Scale IEP and Intervention Manual includes individual
education plan goals, objectives, and interventions for all 62 items on the scale. [It is
available from Hawthorne Educational Services, Inc., 800 Gray Oak Drive, Columbia,
MO 65201, USA. Web: www.hes-inc.com.]

3. Transition Planning Inventory (TPI) (Clark & Patton, 1997)

The TPI is an instrument for identifying and planning the comprehensive
transitional needs of students aged 14-25 years. It is designed to provide school personnel
with a systematic way to address critical transition planning areas that take into account

25
the individual student’s needs, preferences, and interests. Information on transition needs
is gathered from the student, parents or guardians, and school personnel through the use
of three separate forms designed specifically for each of the target groups. The forms
contain the same 46 items which cover the following assessment areas: employment,
further education/training, daily living skills, leisure activities, community participation,
health, self—determination, communication, interpersonal relationships. The student
form also contains 15 open-ended questions. A Spanish version of the scale is available
and computer software can be used for scoring.
There are several items that relate directly or indirectly to social skills in the
workplace. Item descriptions for administrators give some examples and the intent of
each item and mention social skills related to employment when appropriate. For
example, Item 3 in the Employment domain is “Knows how to get a job.” The description
for item 3 is “Students know the basic steps for looking for a job, applying for a job, and
making a good impression in a job interview.” Table 2 lists items which have some
relevance directly or indirectly to social skills in the workplace. [The TPI is available
from: Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Blvd., Austin, TX 78757-6897, USA. Telephone: 800-
897-3202; Fax: 512-451-8542; E-mail: proedrd2@aol.com; Web: www.proedinc.com.]

Table 2 Items of the TPI relevant to social skills

Employment 3. Knows how to get a job
4. Demonstrates general job skills and work attitudes preferred by
employers for keeping a job and advancing—may include
supported employment
Self-Determination 33. Expresses feelings and ideas to others appropriately
34. Expresses feelings and ideas to others confidently
Communication 37. Has needed speaking skills
38. Has needed listening skills
Interpersonal 43. Establishes and maintains close and/or casual friendships in a
variety of settings
Relationships
44. Displays appropriate behaviors in a variety of settings
45. Demonstrates skills for getting along well with coworkers
46. Demonstrates skills for getting along well with supervisor

26
4. Occupational Skills Assessment Instrument (OSAI) (Mathews et al., 1980b)
The OSAI comprises 13 checklists. Ten relate to complex job-related social skills
that were identified as important by experts in the field of employment: seeking a job
lead, telephoning a potential employer, job interview situation, accepting a suggestion
from a supervisor, accepting criticism from an employer, providing constructive
criticism, explaining a problem to a supervisor, complimenting a co-worker on a job done
well, and accepting a compliment. The instrument includes role-playing scripts for each
of these social situations which specify: (a) the task to be performed, (b) a series of
situations to be acted out, and (c) scripted statements and behaviours to be performed by
the person using the instrument. For example, the performances required for ‘explaining a
problem to a supervisor’ are as follows: (i) state things aren’t going well, (ii) ask if
supervisor has time to talk, (iii) describe the problem, (iv) provide an example of the
problem, (v) state any possible solutions, (vi) ask if supervisor has any solutions or can
do something, (vii) restate the solution, (viii) ask if you should do anything else, and (ix)
thank supervisor for help. Ticks are placed next to target behaviours which are performed
correctly. Zeros are placed next to target behaviours which are not performed or are
performed incorrectly. The proportion of possible target which are performed correctly is
then converted to a percentage. The three remaining checklists are written criterion tests
covering the following areas: writing a job interview follow-up letter, writing in response
to a job advertisement, and completing a tax return.
The OSAI has been found to be valid and reliable (Mathews et al., 1980a, 1981,
1982). [It is available from the Research and Training Center on Independent Living,
University of Kansas, Room 4089 Dole Center, 1000 Sunnyside Avenue, Lawrence,
Kansas, 66045-7555, USA. Web: www.rtcil.org/catalog.htm.]

