Politics in Education

POLITICS IN EDUCATION
Introduction
A central flaw of corporate paradigms, as is often noted in popular culture, is the

mind-numbing and dehumanizing effect of bureaucracy. Sometimes we are horrified and
sometimes we laugh, but arguments for or against the free market may be misguided if
we fail to address bureaucracy's corrosive role in the business model.
Current claims about private, public, or charter schools in the education reform
movement, which has its roots in the mid-nineteenth century, may also be masking a
much more important call to confront and even dismantle the bureaucracy that currently
cripples universal public education. "Successful teaching and good school cultures don't
have a formula," argued legal reformer Philip K. Howard earlier in this series, "but they
have a necessary condition: teachers and principals must feel free to act on their best
instincts....This is why we must bulldoze school bureaucracy."
Legal Bases of Philippine Educational System
Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System
Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from

the pre-Spanish times to the present. In meeting the needs of the society, education serves
as focus of emphases/priorities of the leadership at certain periods/epochs in our national
struggle as a race.
As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured, and

devoid of methods. Children were provided more vocational training and less academics
(3 Rs) by their parents and in the houses of tribal tutors.
The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major changes during the
Spanish colonization. The tribal tutors were replaced by the Spanish Missionaries.
Education was religion-oriented. It was for the elite, especially in the early years of
Spanish colonization. Access to education by the Filipinos was later liberalized through
the enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the establishment of
at least one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the
municipal government; and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under
the supervision of the Jesuits. Primary instruction was free and the teaching of Spanish
was compulsory. Education during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and
controlled.
The defeat of Spain by American forces paved the way for Aguinaldo's Republic
under a Revolutionary Government. The schools maintained by Spain for more than three
centuries were closed for the time being but were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the
Secretary of Interior. The Burgos Institute in Malolos, the Military Academy of Malolos,
and the Literary University of the Philippines were established. A system of free and
compulsory elementary education was established by the Malolos Constitution.
An adequate secularized and free public school system during the first decade of
American rule was established upon the recommendation of the Schurman Commission.
Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation
was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Chaplains
and non-commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as the medium of
instruction.
A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine
Commission by virtue of Act No. 74. The implementation of this Act created a heavy
shortage of teachers so the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public
Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. They were the
Thomasites.
Year Official Name of Official Titular Legal Bases
Department Head
1863 Superior Commission Chairman Educational Decree of 1863
of Primary
Instruction
1901- Department of Public General Act. No. 74 of the Philippine
1916 Instruction Superintendent Commission, Jan. 21, 1901
1916- Department of Public Secretary Organic Act Law of 1916
1942 Instruction (Jones Law)
1942- Department of Commissioner Renamed by the Japanese
1944 Education, Health Executive Commission,
and Public Welfare June 11, 1942
1944 Department of Minister Renamed by Japanese
Education, Health Sponsored Philippine
and Public Welfare Republic
1944 Department of Public Secretary Renamed by Japanese
Instruction Sponsored Philippine
Republic
1945- Department of Public Secretary Renamed by the
1946 Instruction and Commonwealth
Information Government
1946- Department of Secretary Renamed by the
1947 Instruction Commonwealth
Government
1947- Department of Secretary E.O. No. 94 October 1947
1975 Education (Reorganization Act of
1947)
1975- Department of Secretary Proc. No. 1081, September
1978 Education and 24, 1972
Culture
1978- Ministry of Education Minister P.D. No. 1397, June 2, 1978
1984 and Culture
1984- Ministry of Minister Education Act of 1982
1986 Education, Culture
and Sports
1987- Department of Secretary E.O. No. 117. January 30,
1994 Education, Culture 1987
and Sports
1994- Department of Secretary RA 7722 and RA 7796,
2001 Education, Culture 1994 Trifocalization of
and Sports Education Management
2001 - Department of Secretary RA 9155, August 2001
present Education (Governance of Basic
Education Act)
The high school system supported by provincial governments, special educational

institutions, school of arts and trades, an agricultural school, and commerce and marine
institutes were established in 1902 by the Philippine Commission. In 1908, the Philippine
Legislature approved Act No. 1870 which created the University of the Philippines.
The Reorganization Act of 1916 provided the Filipinization of all department

secretaries except the Secretary of Public Instruction.
Japanese educational policies were embodied in Military Order No. 2 in 1942.

