Hurricane Adaptation Strategies and their Efficacies in

the Southeastern United States and Caribbean Nations

Oliver Rogers
#260501341
CIVE 432
Abstract

Hurricanes, or more technically, Atlantic-born tropical cyclones, are severe weather systems
which carry strong winds and heavy rain which lead to the devastation of much of what is in its
path, including geological and biological features, as well as man-made structures and systems;
storm surges, flooding, and wind damage are among a hurricane’s direct effects to human life.
When approached with a problem such as this, there are two paths of action: adaptation and
mitigation. And while the mitigation of storms such as this are within the realm of human
understanding and ability in the future, the most relevant and effectual way of dealing with
catastrophic behavior such as hurricanes is by adaptation. In the same way that structures are
adapted with roofs to protect from even the slightest rainfall, structures, and other human-
controlled systems, can be adapted to protect from the effects of a hurricane, including several
inches per hour of rainfall and winds of over 100 miles per hour. This paper will analysis
adaptation mechanisms and strategies already in place in a variety of contexts, as well as
proposing optimal utilizations of resources for different spatio-socio-economic conditions.

i
Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Professor Chouinard for being available to meet with me, as well as D.M.
Carter Jr. for inspiring me to sympathize with, and contribute to the aid of, those affected by
natural disasters.

ii
Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Background on Hurricanes
2.1 Formation and Frequency
2.2 Impact of Climate Change
3.0 Damage to Structures and Adaptation

3.1 Large Buildings and Skyscrapers

3.2 Residential Buildings in the US
3.3 Caribbean Nations Structural Adaptation Challenges

4.0 Damage to Municipal Systems in the US and Adaptation

5.0 Strategies for Rehabilitation of Sustenance Systems in the Caribbean
6.0 Case Study: Puerto Rico 2017
7.0 Conclusions
8.0 References
9.0 Appendix A: Individual Storm Data

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

Figure 2: GFDL North Atlantic Hurricane Simulation Maps
Figure 3: GFDL Global Projections for Tropical Storms in Present-Day and Late 21st Century
Conditions
Figure 4: Number of North Atlantic Tropical Storms Meeting Specific Wind Speed Thresholds
(Corresponding to Categories on the Saffir-Simpson Scale) over Half-Decade Periods

Figure 5: Damage in the 9th Ward of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina in December 2005
Figure 6: Construction of Recessed Seat in Residential Home
Figure 7: ING 4727 Barge in Lower 9th Ward, New Orleans, LA, December 2005

Figure 8: Map of 2017 Hurricane Maria’s path through the Caribbean Sea

Figure 9: Structural Damage in Two-Storey Building in St. Maarten after 2017 Hurricane Irma

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1.0 Introduction

Hurricanes captivate our attention and sympathy for several months a year, but for those living in
regions directly affected by hurricane-force winds, recovering from and adapting to the strong winds and
storm surges that characterize North Atlantic tropical cyclones is a 365-day-per-year task. This paper will
examine not only the science behind hurricanes and their trends pertaining to geography and intensity, but
will also consider the vast range of damage that their strong winds and storm surges can cause on
civilization. Restricting the view to the Southeastern United States, as well as Caribbean nations,
conclusions can be made with respect to practical, novel approaches to significantly reduce damage as
well as facilitate reconstruction of man-made systems, including structures.

2.0 Background on Hurricanes

Hurricanes form over warm water in the Atlantic Ocean, fueled by evaporation of water which
forms clouds and rain as the evaporated water condenses, and because of an array of phenomena,
develop into complex and expansive storm systems, which cause damage as they make their perennial
landfall in coastal regions. These storm systems are classified by max sustained wind speed from the
relatively minor tropical storms with low wind velocities, to major hurricanes with high wind velocities.
The widely-recognized Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ranges between 1 and 5; thus, the largest
hurricanes ever recorded fall into Category 5, while the smallest storms still classified as hurricanes are
considered Category 1. The sustained wind speed ranges, as well as the associated storm surge height
ranges for each category are given in the table below.

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Figure 1: Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

Source: Ayres Associates, 2017

2.1 Formation and Frequency

While the mechanisms that produce these types of storms are not explicitly pertinent to the
discussion of their effects, an overview of the tropical cyclone generation process helps to explain the
spatio-temporal setting of the regions of damage, as well as shedding light on the effect of climate
change on the intensity of these storms.