Dedicated vocational social skills assessments

1. Social Competence in the Workplace (SCW) – experimental version (Nota &

Soresi, undated)
The SCW is a behaviour checklist which has been designed specifically for
assessing workplace-related social skills. It comprises 58 items which are rated ‘yes’,
‘no’, or ‘yes/no’ according to whether or not the behaviors are emitted in the workplace.
This is a new scale which has yet to be psychometrically validated. See Appendix 3 for

27
an English translation of the Italian original. [Further information is available from the
authors (laura.nota@unipd.it).]

28
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32
Appendix 1

Academics contacted for information about social skills assessments

Australia: Keith McVilly

Austria: Germain Weber
Belgium: Ghislaine Magerotte
Denmark: Per Holm
Finland: Leena Matikka
France: Charles Aussilloux
Ireland: Pat Walsh
Italy: Laura Nota, Salvatore Soresi, Giulio Lancioni
Netherlands: Michael Kamp, Marinka Trass
Norway: Jan Tossebro
Spain: Miguel Verdugo
Sweden: Kent Ericsson
UK: Steve Beyer, Justine Schneider, William Lindsay, Chris Cullen, Keith
Topping
US: Paul Wehman, Janis Chadsey, Jim Martin, Mike Callaghan, Luanna
Meyer, Mark Mathews, Johnny Matson, Gary Clark, Bradley Hill

33
Appendix 2 Adaptive and Maladaptive Behaviour Scales
(This section is reproduced from web: www.cpinternet.com/~bhill/icap/compare.htm with permission from Brad Hill)

Materials

Manual: 287 pp.

Response Booklet: 26 pp.
Full Scale Optional Interview Easel: 172 pp.
Planning Worksheet: 2pp. (in response booklet)
Software (Scoring & Reporting; PC/Mac)

SIB-R Response Booklet: 8 pp.

Short Form Response Booklet adapted for people who are blind
Planning Worksheet: 2pp.
Shares Full Scale Manual, Interview Easel, and software.

Early Response Booklet: 8 pp.

Development Planning Worksheet: 2pp.
Form Shares Full Scale Manual, Interview Easel, and software.

Manual: 321 pp.

Item Booklet: 16 pp.
Interview
Score Summary & Profile Booklet: 12pp.
Expanded
Program Planning Report: 8 pp.
Form
Report to Parents: 4pp. (also in Spanish)
Software (Apple II/PC)
Vineland
Manual: 301 pp.
ABS Interview
Record Booklet: 12 pp. (also in Spanish)
Survey
Report to Parents: 4pp. (also in Spanish)
Form
Software (Apple II/PC)

Manual: 175 pp.

Classroom Questionnaire Booklet: 16 pp.
Edition Report to Parents: 4pp. (also in Spanish)
Software (PC)

Manual: 118 pp.

School Examination Booklet: 16pp.
AAMR Edition Profile/Scoring Form: 4 pp.
Software (Scoring & Reporting; Apple/Mac/PC)
ABS
2nd Ed. Manual: 76 pp.
Residential
Examination Booklet: 16pp.
& Community
Profile/Scoring Form: 4 pp.
Edition
Software (Scoring & Reporting; Apple/Mac/PC)

34
 SIB-R Content

Scale subscale N of Items Type of Score

Full Short Early

Age Pct Std
Scale Form Dev.

Broad Independence (Total) 259 40 40 X X X

. . . . . .
Motor Skills 38 . . X X X
Gross Motor 19 . . X . .
Fine Motor 19 . . X . .
Social & Communication Skills 56 . . X X X
Social Interaction 18 . . X . .
Language Comprehension 18 . . X . .
Language Expression 20 . . X . .
Personal Living Skills 88 . . X X X
Eating & Meal Preparation 19 . . X . .
Toileting 17 . . X . .
Dressing 18 . . X . .
Personal Self-Care 16 . . X . .
Domestic Skills 18 . . X . .
Community Living Skills 77 . . X X X
Time & Punctuality 19 . . X . .
Money & Value 20 . . X . .
Work Skills 20 . . X . .
Home/Community Orientation 18 . . X . .

