The modes of metal transfer refer to the different ways in which the filler metal (electrode) is transferred through

the welding arc and into the weld puddle. We can write a book on this topic but we’ll keep it simple to provide an
understanding of the different modes of transfer, what they require and what their advantages and limitations are.
The variables that determine the mode of metal transfer include: wire diameter, amperage, voltage and shielding gas
composition.

The basic modes of metal transfer are:

1. Short Circuit Transfer (Short Arc)

2. Globular
3. Spray

4. Pulsed Spray

There are variations which create sub-categories within these four, but no need to complicate things over a mostly
theoretical differentiation.

This article will focus on short circuit transfer and we’ll cover the other three modes in later posts.

Short Circuit Transfer

Short circuit, commonly called “short arc” and formally called GMAW-S, is a mode of metal transfer with low heat
input where the transfer of metal from the electrode to weld puddle occurs by a series of electrical shorts. As the
welding wire is fed it makes physical contact with the base material and creates a short. As the short occurs the
voltage immediately drops to zero. However, MIG welding machines are constant voltage power sources and their
main job is to keep the voltage constant. In order to do so in the presence of short, which wants to drive the
voltage to zero, the power source will increase the amperage to break the short.

The short is essentially blasted away by the spike in amperage causing an explosion of sorts. This explosion
generates spatter and the crackling noise we hear. Some people liken the sound of short circuit transfer to that of
frying bacon. Every time the wire shorts to the base metal the welding arc is extinguished. The welding machine
will react instantaneously with the spike in amperage to eliminate the short and reignite the arc. This happens many
times per second (up to 200 times per second!) which is why we never see the arc go out.
This plot of amperage and voltage in relation to time show how the short brings the voltage to zero and at the same time the power sources
increases amperage to break the short.
Short circuit transfer generates low heat input due to the low amperage and low voltage used. Because of this, it is
limited to thin materials. The American Welding Society prohibits the use of short circuit transfer in prequalified
welding procedures because of the high probability of lack of fusion.

Typical shielding gases for short circuit transfer include 100% carbon dioxide and mixes containing up to 75%
argon with the balance being carbon dioxide.

Advantages of Short Circuit Transfer

 Good for thinner materials (1/8” and under) – low heat input prevents blowing through the base material and
as long as the travel speed is adequate can also prevent distortion.
 All-position welding – due to the low heat input the puddle solidifies quickly which allows for welding in all
positions.
 Great for gaps and bad fit up – short circuit transfer is good for bad fit-up, including gaps. Short circuit is
widely used to run the root pass on pipe because of this reason.
 Low cost – The low amperage requirement of short circuit transfer means that basic, low-end power sources
can be used. Carbon dioxide is also relatively inexpensive compared to mixes with high argon content.
Limitation of Short Circuit Transfer

 Limited to sheet metal – as mentioned above, the low heat input produces lack of fusion on thicker sections.
 Spatter – the shorting of the arc and subsequent blasting of the arc by the spike in amperage generates spatter
which increases clean up time and reduces the electrode efficiency.
 Not allowed for use in prequalified welding procedures (due to susceptibility to lack of fusion).
The biggest problem with short circuit transfer is that we can make a very nice looking weld that gives the illusion
of quality. Single and multi-pass short circuit transfer welds are made every day on trailer frames, steel buildings and
other load-bearing structures. This is why having qualified welding procedures is crucial. Following codes such as
AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code (Steel) should not be seen as a nuisance but rather as an opportunity to
increase quality by following proven guidelines.

To illustrate what using short circuit transfer in structural members can mean take a look at the images below. The
first weld (left) was made using short circuit transfer. The weld on the right was made with spray transfer.
 The weld on the left was made using short circuit and by manipulating the electrode motion distinct ripples are formed. The weld on the
right was a stringer (no manipulation) made with spray transfer. Both welds were made on 3/8-in plate.
Looking at the exterior of these welds we can assume that both are good welds. Some people prefer the weld on
the left because they like the look of the ripples. But what is underneath these welds? Let’s take a look.