In the tropics, warm air with low pressure rises and is replaced by cool air at higher pressures.
This movement of warm air produces pressure gradient force vectors which point upward, When moist,
warm air rises, it cools and condenses, forming clouds; this phase change releases latent heat of
condensation, which in turn, warms the cool air that took the place of this rising air to begin with, thus
creating a positive feedback loop. This cycle produces winds spinning circularly on a plane roughly
normal to the direction of the force vectors, analogous to a drain, with a vector field pointing in the
direction of gravitational force, and water current streamlines spinning in a similar matter as the winds.
The hurricane’s wind direction, counter-clockwise (Northern Hemisphere) is also governed by the
Coriolis Effect, an inertial force affected by the spin of the earth, or more generally the direction of

2
rotation of the storm’s reference frame. Because this process is the product of symmetric and even force
vectors, the winds and pressure gradient force field should be consistent throughout the atmospheric
elevation. If this condition is not met, wind shears will be produced and the storm will not be adequately
organized thus will not develop into a hurricane. This often occurs with underperforming rain bands, the
zones of the storm relatively far from the center of the storm, which are generally characterized by
strong rains. If there isn’t consistent, heavy precipitation in these zones, the evaporation and
condensation driving this cycle will not be violent enough to produce a force field sufficiently strong to
create hurricane-level winds. Continuing with the analogy of the drain, it can be observed that the
rotational water currents are slower if the downward force on the water is altered. Similarly, when water
is draining there is a space in the center of the drainage pipe that is empty, with no flow passing through;
this zone is analogous to the eye of the hurricane, where wind velocities are within normal ranges,
instead of the high velocities experienced in regions outside of the eye. The largest wind velocities can
be found close to the eye, in the region called the eye wall, just as the fastest water currents form close
to the drain. The majority of a hurricane’s significant wind-related damage follows a path made by the
eye wall, especially with smaller hurricanes, where the wind speeds in the rain bands are relatively low.

Because of the necessity for highly active evaporation/condensation, these tropical cyclonic
storm systems is that they do not move over land with much ferocity, for there is simply less reactant for
this thermodynamic reaction. Thus, when a hurricane is said to “make landfall” it means that at this
moment where its path intersects the coastline, its magnitude in winds, rains, and other factors decreases
thereafter. Because a hurricane’s formation is so closely linked to warm ocean water, there is a small
window over the year in which the Atlantic waters are warm enough to sustain hurricane development
and movement; this hurricane season lasts from June 1 to November 30, but peaks sharply between late
August and September.

2.1 Impact of Climate Change

In the last thirty years, there has been much discussion regarding climate change and its effect on
North Atlantic tropical cyclone dynamics. Often politically charged, the hurricane and tropical storm
data can be easily manipulated to corroborate an opinion. Some leaders in the scientific community,

3
specifically NOAA’s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory on Princeton University’s Forrestal
Campus (GFDL), have concluded, using sophisticated models, that it is “premature to attribute past
changes in hurricane activity to greenhouse warming, although simulated hurricanes tend to be more
intense in a warmer climate.” Figure 2 presents several of the models’ hurricane path maps, and Figure 3
presents a simulation of present global tropical cyclone tendencies, comparing them with those of a
model simulating conditions expected in the late 21st century. While the methods and statistics that form
these figures is beyond the scope of this paper, their evidence presents a strong argument that hurricane
generation and proliferation are a function of innumerable parameters, including, but not limited to,
temperature in the tropics.

Figure 2: GFDL North Atlantic Hurricane Simulation Maps

Source: Global Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, 2018

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Figure 3: GFDL Global Projections for Tropical Storms in Present-Day and Late 21st Century
Conditions

Source: Global Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, 2018

5
 In addition to the comprehensive statistical data analysis from GFDL, a simple chart covering
recorded, tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic was necessary to conclude this paper’s discussion on
the correlation on climate conditions and both hurricane intensity and frequency. As mentioned before,
on the portions of the internet highly frequented by casual researchers or news networks, such as an
image-search engine, manipulation is commonplace, whether through omission of data on either end of
the period charted, or through unreasonably high resolution in charted data, highlighting anomalies
rather than trends. There are, however, some unbiased databases, where one can find various tropical
cyclone data, including maximum wind speeds. Drawn from Weather Underground’s online database,
Figure 4 succinctly displays North Atlantic tropical cyclone trends, using maximum wind speed values,
for roughly 900 specific hurricanes between 1933 and 2012 on Weather Underground’s online database.
Using the Saffir-Simpson Scale, these wind speeds were Categorized, and finally a five-year moving
average was used to avoid error caused by the arbitrary consecutive years divided into different time
periods on the x-axis of Figure 4. From the figure below, one can observe that the database’s storm data
corroborates the claim by GFDL that, it is premature to theorize that climate change is affecting
hurricane intensity in the North Atlantic. While the widely-known increase in North Atlantic tropical
cyclone intensity over the 1980-2009 period is confirmed by all three portions of Figure 4, the sample
size is still quite small, especially considering the period of relatively high intensity centered at the early
1950s. The raw data from Weather Underground, as well as the assigned Category for each storm, is
included in Appendix A.