Maladaptive Behavior - General 24 24 24 . . X

. . . . . . .
Internalized 9 9 9 . . X
Hurts Self 3 3 3 . . .
Repetitive Habits 3 3 3 . . .
Withdrawn or Inattentive 3 3 3 . . .
Asocial 6 6 6 . . X
Socially Offensive 3 3 3 . . .
Uncooperative 3 3 3 . . .
Externalized 9 9 9 . . X
Hurts Others 3 3 3 . . .
Destructive to property 3 3 3 . . .
Disruptive 3 3 3 . . .

Note. The SIB-R also provides a Support Score, an overall score that combines adaptive
and maladaptive behavior.

35
 Vineland Content

Scale subscale
N of Items Type of Score

Expand Surv Class Age Pct Std

Adaptive Behavior Composite 541 261 244 X X X

. . . . . . .
Communication 133 67 63 X X X
Receptive 23 13 10 X . .
Expressive 76 31 29 X . .
Written 34 23 24 X . .
Daily Living Skills 201 92 99 X X X
Personal 90 39 36 X . .
Domestic 45 21 21 X . .
Community 66 32 42 X . .
Socialization 134 66 53 X X X
Interpersonal Relationships 50 28 17 X . .
Play & Leisure Time 48 20 18 X . .
Coping Skills 36 18 18 X . .
Motor Skills (dev. age < 6) 73 36 29 X X X
Gross 42 20 16 X . .
Fine 31 16 13 X . .

Maladaptive Behavior 36 36 . . . .
. . . . . .
Part 1 (All children) 27 27 . . . .
Part 2 (Children with handicaps) 9 9 . . . .

Note. Maladaptive behavior scale yields raw scores with interpretative levels.

36
 AAMR ABS Content

Factor/Domain N of Items Type of Score

Resid/
School Age Pct Std
Cmnty

Part I (Personal independence) 356 329 . . .

. . . . .
Personal Self-Sufficiency 103 103 X X X
Independent Functioning 76 76 X X X
Physical Development 27 27 X X X
Community Self-Sufficiency 177 150 X X X
Independent Functioning 57 57 X X X
Economic Activity 28 28 X X X
Language Development 47 47 X X X
Numbers & Time 15 15 X X X
Domestic Activity 27 . X X X
Prevocational/Vocational Activity 3 3 X X X
Personal-Social Responsibility 76 76 X X X
Prevocational/Vocational Activity 9 9 X X X
Self-Direction 26 26 X X X
Responsibility 12 12 X X X
Socialization 29 29 X X X
. . . . .
Part II (Personality/behavior) 256 232 . . .
. . . . .
Social Adjustment 108 108 . X X
Social Behavior 45 45 . X X
Conformity 33 33 . X X
Trustworthiness 30 30 . X X
Personal-Social Responsibility 90 66 . X X
Stereotyped & Hyperactive Behavior 40 40 . X X
Sexual Behavior 24 . . X X
Self-Abusive Behavior 26 26 . X X
(Other) . . . . .
Social Engagement 23 23 . X X
Disturbing Interpersonal Behavior 35 35 . X X

Note. Item types are scored yes/no or select which statement best applies. For
comparability with other scales, each statement is counted as an item.

37
 ICAP Content

Item scale/subscale
N of Items Type of Score

Age Pct Std

Descriptive Characteristics 10 . . .
age/height/weight/legal status . . . .
Primary & Additional Diagnoses 14 . . .
Special Needs 10 . . .
vision/hearing/mobility . . . .
healthcare/medication . . . .
Residential Supports 2 . . .
now & in the future . . . .
School/Vocational Supports 2 . . .
now & in the future . . . .
Other Support Services 26 . . .
now & in the future . . . .
Social/Leisure Activities 16 . . .
. . . .
Adaptive Behavior 77 X X X
Motor Skills 18 X X X
Social & Communication Skills 19 X X X
Personal Living Skills 21 X X X
Community Living Skills 19 X X X
. . . .
Maladaptive Behavior 24 . . X
Self-injury/Stereotyped/Withdrawn 9 . . X
Offensive/Uncooperative 6 . . X
Disruptive/Destructive/Hurts others 9 . . X

Note. The ICAP also provides a Service Score, an overall score that combines adaptive
and maladaptive behavior.