The Philippine Executive Commission established the Commission of Education, Health
and Public Welfare and schools were reopened in June 1942. On October 14, 1943, the
Japanese - sponsored Republic created the Ministry of Education. Under the Japanese
regime, the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine History, and Character Education was
reserved for Filipinos. Love for work and dignity of labor was emphasized. On February
27, 1945, the Department of Instruction was made part of the Department of Public
Instruction.
In 1947, by virtue of Executive Order No. 94, the Department of Instruction was
changed to Department of Education. During this period, the regulation and supervision
of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.
In 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture by virtue of

Proclamation 1081 and the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978 y virtue of P.D.
No. 1397. Thirteen regional offices were created and major organizational changes were
implemented in the educational system.
The Education Act of 1982 created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports
which later became the Department of Education, Culture and Sports in 1987 by virtue of
Executive Order No. 117. The structure of DECS as embodied in EO No. 117 has
practically remained unchanged until 1994 when the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED), and 1995 when the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) were established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree
technical-vocational programs, respectively.
The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report provided the

impetus for Congress to pass RA 7722 and RA 7796 in 1994 creating the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority (TESDA), respectively.
The trifocal education system refocused DECS’ mandate to basic education which
covers elementary, secondary and nonformal education, including culture and sports.
TESDA now administers the post-secondary, middle-level manpower training and
development while CHED is responsible for higher education.
In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic
Education Act, was passed transforming the name of the Department of Education,
Culture and Sports (DECS) to the Department of Education (DepEd) and redefining the
role of field offices (regional offices, division offices, district offices and schools). RA
9155 provides the overall framework for (i) school head empowerment by strengthening
their leadership roles and (ii) school-based management within the context of
transparency and local accountability. The goal of basic education is to provide the school
age population and young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring,
self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens.
DepEd Management Structure
To carry out its mandates and objectives, the Department is organized into two
major structural components. The Central Office maintains the overall administration of
basic education at the national level. The Field Offices are responsible for the regional
and local coordination and administration of the Department’s mandate. RA 9155
provides that the Department should have no more than four Undersecretaries and four
Assistant Secretaries with at least one Undersecretary and one Assistant Secretary who
are career service officers chosen among the staff of the Department. (See DepEd
Organizational Chart.)
At present, the Department operates with four Undersecretaries in the areas of: (1)
Programs and Projects; (2) Regional Operations; (3) Finance and Administration; and (4)
Legal Affairs; four Assistant Secretaries in the areas of: (1) Programs and Projects; (2)
Planning and Development; (3) Budget and Financial Affairs; and (4) Legal Affairs.
Backstopping the Office of the Secretary at the Central Office are the different
services, bureaus and centers. The five services are the Administrative Service, Financial
and Management Service, Human Resource Development Service, Planning Service, and
Technical Service. Three staff bureaus provide assistance in formulating policies,
standards, and programs related to curriculum and staff development. These are the
Bureau of Elementary Education (BEE), Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE), and the
Bureau of Nonformal Education (BNFE). By virtue of Executive Order No. 81 series of
1999, the functions of a fourth bureau, the Bureau of Physical Education and School
Sports (BPESS), were absorbed by the Philippine Sports Commission (PSC) last August
25, 1999.
Six centers or units attached to the Department similarly provide technical and
administrative support towards the realization of the Department’s vision. These are the
National Education Testing and Research Center (NETRC), Health and Nutrition Center
(HNC), National Educators Academy of the Philippines (NEAP), Educational
Development Projects Implementing Task Force (EDPITAF), National Science Teaching
Instrumentation Center (NSTIC), and Instructional Materials Council Secretariat (IMCS).
There are four special offices under OSEC: the Adopt-a-School Program Secretariat,
Center for Students and Co-curricular Affairs, Educational Technology Unit, and the Task
Force Engineering Assessment and Monitoring.
Other attached and support agencies to the Department are the Teacher Education
Council (TEC), Philippine High School for the Arts, Literacy Coordinating Council
(LCC), and the Instructional Materials Council (IMC).
At the sub-national level, the Field Offices consist of the following:
1. Sixteen (16) Regional Offices, including the Autonomous Region in Muslim

Mindanao (ARMM*), each headed by a Regional Director (a Regional Secretary
in the case of ARMM);
2. One hundred fifty-seven (157) Provincial and City Schools Divisions, each
headed by a Schools Division Superintendent. Assisting the Schools Division
Offices are 2,227 School Districts, each headed by a District Supervisor;
3. Under the supervision of the Schools Division Offices are forty-eight thousand,
four hundred forty-six (48, 446) schools, broken down as follows:
1. 40,763 elementary schools (36,234 public and 4,529 private)
2. 7,683 secondary schools (4,422 public and 3,261 private)
MAJOR LEGAL BASES
The Philippine Constitutions