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Figure 4: Number of North Atlantic Tropical Storms Meeting Specific Wind Speed Thresholds
(Corresponding to Categories on the Saffir-Simpson Scale) over Half-Decade Periods

Data Source: Weather Underground, 2018

3.0 Damage to Structures and Adaptation

The structures that make up human civilization have been, and continue to be of the utmost
importance to society. They not only serve to keep people and their belongings less affected by the
changing weather, but also reflect the progress and accomplishment of the people inhabiting them, and
are thus often a source of pride and a symbol of their culture as a whole, through architectural style,
available materials, and technological advances creating new possibilities in every aspect of design.
Thus, the adaptation mechanisms available for structures depends quite significantly on not only the

7
structural design of the building, but also on the resources available, namely, manpower, money,
materials, and machines. Thus, the analysis of the impact of hurricanes to these structures and their
respective adaptations will be arranged into three broad categories. The first category will address the
large buildings at the core of the modern southeastern American city, such as Miami or Houston. The
second category will address the small residential houses which are so often pictured boarded up and
evacuated from during hurricane season. The third category will address the buildings in Caribbean
nations which are also affected, often more severely, than the aforementioned southeastern United States
area.

4.1 Large Buildings and Skyscrapers

While skyscrapers are not as often noted in reports on damage after a given hurricane, the dollar
amount of damage can often be significant, whether through flooding, or exterior damage, as often the
skeleton of the building has been designed with factors of safety well above the wind load of even the
strongest hurricane’s winds. These buildings represent a sizable investment from many parties
throughout the service life of the building, and exhaustive protection represents a lower percentage of
the overall value of the building, as compared to a typical modern American Colonial residence, for
example.

One type of way that a hurricane can damage a large building, costing the owner, but more often,
the insurance company, thousands or millions of dollars, is by carrying debris through the wind and into
its often-expensive windows. For this reason, the Miami-Dade building code requires the first 30 feet of
any high rise to be equipped with high-impact windows, able to withstand contact from a 9 lb. 2’ x 4’
travelling at 50 feet per second (55 km/h); above 30 feet, windows must use “small missile impact”
glass, able to withstand contact from a small steel ball bearing travelling at 130 feet per second (143
km/h).

To adapt, and hopefully mitigate, flood damage, underground parking garages are not
commonplace in coastal cities such as Miami, where storm surges associated with hurricanes can be
sizable (see Figure 1).

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3.2 Residential Buildings in the US

In the southeastern United States, the residential areas are predominantly made up of many
structurally separate, one-family houses, and especially in less affluent regions, are designed for a
shorter service life and with relatively cheap materials; these dwellings have been particularly
susceptible to damage. A region that has been particularly damaged by hurricanes in the last century is
the 9th Ward of New Orleans. This section of the city is located adjacent to levees, which are water
retaining structures designed to allow construction below the water line, as about half of New Orleans is,
today. The 9th Ward was flooded significantly about 100 years ago, when storm surges from The New
Orleans Hurricane of 1915 breached a levee on Florida Avenue. A few years later, the Industrial Canal
was dredged through the neighborhood at the start of the 1920s; the canal connects the Mississippi River
with Lake Pontchartrain. More recently, in 2005, the storm surges associated with Hurricane Katrina, a
Category 5 hurricane which caused catastrophic damage from central Florida to eastern Texas, did
significant damage on this levee network, and resulted in catastrophic flooding. This water breaching the
Industrial Canal flood protection system created violent currents that not only flooded buildings, but
contained enough dynamic energy to displace buildings from their foundations. A photograph of this
complete annihilation of man-made structure in the Lower 9th Ward, after Hurricane Katrina, is shown
below.

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Figure 5: Damage in the 9th Ward of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina in December 2005

Source: Craig Morris (Wikipedia ~ en:User:SixInfo), 2005

Coastal southeastern U.S.A. is also made up of regions with more means, not only to afford
structurally-superior designs and constructions, but also heightened access to industrio-transport
networks to retrofit residential buildings. Some of these novel techniques will be discussed in the
following paragraph, while others recommendations, such as Taher (2007) decision to avoid pressed
boards and staples as roofing materials, and to use an alternative to shingles, commonplace in American
architecture, will be merely mentioned.

One problem, analogous to the issue with window strength in skyscrapers, is that the concrete
masonry unit block construction, typically used in Florida, is susceptible to hurricane-induced damage.
A cast-in-place concrete wall system, such as the Solid-Wall-System engineered by University of
Florida’s Program for Resource Efficient Communities and Steven Winter Associates, using funding

10
from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). After the particularly intense 2004
hurricane season (see Appendix A), researchers found that the ~2000 homes that implemented this
design performed exceptionally well in protecting against 1) hurricane-induced uplift, 2) lateral loads,
and 3) projectile debris, while there was still damage due to wind-driven rain intrusion.