38
 Standardization and Norming
Adaptive Behavior Full Scales (a)
Vineland AAMR
SIB-R ICAP
Standard School
Norm group age in yrs. 0 - 90 0 - 18 (b) 3 - 18 0 - 50
Norm group size 2,182 3,000 1,254 1,764
Supplemental standardization group
1,681 2,844 2,074 (c) 1,681
(Children & adults with handicaps)
Measurement technique Rasch Rasch Classic Rasch
N of items 259 261 329 77
Standard score (SD=15) error @ 8 yrs. ±2 ±4 (d) ±3 ±6
Split-half/alpha reliability @ 8-9 yrs. .98 .93 .91 .84
Test-retest reliability @ 6-13 yrs.
.98 .85 .66 (e) .94
(same interviewer 2-4 weeks apart)
Inter-rater reliability @ 6-18 yrs.
.95 .74 .74 (e) .94 (f)
(two interviewers)
Subscale intercorrelations yes yes yes yes
Construct validity - correlation with age 0-18 .91 - .41 .91
Criterion validity - correlation with IQ (g) .20 -.78 .28 -.52 .41 -.72 .29 -.91
Criterion validity - correlation with other AB
.66 -.81 .55 -.58 .53 -.61 .64 -.75
scales
Comparison scores for age matched groups of
non-handicapped students and those with yes - - yes
hearing, learning, and emotional disabilities
Discriminant analysis for school placement level
yes - - yes
and level of mental retardation
Note. These statistics, selected from the tests' manuals, are for non-handicapped groups
of comparable age, unless otherwise indicated. Consult the tests' manuals for
additional reliability and validity studies with other ages and other groups.

(a) The AAMR does not have a total score; data are averages for the three factors The
Vineland Motor Skills domain ends at age 6; data for older children are averages for 3
domains. (b) Classroom edition: age 3-12. (c) Residential & Community form: 4,103. (d)
Expanded form ± 3; Classroom form ± 2. (e) Emotionally disturbed grade 9-11; no study
for non-handicapped children. (f) Mentally retarded adults; no study for non-handicapped
children. (g) Correlations range from high for heterogeneous groups of handicapped
children to low for non-handicapped adults.

39
 Standardization and Norming
Problem Behavior Scales
SIB-R Vineland AAMR
& School
ICAP Part 1 Part 2 (b)
(a)
Norm group age in yrs. 0 - 50 5 - 18 - 3 - 18
Norm group size 778 2,000 0 1,254
Supplemental standardization group
1,681 2,844 2,844 2,074
(Children & adults with handicaps)
Fac. Fac.
Development technique - -
anal. anal.
N of items 16 27 9 232
±2.5 /
Std. error of measure / SD @ 6-11 yrs. - - ±3.8 / 15
10
Split-half/alpha reliability @ 8-9 yrs. (c) .87 - .94
Test-retest reliability @ 6-13 yrs.
.86 .88 - .83 (d)
(same interviewer 2-4 weeks apart)
Inter-rater reliability @ 6-18 yrs.
.83 .74 - .57 (d)
(two interviewers)
Maladaptive subscale intercorrelations yes - - yes
Criterion validity - correlation with other .09 to
- - -
maladaptive scales .58
Comparison scores for age matched groups of
non-handicapped students and those with yes - - -
hearing, learning, and emotional disabilities
Discriminant analysis for school placement level
yes - - -
and level of mental retardation
Note. These statistics, selected from the tests' manuals, are for non-handicapped
groups of comparable age, unless otherwise indicated. Consult the tests' manuals for
additional reliability and validity studies with other ages and other groups. None
of the four tests found consistent relationships between maladaptive behavior and
intelligence. Each found a slight negative relationship between maladaptive behavior
and age, and each factors age into their scoring systems.