1. 1935 CONST. Article XIV Section 5
2. 1973 CONST. Article XV Section 8 (1-8)
3. 1987 CONST. Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
THE 1987 CONSTITUTIONS
Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
Section 1. The state shall protect and promote the right of all the citizens to quality
education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible
to all.
Section 2. The state shall:
1. Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system of

education relevant to the needs of the people and society;
2. Establish and maintain s system of free public education in the elementary and
high school levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their
children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age;
3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs,
subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in
both public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged;
4. Encourage non- formal, informal and indigenous learning system, as well as self-
learning independent and out-of-school study programs particularly those that
respond to community needs; and
5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in
civics, vocational efficiency and skills.
Section 3.
1. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of
the curricula.
2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect
for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical
development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen
ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline,
encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological
knowledge and promote efficiency.
3. At the option expressed in writing by the parent or guardians, religion shall be
allowed to be taught to their children or wards in the public elementary and high
schools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or approved by
the religious authorities of the religion to which the children or wards belong,
additional cost to the Government.
Section 4.
1. The state recognizes the complementary roles of the public and private
institutions in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision
and regulation of all educational institutions.
2. Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and
mission boards, shall be allowed solely by citizens of the Philippines or
corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is
owned by such citizens. The Congress may, however, require increased Filipino
equity participation in all educational institutions. The control and administration
of educational institutions shall vested in citizens of the Philippines. No
educational institution shall be established exclusively for aliens and no group of
aliens shall comprise more than one third of the enrollment in any school. The
provisions of this subsection shall not apply to schools established for foreign
diplomatic personnel and their dependents and, unless otherwise provided by law,
for other foreign temporary residents.
3. All revenues and assets of non- stock, non- profit educational institutions used
actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from
taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution or cessation of the corporate existence of
such institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the manner provided by law.
Proprietary educational institutions, including those cooperatively owned, may
likewise be entitled to such exemptions subject to the limitations provided by law
including restrictions on dividends and provisions for reinvestment.
4. Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants endowments, donations or
contributions used actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall
be exempt from tax.
Section 5.
1. The State shall take into account regional and sectoral needs and conditions and
shall encourage local planning in the development of educational policies and
programs.
2. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning.
3. Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair,
reasonable and equitable admission and academic requirements.
4. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. Non-
teaching academic and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the protection of the
State.
5. The State shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that
teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents
through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and
fulfillment.
BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232 (THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1982)
This was an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system
of education. In accordance with Section 2, this act shall apply to and govern both formal
and non- formal system in public and private schools in all levels of the entire
educational system.
As provided by this Act, the national development goals are as follows:

1. To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and social
progress.
2. To assure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and
enjoyment of the benefits of such growth; and
3. To achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve, develop
and promote desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in changing world.
It is also stated in Section 3 that:
The State shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education,
regardless of sex, age, creed socio- economic status, physical and mental conditions,
racial or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation. The State shall therefore promote and
maintain equality of access to education as well as the benefits of education by all its
citizens.
RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section 9)
1. The right to receive competent instruction, relevant quality education.

2. The right to freely choose their field of study subject to the existing curricula and
continue their course up to graduation, except in cases of academic deficiency or
violations of disciplinary regulations.
3. The right to school guidance and counseling services.
4. The right to access to his owns school records and the confidentiality of it.
5. The right to issuance of official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records,
grades, transfer credentials and similar document within thirty days from request.
6. The right to publish a student newspaper and invite resource persons during
symposia, assemblies and other activities.
7. The right to free expression of opinions and suggestions and to effective channels
of communication with appropriate academic and administrative bodies of the
school or institutions.
8. The right to form or establish, join and participate in organizations and societies
recognized by the school…, or to form, join and maintain organizations and
societies for purposes not contrary to law.
9. The right to be free from involuntary contributions except those approved by their
organizations and societies.
RIGHT OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL (Section 10)
1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions.

2. To be provided with free legal service by the appropriate government office in
case of public school personnel and the school authorities concerned in case of
private school personnel, when charged in administrative, civil and/or criminal
proceedings, by parties other than the school authorities concerned, for actions
committed directly in the lawful discharged of professional duties and/or in
defense of school policies.
3. Establish join, maintain labor organization of their choice to promote their welfare
and defend their interest.
4. To be free from involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own
organizations.
SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PRIVILEGES OF TEACHING OR ACADEMIC

STAFF (Section 11)
1. Right to be free compulsory assignment not related to their duties defined in their
appointment or employment contracts unless compensated thereof. (additional
compensation Sec. 14 R.A. 4670- at least 25% his regular remuneration)
2. Right to intellectual property………
3. Teachers are persons in authority when in lawful discharge of duties and
responsibilities… shall therefore be accorded due respect and protection
(Commonwealth Act No. 578)
4. Teachers shall be given opportunity to choose career alternatives for
advancements.
RIGHTS OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12)
1. School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the lawful

discharge of their duties and responsibilities…. Shall be accorded due respect and
protection (Commonwealth Act No. 578)
RIGHTS OF SCHOOLS (Section 13)
1. The right of their governing boards…….to adopt and enforce administrative or

management systems.
2. The right of institutions of higher learning to determine on academic grounds who
shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and who shall be the subjects of the
study and research.
MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION
1. Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29)