Rainwater and run-off, propelled by high wind speeds, can enter a residential building such as
the ones with the Solid-Wall-System, anywhere on the surface, from foundation to roof. An effective
adaptation to this problem is by constructing a recessed seat at the edge of the ground floor slab, creating
a functional barrier between the wall/floor joint and the surrounding ground, which is often an
impermeable material, such as concrete, which lends itself to more violent runoff conditions than grass
or soil. The photograph below was taken during the construction of one of these recessed seats.

Figure 6: Construction of Recessed Seat in Residential Home

Source: www.homeenergy.org, 2006

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3.3 Caribbean Nations’ Structural Adaptation Challenges

The third category of hurricane-affected structures is the genre of buildings in Caribbean nations
which are affected, often more severely, than the aforementioned southeastern United States area. These
structures may be more basic than their US counterparts, and thus often have an inherently higher
susceptibility to hurricane-related damage. This basic overall nature of structures in these smaller
nations is not unequivocally less unfit against the elements, but the relative lack of modern machinery,
from chainsaws to nail guns, can retard the rehabilitation process proceeding an intense storm.

Adaptation mechanisms in remote and rather unconnected islands is often most ingeniously
designed and implemented by the locals, on-site. Far away, familiar with a vastly different set of
availabilities, it is futile to use a top-down strategy, but rather, because what is lacking the most are
machines and materials (and the money to obtain them), an effective solution could be to create and
improve networks that would grant access to these necessities for the more remote inhabitants;
attempting to install a hardware store centrally located in a cluster of islands would be more effective
than sending a shipping container full of tarps the day before a hurricane makes island-landfall.
Solutions to problems connected to such unique geographies, traditional practices, and cultural
motivations, are rarely found without coming into contact with the land and the people inhabiting it.

4.0 Damage to Municipal Systems in the US and Adaptation

Structures are hardly the only element of human civilization acutely affected by hurricanes,
however, as advanced municipal and transportation systems in the southeastern US will also be
discussed. Many features of modern human life are simply unavailable without an extensive network
including trucks, boats, and pipes, which allow people to, among other daily tasks, fill their gas tank,
drive home from work, and take a hot shower. These modern amenities are only possible thanks to
functional highway networks, carrying both cars and resources such as petrol, and municipal pipe
systems carrying not just water, but also natural gas often used for heating in the United States. Flooding
can severely impact these necessities of modern civilization, making roads un-passable, or overloading

12
municipal drainage systems, which can have adverse effects on other components of infrastructure, such
as underground electricity lines. Strong winds can also affect this interconnected web of machines,
resources and people—destroyed oil harvesting equipment, such as a barge or well, can send ripples
throughout not just the local economy, but also people around the world through global finance.

An infamous example of the complications that can arise when waterborne vessels experience a
hurricane is the case of ING 4727. The 61-meter-long, steel-hulled, dry-cargo, cover-top barge was
docked in the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet Canal, close to the aforementioned Industrial Canal. When
Hurricane Katrina made landfall in August 2005, the barge was not adequately secured and made its
way toward the levee, where, according to Al Naomi, Army Corps of Engineers project manager, the
barge entered the Lower 9th Ward (see figure below) through an existing hole in the floodwall, contrary
to speculation that it made the initial rupture. In any case, it remains a cautionary tale in pre-storm
precautions and the importance of being meticulous with sound procedure and protocol.

Figure 7: ING 4727 Barge in Lower 9th Ward, New Orleans, LA, December 2005

Source: Infrogmation, 2005

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5.0 Strategies for Rehabilitation of Sustenance Systems in the Caribbean

Perhaps most serious to humanity in whole, however, is the way that hurricanes can damage
sustenance systems, such as depleting or destroying natural water supply or damaging crops and the soil
necessary for future growth in the area, among other scenarios which force people into “survival mode”
in immediacy. While not limited to small Caribbean nations, these type of sustenance system issues, are
less common in the US, thanks to overarching technological modernity and a robust network of closely-
connected cities and regions. It is much more difficult to get, not only relief, but also experienced,
highly-skilled workmanship to prepare dwellings for the rigors of hurricane season, even with basic
technologies, such as structural reinforcements or solidly-boarded windows. Intensive environmental
and geotechnical solutions are necessary to make improvements on problems such as these, as
geological, chemical, and biological systems are much more stubborn to change than man-made
features, such as structures and facility networks.