(a) The SIB-R and the ICAP have the same problem behavior scale.
(b) The AAMR does not have a total score; data are averages for the two factors.
(c) SIB-R/ICAP maladaptive behavior categories are mutually exclusive.
(d) Emotionally disturbed grade 9-11; no study for non-handicapped children.

40
Appendix 3 Social Competence in the Workplace -Experimental Version by L. Nota and
S. Soresi

Listed below are a number of social behaviors that can favour or worsen relationships and
performances in the work setting.
The supervisor is required to indicate whether in any working day each worker has
actually has had (YES) or not (NO) such behaviors. Please indicate YN (neither YES nor
NO) when uncertain between YES or NO. However, please try to use YN as little as
possible.

Worker: ________________________________________
Date: ________________________________________
Supervisor: ________________________________________

1. Today has arrived at work on time. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN

2. Today has worked continuously in working hours. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
3. Today has worked autonomously. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
4. Today has taken the breaks at the right times. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
5. Today has left his/her place before due time giving a reason. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑YN
6. Today has been productive. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
7. Today has worked quickly. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
8. Today has done his/her work accurately. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
9. Today has done all the work requested of him/her. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
10. Today has talked with the supervisor about topics not ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
inherent in the job (weather, health, etc.).
11. Today has talked with other workers about topics not ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
inherent in the job (weather, health, etc.).
12. Today ha said ‘hello’ to the supervisor. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN

41
13. Today has said ‘hello’ to other workers. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
14. Today has paid compliments to other workers. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
15. Today has accepted the supervisor’s compliments. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
16. Today has accepted other workers’ compliments. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
17. Today has used forms of politeness (“please”, “thank ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
you”, etc.)with the supervisor.
18. Today has used forms of politeness (“please”, “thank ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
you”, etc.)with other workers.
19. Today has joked in a positive way with the supervisor. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
20. Today has joked in a positive way with other workers. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
21. Today has followed the supervisor’s working instructions. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
22. Today has asked the supervisor for information on how to ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
continue his/her work.
23. Today has helped other workers. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
24. Today has asked other workers for help. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
25. Today has given other workers the necessary material ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
for their work.
26. Today has told other workers in an adequate way (without ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
shouting, offending, etc.) that they had done something
wrong.
27. Today has told other workers in an adequate way that they ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
must work harder.
28. Today has accepted the supervisor’s observations on a job ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
done wrongly.
29. Today has accepted other workers’ observations on a job ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
done wrongly.
30. Today has accepted the supervisor’s help. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
31. Today has accepted other workers’ help. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
32. Today has looked the supervisor in the face when he/she ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
was talking with him/her.
33. Today has looked the other workers in the face when he/she ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN

42
 was talking with them.
34. Today has used an adequate tone of voice when speaking ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
with the supervisor.
35. Today has used an adequate tone of voice when speaking ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
with other workers.
36. Today has not followed instructions, has done other things. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
37. Today has not asked for help when it was necessary. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
38. Today has mocked other workers about their performance. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
39. Today has distracted other workers while they were ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
working.
40. Today, during work time, has tried to speak to the ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
supervisor about topics that had nothing to do with work.
41. Today has had longer breaks than allowed. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
42. Today has not accepted observations, has replied impolitely. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑YN
43. Today has told other workers in an inadequate way ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
(offending,shouting, etc.) that they had made a mistake. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
44. Today has often asked what to do, has not been .❑ YES ❑ NO ❑YN
autonomous
45. Today has used obscene language when speaking with the ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
supervisor.
46. Today has used obscene language when speaking with ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
other workers.
47. Today has used trivial excuses not to work. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
48. Today has shown little care in his/her clothing. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
49. Today was not very clean, hygienically speaking. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
50. Today has not kept to the rules. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
51. Today has got bored. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
52. Today has shown depression. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
53. Today was “absent”. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
54. Today has got cross very easily. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
55. Today has got tired straight away. ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN

43
56. Today has been physically aggressive toward other ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
workers.
57. Today has been physically aggressive toward the ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
supervisor.
58. Today has been physically aggressive toward the work ❑ YES ❑ NO ❑ YN
setting (furniture, materials, etc.).

44