2. Teachers and Administrators obligations and qualification (Sections 176 and 17)
3. Government Financial Assistance to Private Schools (Section 41)
OTHER LEGAL BASES
1. Act No. 74
This law was enacted on January 21, 1901 by the Philippine Commission, and provided:
a. establishment of the Department of Public Instruction headed by the General

superintendent
b. the archipelago was divided into school divisions and districts for effective
management of the school system.
c. English was made as medium of instruction in all levels of schooling
d. optional religious instructions in all schools (Section 16)
e. establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine College of Arts and Trade-

PCAT now known as Technological University of the Philippines), a school of
Agriculture in Negros, a Normal school in Manila (Philippine Normal School) (Section
18) Philippine Normal School, however, was renamed Philippine Normal College (PNC)
by virtue of Republic Act No. 416 on June 18, 1949. And on December 26, 1991, the
PNC was converted to Philippine Normal University as provided by Republic Act No.
7168.
2. Act No. 2706
This was known as the “Private School Law”, enacted on March 10, 1917 by the
Philippine Legislature, which made obligatory the recognition and inspection of private
schools and colleges by the Secretary of Public Instruction so as to maintain a standard of
efficiency in all private schools and colleges in the country.
This law was amended by Commonwealth Act No. 180 passed on November 13, 1936
which provided that:
The Secretary of Public Instruction was vested with power to “supervise, inspect
and regulate said schools and colleges in order to determine the efficiency of instruction
given in the same.”
And all private schools come under the supervision and regulation of the
Secretary of DPI, thus eliminating “diploma mills” and substandard schools.
3. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A. 9163)
Known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the Philippine Assembly on

December 21, 1935, which provided in Section 81 that:
“Preparatory Military training shall be given with the youth in the elementary
grade school at the age of ten years and shall extend through the remainder of his
schooling into college or post-secondary education.
By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late President Marcos on

August 8, 1980, otherwise known as the “National Service Law”, Commonwealth Act
No. 1 was amended, and required all citizens to render, civic welfare service, law
enforcement service and military service.
4. Commonwealth Act No. 80
This law created the Office of Adult Education on October 26, 1936, so as to
eliminate illiteracy and to give vocational and citizenship training to adult citizens of the
country.
Enacted on June 8, 1940, conferred the status of “persons in authority” upon the
teachers, professors, and persons charged with the supervision of public or duly
recognized private schools, colleges and universities.
This Act also provided a penalty of imprisonment ranging from six months and
one day to six years and a fine ranging from 500 to 1, 000 pesos upon any person found
guilty of assault upon those teaching personnel.
6. Commonwealth Act No. 586 (Repealed by R.A. 896)
This is known as Education Act of 1940. It was approved on August 7, 1940 by the
Philippine Assembly.
The law provided for the following:
a. reduction of seven- year elementary course to six- year elementary course.

b. fixing the school entrance age to seven.
c. national support of elementary education.
d. compulsory attendance in the primary grades for all children who enroll in Grade I.
e. introduction of double- single session- one class in the morning and another in the
afternoon under one teacher to accommodate more children.
This law, approved on August 19, 1940, established a school ritual in all public
and private elementary and secondary schools in the Philippines.
The ritual consists of solemn and patriotic ceremonies that include the singing of
the National Anthem and Patriotic Pledges.
8. Republic Act No. 139 (Repealed by R. A. 8047)
Enacted on June 14, 1947, and the Board of Textbooks. This law provided that all
public schools must only use books that are approved by the Board for a period of six
years from the date of their adoption. The private schools may use books of their choice,
provided the Board of Textbooks has no objections with those books.
9. Republic Act No. 896
Enacted on June 20, 1953 and known as the Elementary Education Act of 1953, it
repealed Commonwealth Act 586 and provided for the following:
a. restoration of Grade VII (but never implemented due to lack of funds)