6.0 Case Study: Puerto Rico 2017

In 2017, the north Caribbean, most notably the islands Puerto Rico and the Dominica, the latter
containing the nations of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, experienced the most significant hurricane
devastation in nearly 20 years. After Category 5 Irma had already hit the region just weeks prior, also
Category 5, Maria, moved through the region, compounding the recovery already underway for the
previous hurricane. Among other affects, power and communication were almost completely lost on
these large, relatively-modernized islands, which caught headlines not just in the United States, of which
Puerto Rico is a territory, but all over the world as well, as around 3000 people were estimated to have
died because of the storm. The inability for these nations to safely recover from this damage is closely
linked to the lack of swift response from United States government and NGOs, such as the Red Cross,
which contrasted against the recovery efforts after Hurricane Harvey, which hit Houston, TX during the
same hurricane season, highlights the effect that both a robust and closely-connected network, as well as
certainly more generous government and institutional aid does for the relief effort.

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 Figure 8: Map of 2017 Hurricane Maria’s path through the Caribbean Sea

Source: The Weather Channel, 2017

Figure 9: Structural Damage in Two-Storey Building in St. Maarten after 2017 Hurricane Irma

Source: The Daily Mail, 2017

15
9.0 Conclusions

While the evidence shows that hurricane intensity does not, in fact, increase with climate change, it
is undeniable that hurricanes’ significance cannot be underestimated in today’s society. Today more
than ever, the population density in certain coastal cities is higher, and risk associated with a
catastrophic Category 5 hurricane, such as Katrina, continues to mount. While adaptation strategies
do exist and have been outlined in this paper, many of the problems are so deeply entrenched in the
fabric of civilization, geography, and physics, that solutions cannot simply be researched, but must
be discovered. By meeting the local inhabitants, and witnessing the adaptation and rehabilitation
challenges first hand, it is possible to significantly reduce the risk associated with these gargantuan
weather systems.

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8.0 References

Chen, J-Y., Gilbert, R.B., Puskar, J.P., & Verret, S. (2013). Case Study of Offshore Pile System Failure
in Hurricane Ike. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 139(10). doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000894

Fritz, H.M., Blount, C., Sokoloski, R., Singleton, J., Fuggle, A., McAdoo, B.G., Moore, A., Grass, C., &
Tate, B. (2008). Hurricane Katrina Storm Surge Reconnaissance. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 134(5). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0242(2008)134:5(644)

Leatherman, S.P. (2011). Hurricane Wind Damage Mitigation: Research and Outlook. Natural Hazards
Review, 12(4). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000048

Leatherman, S.P., Chowdhury, A.G., & Robertson, C.J. (2007). Wall of Wind Full-Scale Destructive
Testing of Coastal Houses and Hurricane Damage Mitigation. Journal of Coastal Research, 23(5), 1211-
1217. doi: 10.2112/07-0829.1

Lee, W., McLaughlin, P.W., & Kaihatu, J.M. (2016). Parameterization of Maximum Significant Wave
Heights in Coastal Regions due to Hurricanes. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean
Engineering, 143(2). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000362

Pine, J.C., Marx, B.D., Levitan, M.L., & Wilkins, D. (2003). Comprehensive Assessment of Hurricane
Shelters: Lessons from Hurricane Georges. Natural Hazards Review, 4(4). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)1527-
6988(2003)4:4(197)

Pant, S & Cha, E.J. (2018). Effect of Climate Change on Hurricane Damage and Loss for Residential
Buildings in Miami-Dade County. Journal of Structural Engineering, 144(6). doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002038

Prevatt, D.O., Dupigny-Giroux, L-A., & Masters, F. (2010). Engineering Perspectives on Reducing
Hurricane Damage to Housing in CARICOM Islands. Natural Hazards Review, 11, 140-150. doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000017

Reed, D.A., Powel, M.D., & Westerman, J.M. (2010). Energy Infrastructure Damage Analysis for
Hurricane Rita. Natural Hazards Review, 11(3). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000012
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Subramanian, C., Pinelli, J-P., Kostanic, I., & Lapilli, G. (2013). Analysis and Characterization of
Hurricane Winds. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 139(3). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-
7889.0000520

Taher, Rima. (2007). Design of Low-Rise Buildings for Extreme Wind Events. Journal of Architectural
Engineering, 13(1). doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0431(2007)13:1(54)

Thampapillai, D.J., & Musgrave, W.F. (1985). Flood Damage Mitigation: A Review of Structural and
Nonstructural Measures and Alternative Decision Frameworks. Water Resources Research, 21(4). doi:
10.1029/WR021i00411