The etched cross section of the short circuit weld (left) shows clear of lack of fusion. The image on the right show the deep penetration
associated with spray transfer.
Although both welds are the same size, the weld on the right (spray transfer) has almost twice the load bearing
capacity due to its deep root penetration. The short circuit transfer weld on the right shows significant lack of
fusion. These welds were made on 3/8-in material to show that short-circuit transfer should not be used on thick
sections. For more on this topic read How To Determine the Shear Strength of a Fillet Weld.
In our last post we explained short circuit transfer; if you missed it you can go back and read Modes of Metal
Transfer: Short Circuit. In this post we’ll spend some time going over globular transfer by covering its basics as
well as its advantages and limitations.
Globular transfer occurs in GMAW and MCAW processes after we exceed a certain current for a specific wire
diameter. Instead of having the metal transfer via a series of shorts as in short circuit transfer, in the globular
transfer method gravity pulls down on large metal droplets (globs) that form at the end of the wire due to the high
currents associated with this mode.

Globular transfer produces large and irregular droples (globs) which are pulled down towards the weld puddle by gravity.
These large and irregularly shaped droplets don’t always fall straight down. Rather, some of droplets can be
expelled beyond the weld puddle resulting in large amounts of spatter. Because of the large size and large amount
of energy carried by the droplets, spatter from globular transfer can fuse to the base metal making it harder to
remove.

In the article in which we discussed short circuit (short arc) transfer we mentioned that the variables that determine
the mode of metal transfer are: wire diameter, amperage, voltage and shielding gas composition.

The difference between globular and short circuit transfer is in the current and voltage levels. Globular uses higher
currents and higher voltages. For GMAW wires the current at which short circuit stops and globular transfer starts
are listed below:

.023″ 90 amps
.030″ 145 amps
.035″ 180 amps
.045″ 250 amps

These numbers are approximates and there is no clear cut transition point. Instead, there will be a combination of
short circuit and globular transfer for a range of amperage before the transfer becomes exclusively globular.
The shielding gas for globular transfer is typically 100% carbon dioxide and argon/carbon dioxide mixes with up to
75% argon content. If the argon content rises to about 80% or more then we would transition from short circuit
into spray. We will cover spray on a later post.

Advantages of Globular Transfer

 Low cost – basic constant voltage equipment and relatively inexpensive carbon dioxide shielding gas may be
used.
 High heat input permits the welding of thick sections
 Lower emitted heat compared to spray (for operator comfort)
Limitations of Globular Transfer
 Excessive spatter adds rework (time spent removing spatter)

 Excessive spatter decreases the efficiency of the wire (wasted filler metal)
 Limited to the flat and horizontal positions due to large fluid weld puddle
 Erratic/Inconsistent arc

How to Determine the Shear Strength of a Fillet Weld

In our previous post we explained how to determine the strength of a transverse fillet weld. A transverse fillet weld
is one that is perpendicular to an applied load. We will now look at how to determine the strength of a fillet weld
under shear stress.
If the load applied is not perfectly perpendicular to the fillet weld, the weld is in shear and its load carrying capacity
is greatly reduced. Because of this reason, when designing welds we always assume that the weld will be loaded in
shear as seen below.

Fillet welds loaded in shear

In this case the applied load is parallel to the welds. The forces are pulling the members being joined in opposite
directions, which places the welds under shear. When a weld is in shear we cannot longer use the tensile strength of
the filler metal to determine the strength of the weld. Instead, the tensile strength is reduced by a factor in order to
assure safety. Clause 2 of AWS D1.1 requires that the minimum tensile strength of the filler metal be multiplied by
0.30 to obtain the allowable shear stress on the weld.

The calculation is the exact same as when calculating the strength of a transverse fillet weld, except for the safety
factor. The notation now shows the maximum shear stress (τ) allowed rather than the maximum tensile stress (σ).

Where,

is the maximum allowed shear stress on the weld

F is the force the weld can handle, in other words, the strength of the weld in lbf

A is the effective area of the weld

Notice that instead of (tensile stress) we now have (allowable shear stress).

For our example we will use the same numbers we used on our previous post for determining the strength of a
transverse fillet weld. We are using an ER70S-6 filler metal with minimum tensile strength of 70,000 psi. We are
placing two (2) 20-inch long lap welds on both sides of the joint.
The allowable shear stress for the welds would be 70,000 psi x 0.30 = 21,000 psi. A reduction of 70% compared to
the case where the fillet weld was in pure tension.

If our two welds are ¼-inch fillets then the shear strength (load carrying capacity) of the welds is calculated as
follows.

First, we rearrange the formula provided above to solve for F.