b. abolition of the double- single session and return to the former practice of only one
c. class under one teacher in the primary and three teachers to two classes or five teachers
to three classes in the intermediate level
d. compulsory completion of the elementary grades
e. compulsory enrollment of children in the public schools upon attaining seven years of
age.
10. Republic Act No. 1124 (Repealed by R. A. 7722)
Approved on June 16, 1954, this law created the Board of National Education
charged with the duty of formulating general educational policies and directing the
educational interests of the nation.
However, this Board which was later renamed National Board of Education (P.D.
No. 1), was abolished bu virtue of the Creation of the board of Higher Education as
stipulated in Batas Pambansa Blg. 232. The Board’s function is now assumed by the
commission on Higher Education or CHED by virtue of Republic Act No. 7722.
11. Republic Act No. 1265 (amended by R. A. 8491)
This law was approved on June 11, 1955, and provided that a daily flag ceremony
shall be compulsory in all educational institutions. This includes the singing of the
Philippine National Anthem.
It was approved on June 12, 1956, it prescribed the inclusion in the curricula of all
schools, both public and private, from elementary schools to the universities, the life,
works and writings of Jose Rizal especially the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
Known as the “Magna Carta for Public School Teachers”. This was approved on
June 18, 1966 to promote and improve the social and economic status of public school
teachers, their living and working conditions, their employment and career prospects.
It also provided the following:
1. Recruitment qualifications for teachers

2. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
3. Teaching hours- 6 hours of classroom teaching (maximum load)
4. Additional compensation- 25% of the regular remuneration
5. Health and injury benefits (thru the GSIS)
6. One year study leave (sabbatical leave) after seven years of continuous teaching,
the teacher should receive 60% of the monthly salary.
7. One range salary increase upon retirement (basis computing the retirement fee).
8. Freedom to form organizations.
Approved on June 15, 1959, it provided that Civil Service eligibility shall be
permanent and shall have no time limit.
Known as the “Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988”, it was approved
on May 26, 1988 and provided for:
a. Free public secondary education to all qualified citizens and promote quality education
at all level.
b. No tuition or other fees shall be collected except fees related to membership in the
school community such I.D., student organization and publication.
c. Non- payment of these shall not hinder a student from enrollment or graduation.
d. Nationalization of all public secondary schools (Section7)
e. A student who fails in majority of his academic subjects for two consecutive years
could no longer avail of their program.
Parent, Family, Community Involvement in Education
Parents, families, educators and communities—there’s no better partnership to

assure that all students pre-K- to high school—have the support and resources
they need to succeed in school and in life.
School board policy serves several functions. Policy development is best viewed
as a change process. At the classroom and school level, parent and community
involvement may be occurring because individual teachers or the school staff are
exploring new, promising practices. However, individual efforts cannot succeed over time
without supportive school board policy leadership. The challenge for school systems lies
in implementing and institutionalizing effective approaches in all schools. Effective
policy leadership is a way of taking effective practice and making it available for all
students in all schools.
Writing a new policy does not guarantee change in practice or parent support.
Policy leadership requires the combined efforts of trustees, students, teachers and the
community. This will be more likely to happen if policy development is treated as a
process - an opportunity to begin an ongoing dialogue with the community - rather than
as an end in itself. The process of developing the policy may be more important than the
policy itself for it is the process that develops awareness, interest, and ownership. The
resulting policy then reflects commonly understood and supported practice.
An effective policy provides the vision--clear direction--with room for choice in

the actions taken. The emphasis is on achieving a successful outcome rather than
mandating the vehicle that will take you there.
The process used to develop the policy is the first step in creating a climate that
encourages openness and fosters a positive approach. Policy that is developed behind
closed doors, then laid on will do little to model or encourage the attitude that is needed
to open the school to the wider community. The classroom has the potential to be an
isolated island--opening the door is an important step.
Knowing your community, the current situation, and having vision provides the
base for a policy that increases involvement within the unique context of your
community.
Ideal parent and family involvement varies with each school community; there is no one
right answer. The answer that is right for your community is the one that works.
Throughout the document and appendix you will find ideas that have worked for others.
They may be inspirational as your policy process begins.
Shirley Adams is always at the school. She helps in the library. She is the room
mother for all of her children. She is president of the Home and School Association. She
drives for any class trip. Oh -- and she often leaves delicious recess snacks in the staff
room when they seem to be needed most.
The Browns talk to their children at home about school. They look at their
homework. They read the school newsletters. They sign report cards. They can be
counted on to turn up at parent-teacher interviews.
Ann Blake works full-time. She doesn't have time to come to the school. She is
tired. And she needs support herself, for raising her three young children on her own.
However, she has talked with her employer about the importance of family and
community partnerships in education. Her employer often contributes surplus resources
to the school and encourages work experience placements.
Every once in a while Mr. Smith storms in and demands to know why his child
was kept after school. After a few stormy sessions, Mr. Smith can also be counted on to
help with special events and programs.
The Johnson children used to come to school sporadically. Some days they were
late. Some days they were hungry; some days they were tired. Since Gramma moved in
the children attend much more regularly. The family makes use of the breakfast program
and the school's clothing depot.
Consider these brief case studies as they relate to the following continuum:
Some parents involve themselves in their children's educations in other ways, outside of
the public system.
Mr. and Mrs. Smith have decided to move their children to a private school in the
area. They feel that the private school offers a better education for their children.
The Jones children are educated at home.
Involvement takes many different forms and means different things to different
people. "Today I helped out in my son's kindergarten class. I helped children print their
stories, cleared the craft table, fetched the film projector, baked a cake and served it, kept
the activities area stocked, and helped children get dressed at recess. I talked to the
teacher about my son's interest in building a playhouse, and followed up on comments
made on his report card.
Today I also followed up on a proposal made to our local school board for an
alternative program for primary-aged children. Later in the day I met with other parents
interested in organizing a community spring festival.
My son and I also read stories after visiting the library today. We emptied his backpack
and went over the things he brought home from kindergarten. We also read the school
newsletter together. At suppertime we played adding and subtracting games with our
vegetables. And before bed we read a few more stories."
This case study illustrates several ways in which a parent might be involved in their
child's education.
 Family outings to the library