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APPENDIX A: Individual Storm Data
Source: Weather Underground
1933 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 45 0
2 105 2
3 50 0
4 45 0
5 90 1
6 60 0
7 40 0
8 120 3
9 50 0
10 40 0
11 125 3
12 140 0
13 120 3
14 85 0
15 110 2
16 45 0
17 40 0
18 150 4
19 100 2
20 70 0
21 40 0
1934
1 60 0
2 80 1
3 75 1
4 40 0
5 80 1
6 100 2
7 45 0
8 100 2
9 60 0
10 45 0
11 85 1
1935
1 120 3
2 160 5
3 45 0
4 120 3
5 85 1
6 80 1

A-1
1936 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 45 0
2 40 0
3 80 1
4 45 0
5 90 1
6 45 0
7 40 0
8 80 1
9 50 0
10 80 1
11 110 2
12 40 0
13 120 3
14 45 0
15 110 2
16 40 0
1937
1 70 0
2 60 0
3 60 0
4 100 2
5 110 2
6 45 0
7 100 2
8 45 0
9 40 0
1938
1 70 0
2 100 2
3 100 2
4 160 5
5 60 0
6 45 0
7 45 0
8 70 0
1939
1 50 0
2 80 1
3 45 0
4 135 4
5 90 1

A-2
1940 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 60 0
2 80 1
3 90 1
4 80 1
5 100 2
6 45 0
7 50 0
8 45 0
1941
1 45 0
2 90 1
3 80 1
4 120 3
5 120 3
6 50 0
1942
1 80 1
2 115 3
3 110 2
4 50 0
5 50 0
6 50 0
7 60 0
8 40 0
9 50 0
10 100 2
1943
1 85 1
2 60 0
3 140 4
4 120 3
5 50 0
6 100 2
7 60 0
8 70 0
9 110 2
10 45 0

A-3
1944 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 90 1
2 65 0
3 90 1
4 120 3
5 60 0
6 50 0
7 140 4
8 80 0
9 100 2
10 45 0
11 120 3
1945
1 115 3
2 50 0
3 60 0
4 70 0
5 140 4
6 60 0
7 40 0
8 60 0
9 140 4
10 100 2
11 100 2
1946
1 40 0
2 80 0
3 40 0
4 100 2
5 135 4
6 45 0
1947
1 45 0
2 110 2
3 80 1
4 160 5
5 45 0
6 60 0
7 50 0
8 85 1
9 120 3

A-4
1948 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 50 0
2 40 0
3 120 3
4 60 0
5 80 0
6 135 4
7 120 3
8 135 4
9 80 1
1949
1 110 2
2 150 4
3 50 0
4 125 3
5 45 0
6 45 0
7 60 0
8 100 1
9 80 1
10 135 4
11 105 2
12 60 0
13 60 0
1950
1 140 4
2 120 3
3 115 3
4 185 5
5 125 3
6 140 4
7 110 2
8 60 0
9 110 2
10 120 3
11 120 3
12 70 0
13 90 1

A-5
1951 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 115 3
2 60 0
3 135 4
4 115 3
5 160 5
6 115 3
7 60 0
8 110 2
9 80 1
10 80 1
1952
1 60 0
2 105 2
3 120 3
4 120 3
5 85 1
6 110 2
7 150 4
1953
1 70 0
2 110 2
3 60 0
4 150 4
5 115 3
6 125 3
7 70 0
8 125 3
9 80 1
10 70 0
11 70 0
12 70 0
13 50 0
14 40 0
1954
1 80 1
2 45 0
3 100 2
4 100 2
5 120 3
6 75 0
7 70 0
8 100 2
9 140 4
10 50 0
11 80 1
A-6
1955 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 70 0
2 145 4
3 120 3
4 100 2
5 45 0
6 105 2
7 90 1
8 125 3
9 120 3
10 175 5
11 65 0
12 115 2
1956
1 60 0
2 80 1
3 120 3
4 50 0
5 70 0
6 70 0
7 90 0
8 140 4
1957
1 70 0
2 145 4
3 70 0
4 155 4
5 40 0
6 50 0
7 80 1
8 60 0
1958
1 50 0
2 60 0
3 160 5
4 125 3
5 115 3
6 90 1
7 70 0
8 135 4
9 135 4
10 90 1

A-7
1959 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 60 0
2 70 0
3 80 1
4 75 0
5 85 1
6 60 0
7 75 0
8 140 4
9 125 3
10 60 0
11 80 1
1960
1 45 0
2 100 2
3 60 0
4 90 1
5 160 5
6 160 5
7 45 0
1961
1 115 3
2 140 4
3 175 5
4 120 3
5 145 4
6 40 0
7 125 3
8 70 0
9 160 5
10 80 1
11 70 0
1962
1 100 2
2 40 0
3 70 0
4 110 2
5 115 3