We already know that the allowable shear stress is 70,000 x 0.30 = 21,000 psi. To get A (effective area of the weld)
we need to multiply the theoretical throat size (1/4 x 0.707 = 0.177 inches) times the length (20 inches) times 2
welds.
The effective area equals 20in x 0.177in x 2 = 7.08 sq-in.
We can now solve for F.
F = 21,000 x 7.08 = 148,680 lbf
Because the welds were placed parallel to the applied load, the allowable force is 70% less than if we had placed the
welds perpendicular to the applied load (as in the example on the previous post).
Understanding how loads act upon weldments is not easy, even for accomplished welding engineers and design
engineers. But having this knowledge can improve structural integrity and reduce costs by reducing the amount of
weld.

How to Determine the Strength of a Transverse Fillet Weld

Unless you are a design engineer you typically don’t have to worry about determining the strength of a weld. The
strength of a weld refers to its load carrying capacity, or how much load it can handle before it fails. However, it is
very important for all of us involved in the welding process, from welders to production supervisors to quality
personnel and welding engineers to understand the basics of weld design.
Overwelding is an epidemic in our industry. This stems from not really understanding how to properly size a
weld. But even companies with teams of engineers, having the luxury of using finite element analysis software, still
call for weld sizes much bigger than necessary. This overwelding can have a tremendous impact on cost. To get an
idea of how much you can read: Cost of Overwelding.
Having a basic understanding of how to properly size welds will equip you to question the size of certain welds. We
are not telling you to go out and reduce all weld sizes immediately. Any change of this magnitude must be reviewed
and approved by engineering. However, the savings can be significant.

To explain how to determine the strength of a weld we will use a simple example. In this article we will discuss only
how to determine the strength of a transverse fillet weld. A transverse fillet weld is one that is perpendicular to
the force applied as seen in the image below.
Because the load is perpendicular to the weld it is considered a tensile load. The formula we need to use to
determine the load carrying capacity of the weld is:

Where

σt is the tensile strength of the weld (determined by the filler metal being used) in PSI
F is the force the weld can handle, in other words, the strength of the weld in lbf
A is the effective area of the weld
The effective area of a weld is calculated by multiplying the length of the weld times the throat of the weld. For
design purposes we use the theoretical throat as shown below.

In the above diagram, is the fillet weld leg size. The theoretical throat is calculated by multiplying times the cosine
of 45˚ which is 0.707. For all fillet welds with both legs being of the same size, the theoretical throat will be 0.707 x
.

If the weld is 20 inches in length then the effective area will be 20 x 0.707 x .

Keeping with our example, there are two welds joining the two members. Both welds have a leg size of ¼-in and
are 20 inches in length. We want to determine the maximum load these welds can withstand. The welding is being
done with an ER70S-6 GMAW wire with minimum tensile strength of 70,000 psi.
First, determine the throat size.

Throat = x cos 45˚ = (1/4) x (0.707) = 0.177”

Now determine the effective area of the weld. Remember, there are two 20-inch long welds.

Effective Area = 2 x length x throat = (2) x (20) x (0.177) = 7.08 sq-in

Now we go back to our main formula.

Because we are using an ER70S-6 wire, is equal to 70,000 psi. Now we have all the values except for the one we
are solving for, F.
We rearrange the formula to solve for F.

F = (70,000) x (7.08) = 495,600 lbf

So our 20-inch long, double-sided, ¼” fillet welds have a load carrying capacity able to withstand a tensile force of
almost half a million pounds. To put this in perspective, a Boeing 747-400 weighs roughly 404,600 pounds. So, our
seemingly tiny welds can pick up a 747! That is pretty impressive. However, before you go to the airport and put
this to the test there are a few things you should know.

 If the force is applied rapidly the weld would fail at a significantly lower load
 If the force is not applied perfectly evenly along both welds the welds would fail at a significantly lower load
 If there are any weld discontinuities such as cracks, craters on undercut, the welds would fail at a significantly
lower load
 If the load is not perfectly static, the welds would fail at a significantly lower load
 If the load is not perfectly perpendicular to the welds, the welds would fail at a significantly lower load
The list of “ifs” keeps going. Because of this, welding codes introduce a factor of safety. Factors of safety are used
to make sure we don’t overload structures. In our next post we’ll provide an example of fillet welds loaded in
shear. This is basically the worst case scenario and limits the maximum force that can be applied to a weld before it
fails. Most of the design is made with the assumption that fillet welds will be loaded in shear.

A word of caution: the above calculations are used to explain the theory behind weld design. It is a simplified
example to illustrate certain design principles. Proper testing and approvals by engineering must be in place before
any changes can be made to welds when a specific size has previously been determined.