 Reading stories and books together
 Reviewing school work
 Planning community group activities
 Exploring program options
 Playing games together
 Sharing school news
All of these things indicate to the child that the parent is interested in school and
thinks that it is important.
More specifically, parent involvement can be categorized in the following way:

(Epstein, 1989):
Parenting
Parenting would include such things as providing for physical and emotional
needs, discipline, a climate that nurtures the development of self-esteem and social skills,
self-esteem, social skills, security, understanding, providing well balanced meals and
making sure that the child gets enough sleep. Providing a healthy, stable environment
enables children to get the most from their education.
Communicating
This would include things such as reading newsletters at home, attending

parent/teacher conferences, commenting on students' work when it is sent home, talking
to teachers and school when "challenges" arise and when good things are happening, and
enquiring about school activities.
Volunteering
Volunteering includes driving for class trips, helping at school, chaperoning

dances, working in the library, being a room parent, doing photocopying or fundraising,
flooding the hockey rink or tying skates, warming up the computers in the classroom, or
providing an opportunity for work experience in the community.
Learning at Home
This would include things like helping with homework and projects, arranging
educational family trips and outings, reading to children regularly, and playing games
together.
Advocating for and with Other Parents
Representing other parents includes being on the Parent/Teacher Association or

Home and School Association, being a member of an advisory council or committee,
working with an independent advocacy group or being a local or division board member.
Parents must be allowed to pursue involvement in ways that are appropriate to their
needs. Parents may have concerns at different levels. For example:
1. Individual
If an individual parent has a personal concern about a particular instance
involving their child, it is most appropriate to approach the teacher or principal directly to
discuss concerns.
2. Parent Group
Involvement regarding broader issues such as curriculum, school climate or
policies regarding behavior, are most appropriately handled through a parent group.
The importance of having a parent group cannot be understated. The objective of

the parent group can vary from school to school; however, the underlying objective
should be the well-being of all students.
A strong parent group can:
create and maintain good communication between students, parents and teachers
support the school, helping to improve the quality of education identify needs of the
particular school and communicate concerns and recommendations to the school board
inform parents of new ideas in education encourage and expand community involvement
in educational affairs utilize the resources of the community to support new programs
raise funds to be used for the betterment of the school, families and community
coordinate volunteer efforts. Parent involvement must or should be encouraged; but all
involvement whether individual or part of a group must be governed by a parent's code of
ethics
Benefits of Parent and Family Involvement
Henderson and Berla (1994) discuss the benefits of parent and family
involvement for students, schools, and the parents themselves:
Student Benefits: "The studies have documented these benefits for students:
Higher grades and test scores. Better attendance and more homework done.
Fewer placements in special education. More positive attitudes and behavior.
Higher graduation rates. Greater enrollment in postsecondary education."
School Benefits: "Schools and communities also profit. Schools that work well
with families have:
 Improved teacher morale.
 Higher ratings of teachers by parents.
 More support from families.
 Higher student achievement.
 Better reputations in the community."
Parent Benefits: "Parents develop more confidence in the school. The teachers
they work with have higher opinions of them as parents and higher expectations of their
children, too. As a result, parents develop more confidence not only about helping their
children learn at home, but about themselves as parents. Furthermore, when parents
become involved in their children's education, they often enroll in continuing education
to advance their own schooling.
History of the Philippine Educational System
Education in the Philippines evolved from early settlers to the present.