A-8
1963 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 105 2
2 120 3
3 60 0
4 80 1
5 75 0
6 100 2
7 145 4
8 110 2
9 50 0
1964
1 60 0
2 50 0
3 65 0
4 50 0
5 155 4
6 135 4
7 115 3
8 45 0
9 145 4
10 150 4
11 125 3
12 40 0
1965
1 50 0
2 90 0
3 155 4
4 100 2
5 50 0
6 80 1
1966
1 125 3
2 75 1
3 80 1
4 85 1
5 50 0
6 125 3
7 60 0
8 50 0
9 150 4
10 50 0
11 80 1

A-9
1967 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 85 1
2 160 5
3 110 2
4 85 1
5 60 0
6 85 1
7 50 0
8 90 1
1968
1 75 1
2 75 1
3 70 0
4 80 1
5 65 0
6 80 1
7 60 0
8 85 1
1969
1 70 0
2 85 1
3 190 5
4 120 3
5 60 0
6 115 3
7 125 3
8 85 1
9 115 3
10 75 1
11 70 0
12 60 0
13 45 0
14 105 2
15 105 2
16 70 0
17 75 1
18 90 1

A-10
1970 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 80 1
2 65 0
3 125 3
4 70 0
5 70 0
6 125 3
7 70 0
8 50 0
9 105 2
10 75 1
1971
1 65 0
2 85 1
3 85 1
4 65 0
5 65 0
6 160 5
7 90 1
8 110 2
9 65 0
10 80 1
11 65 0
12 50 0
13 70 0
1972
1 70 0
2 85 1
3 105 2
4 70 0
5 80 1
6 70 0
7 45 0
1973
1 90 1
2 45 0
3 90 1
4 70 0
5 70 0
6 115 3
7 80 1
8 70 0

A-11
1974 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 65 0
2 50 0
3 60 0
4 65 0
5 115 3
6 150 4
7 50 0
8 70 0
9 110 2
10 75 1
11 50 0
1975
1 70 0
2 85 1
3 115 3
4 110 2
5 125 3
6 105 2
7 140 4
8 50 0
9 70 0
1976
1 50 0
2 50 0
3 120 3
4 90 1
5 50 0
6 105 2
7 115 3
8 45 0
9 105 2
10 75 1
1977
1 175 5
2 75 1
3 75 1
4 85 1
5 80 1
6 60 0

A-12
1978 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 45 0
2 50 0
3 50 0
4 90 0
5 60 0
6 140 4
7 100 2
8 135 4
9 65 0
10 50 0
11 50 0
12 80 1
1979
1 60 0
2 75 1
3 50 0
4 175 5
5 40 0
6 135 4
7 100 2
8 85 1
9 75 1
1980
1 190 5
2 100 2
3 80 1
4 60 0
5 75 1
6 115 3
7 80 1
8 70 0
9 105 2
10 100 2
11 85 1

A-13
1981 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 60 0
2 70 0
3 60 0
4 80 1
5 90 1
6 115 3
7 105 2
8 135 4
9 120 3
10 50 0
11 85 1
12 70 0
1982
1 85 1
2 70 0
3 70 0
4 65 0
5 135 4
6 70 0
1983
1 115 3
2 80 1
3 75 1
4 65 0
1984
1 60 0
2 50 0
3 40 0
4 60 0
5 135 4
6 65 0
7 65 0
8 50 0
9 75 1
10 60 0
11 105 2
12 90 1
13 80 1

A-14
1985 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 70 0
2 75 1
3 85 1
4 90 1
5 125 3
6 65 0
7 145 4
8 60 0
9 70 0
10 85 1
11 120 3
1986
1 50 0
2 85 1
3 80 1
4 60 0
5 105 2
6 85 1
1987
1 45 0
2 75 1
3 50 0
4 50 0
5 50 0
6 125 3
7 75 1
1988
1 40 0
2 50 0
3 50 0
4 75 1
5 65 0
6 60 0
7 80 1
8 185 5
9 145 4
10 45 0
11 145 4
12 75 1

A-15
1989 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 50 0
2 50 0
3 80 1
4 105 2
5 105 2
6 85 1
7 145 5
8 160 5
9 70 0
10 85 1
11 60 0
1990
1 70 1
2 80 1
3 50 0
4 100 2
5 45 0
6 40 0
7 120 3
8 65 0
9 100 0
10 85 1
11 80 1
12 75 1
13 65 0
14 85 1
1991
1 50 0
2 115 3
3 135 4
4 50 0
5 60 0
6 45 0
7 100 2
8 75 1
1992
1 50 0
2 175 5
3 110 2
4 110 2
5 65 0
6 65 0
7 85 1