Education in the country is in great importance because it is the primary avenue for
upward social and economic mobility. Philippine educational system has a very deep
history from the past in which it has undergone several stage of development going to
the present system of education.
Education from Ancient Early Filipinos
The education of pre-Spanish time in the Philippines was informal and

unstructured. The fathers taught their sons how to look for food and other means of
livelihood. The mothers taught their girls to do the household chores. This education
basically prepared their children to became good husband and wives.
Early Filipino ancestors valued education very much. Filipino men and
women knows how to read and write using their own native alphabet called alibata.
The alibata was composed of 17 symbols representing the letters of the alphabet.
Among these seventeen symbols were three vowels and fourteen consonants.
Educational System During Spanish Period

The educational system of the Philippines during the Spanish times was
formal. The Religious congregations paved the way in establishing schools from the
primary level to the tertiary level of education. The schools focused on the Christian
Doctrines. There was a separate school for boys and girls. The wealthy Filipinos or the
Ilustrados were accommodated in the schools. Colonial education brought more non-
beneficial effects to the Filipinos.
Educational Decree 1863

The first educational system for students in the country was established by
virtue of the Education Decree of 1863. In furtherance, the decree required the
government to provide school institutions for boys and girls in every town. As a
consequence, the Spanish schools started accepting Filipino students. It was during this
time when the intellectual Filipinos emerged. The Normal School was also established
which gave men the opportunity to study a three-year teacher education for the
primary level.
Educational System During American Period

Like the Spaniards, the Americans brought many changes in their 45 years
of reign in the country. Until now, these American influences can still be seen in our
lifestyle or way of life.
The Commonwealth provided free education in public schools all over the
country, in accordance with the 1935 constitution. Education also emphasized
nationalism so the students were taught about the life of the Filipino heroes. Vocational
education and some household activities like sewing, cooking, and farming were also
given importance. Good manners and discipline were also taught to the students. The
institute of Private Education was established in order to observe private schools. In
1941, the total number of students studying in the 400 private schools in the country
reached 10,000. There was also the existence of "Adult Education" in order to give
formal education even to adults.
Changes in Education During the Japanese Occupation

The government made some changes in the system of education in February,
1942. These changes were:
 To stop depending on western countries like the U.S., and Great Britain.
Promote and enrich the Filipino culture.
 To recognize that the Philippines is a part of the Greater East Asia Co-
Prosperity Sphere so that the Philippines and Japan will have good relations.
 To be aware of materialism to raise the morality of the Filipinos.
 To learn and adopt Nippongo and to stop using the English language.
 To spread elementary and vocational education.
 To develop love for work.
Educational System in the Present Period
Philippine education is patterned after the American system, with English
as the medium of instruction. Schools are classified into public (government) or
private (non-government). The general pattern of formal education follows four stages:
Pre-primary level (nursery, kindergarten and preparatory) offered in most private
schools; six years of primary education, followed by four years of secondary
education.
College education usually takes four, sometimes five and in some cases as
in medical and law schools, as long as eight years. Graduate schooling is an additional
two or more years. Classes in Philippine schools start in June and end in March.
Colleges and universities follow the semestral calendar from June-October and
November-March. There are a number of foreign schools with study programs similar
to those of the mother country. An overall literacy rate was estimated at 95.9 percent
for the total population in 2003, 96 % for males and 95.8 % for females.
Non-Formal and Formal Education

Formal education – Organized, guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a
formally recognized credential such as a high school completion diploma or a degree, and
is often guided and recognized by government at some level. Teachers are usually trained
as professionals in some way.
Non-formal learning – Organized (even if it is only loosely organized), may or