A-16
1993 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 40 0
2 60 0
3 45 0
4 50 0
5 115 3
6 80 1
7 100 2
8 75 1
1994
1 65 0
2 60 0
3 80 1
4 70 0
5 60 0
6 110 2
7 85 1
1995
1 75 1
2 70 0
3 70 0
4 45 0
5 90 1
6 140 4
7 70 0
8 110 2
9 110 2
10 40 0
11 50 0
12 140 4
13 115 3
14 75 1
15 150 4
16 60 0
17 115 3
18 65 0
19 85 1

A-17
1996 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 50 0
2 115 3
3 80 1
4 80 1
5 145 4
6 120 3
7 45 0
8 140 4
9 115 3
10 70 0
11 50 0
12 115 3
13 75 1
1997
1 50 0
2 45 0
3 75 1
4 45 0
5 80 1
6 125 3
7 45 0
8 45 0
1998
1 50 0
2 115 3
3 70 0
4 105 2
5 100 2
6 65 0
7 155 4
8 45 0
9 90 1
10 105 2
11 105 2
12 75 1
13 180 5
14 85 1

A-18
1999 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 60 0
2 145 4
3 140 4
4 105 2
5 50 0
6 155 4
7 150 4
8 60 0
9 110 2
10 100 2
11 40 0
12 155 4
2000
1 125 3
2 50 0
3 40 0
4 85 1
5 40 0
6 80 1
7 80 1
8 70 0
9 140 4
10 90 1
11 140 4
12 70 0
13 100 2
14 60 0
15 65 0
2001
1 60 0
2 70 0
3 70 0
4 70 0
5 120 3
6 115 3
7 80 1
8 105 2
9 145 4
10 50 0
11 80 1
12 40 0
13 140 4
14 75 1
15 90 1

A-19
2002 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 60 0
2 40 0
3 50 0
4 60 0
5 65 0
6 60 0
7 100 2
8 60 0
9 125 3
10 60 0
11 85 1
12 145 4
2003
1 60 0
2 60 0
3 85 1
4 75 1
5 75 1
6 145 4
7 40 0
8 60 0
9 165 5
10 105 2
11 125 3
12 65 0
13 45 0
14 70 0
15 65 0
16 70 0
2004
1 120 3
2 65 0
3 145 4
4 110 2
5 50 0
6 145 4
7 75 1
8 60 0
9 165 5
10 120 3
11 145 4
12 75 1
13 45 0
14 50 0
15 50 0
A-20
2005 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 70 0
2 40 0
3 75 1
4 150 4
5 160 5
6 70 0
7 45 0
8 65 0
9 105 2
10 50 0
11 175 5
12 40 0
13 115 3
14 90 1
15 85 1
16 80 1
17 180 5
18 80 1
19 50 0
20 50 0
21 75 1
22 185 5
23 50 0
24 115 3
25 50 0
26 70 0
27 85 1
28 65 0
2006
1 70 0
2 50 0
3 60 0
4 65 0
5 50 0
6 75 0
7 90 1
8 120 3
9 120 3
10 85 1

A-21
2007 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 75 1
2 60 0
3 70 0
4 175 5
5 60 0
6 175 5
7 60 0
8 90 1
9 45 0
10 40 0
11 75 1
12 80 1
13 40 0
14 85 1
15 60 0
2008
1 45 0
2 120 3
3 65 0
4 100 2
5 65 0
6 70 0
7 145 4
8 85 1
9 145 4
10 65 0
11 85 1
12 80 1
13 65 0
14 40 0
15 135 4
16 145 4
2009
1 40 0
2 135 4
3 60 0
4 60 0
5 50 0
6 120 3
7 65 0
8 50 0
9 105 2

A-22
2010 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 105 2
2 45 0
3 60 0
4 135 4
5 145 4
6 65 0
7 40 0
8 65 0
9 155 4
10 140 4
11 125 3
12 85 1
13 60 0
14 45 0
15 85 1
16 105 2
17 100 2
18 75 0
19 100 2
2011
1 65 0
2 65 0
3 60 0
4 50 0
5 35 0
6 45 0
7 60 0
8 60 0
9 120 3
10 35 0
11 45 0
12 135 4
13 60 0
14 80 1
15 70 0
16 140 4
17 90 1
18 110 2
19 65 0

A-23
2012 Annual Index Max Winds (mph) S-S Cat.
1 50 0
2 70 0
3 75 1
4 60 0
5 85 1
6 60 0
7 45 0
8 110 2
9 80 1
10 40 0
11 105 2
12 75 1
13 115 3
14 90 1
15 50 0
16 45 0
17 90 1
18 105 2
19 50 0

A-24