may not be guided by a formal curriculum. This type of education may be led by a
qualified teacher or by a leader with more experience. Though it doesn’t result in a
formal degree or diploma, non-formal education is highly enriching and builds an
individual’s skills and capacities. Continuing education courses are an example for adults.
Girl guides and boy scouts are an example for children. It is often considered more
engaging, as the learner’s interest is a driving force behind their participation.
The debate over the relative value of formal and informal learning has existed for
a number of years. Traditionally formal learning that takes place in a school or university
and has a greater value placed upon it than informal learning, such as learning within the
workplace. This concept of formal learning being the socio-cultural accepted norm for
learning was first challenged by Scribner and Cole[4] in 1973, who claimed most things
in life are better learnt through informal processes, citing language learning as an
example. Moreover, anthropologists noted that complex learning still takes place within
indigenous communities that had no formal educational institutions.
It’s the acquisition of this knowledge or learning which occurs in everyday life
that has not been fully valued or understood. This led to the declaration the by OECD
educational ministers of the "life-long learning for all" strategy in 1996. This includes 23
countries from five continents, who have sought to clarify and validate all forms of
learning including formal, non-formal and informal. This has been in conjunction with
the European Union which has also developed policies for life-long learning which focus
strongly on the need to identify, assess and certify non-formal and informal learning,
particularly in the workplace.
Whatever your view on education, it is clear that schools are one of the most
important agents of secondary socialisation. Peer groups and teachers have a major
impact upon the socialisation of schoolchildren. In the case of the former, such groups
exert “peer pressure” which influence students to conform to various norms and values.
These values often take the form of a subculture within a school. For example, one of the
reasons why boys under-perform at school is due to “lad culture” – where it is considered
cool to act in a boisterous manner. Boys can sometimes form a subculture which turns the
wider norms and values of school on their head.
You also need to know something about the impact of labeling. Teachers often label
students in terms of either good or bad, which can result in a “self-fulfilling prophecy”.
This occurs in two ways;
 Students labeled as ‘good’ often perform well at school. They tend to respond
well to the high expectations of teachers
 Students labeled as ‘bad’ may think they have little hope of being seen in a good
way. As such, they rebel against the culture of the school and behave in a rude and
disruptive manner.
There are various factors that might influence labels, such as ethnicity and social class.
For example the sociologist Albert Cohen identified “status frustration” amongst
working-class boys. This occurs when boys wish to gain the approval of their friends,
rather than the approval of their teachers.
Educational System: Political Dimensions and Governance
Analysis on governance dimensions encompasses positive analysis derived from

theory as well as propositions concerning what government ought to be doing (i.e.
analysis of normative propositions) on the achievement of development outcomes. Both
kinds of research are useful in the analysis and design of governance systems. One has to
bear in mind the complications of governance research, given their broad coverage and
complexity. Our approach is more modest and more realistic in the analysis and
interpretation with respect to three dimensions of governance: political, institutional and
technology governance dimensions.
Our analysis for governance dimensions pertains to five years covering the period
from 1996 to 2004 due to availability of comparable data. Comparable countries are
chosen from South Asia, South East Asia. Some developed countries are also included in
our country sample.
The Political Governance Dimension in Philippines
As mentioned earlier, political governance refers to a country’s voice and

accountability, political stability and government effectiveness. If political governance
deteriorates or remains at a low level, it may be reflected in work disruptions, and a poor
environment for protecting the rights and freedom of the common citizen. The result may
be in chaos.
Within South Asia, political governance of Philippines is better than in Pakistan

and Sri Lanka but lower than in the other larger economy, India. In comparison to
Southeast Asia, Philippines did better than Indonesia but significantly worse than the
other economies, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Singapore the performance of
Philippines’s political governance deteriorates despite having a democratically elected
government in power. Over the years from 1998 to 2004, political governance dimensions
portray a dismal picture. There was some improvement in political governance from 1996
to 1998. It indicates that the political governance in Philippines is a problem and political
institutions are becoming increasingly dysfunctional due to imperfections prevailing in
political markets. Domestic political industries happen to be more inefficient. Political
industries, where entrepreneurs are political leaders, do not perform in a reasonable
degree of order. As a consequence, good governance is impeded.
The worsening political governance may be a reflection of popular dissatisfaction

with the performance of the government in power. It may be noted that the index of
political stability, one element of political governance, goes down by 39 per cent over the
period from 1998 to 2004. The adverse result is due to the main influence of the
confrontational politics and non-democratic interventions in political life. There were a
number of politically related hartals (work stoppages) in the country.
During the latter half of the 1991-96 period, there was a longer period of strikes to
institutionalize a caretaker government after the tenure of five-year period to conduct
national elections within three months. An amendment was made to the constitution in
1996 for holding such free and fair elections under a non-partisan, caretaker government.
The then opposition Awami League (AL) came to power in 1996 in the fresh election
held under caretaker government. The political trouble started again on different political
grounds in latter half of 1997 and it continues. The opposition Philippines Nationalist
Party boycotted parliament and there have been a series of hartals. After 5-year term,
national election was held under caretaker government in October 2001. The opposition
Philippines Nationalist Party (BNP) was elected to power. Their term will end on October
2006. Political difficulties and troubles emerged again on a variety of political grounds
such as for the reform of caretaker government and the election process. Out of three
consecutive elections, the opposition was elected to power twice.
A viable two party system prevails now in Philippines, with the Awami League
(AL) and Philippines Nationalist Party (BNP). There is a lack of democratic practice
within each party and efficient people are not being placed in the deserved positions. The
party head is chosen based on historical inheritance.
Political governance in Philippines is about exercising different types of power –

executive, legislative and judiciary. Power is centralized in the hands of cabinet and head
of the government to exert authority and undue power. The head of the government and
the party in power behaves as if he/she has dictatorial power and can function without
being accountable. Organizations such as Accountability Bureau, and the Comptroller
General’s office serve more as the agents of the governments in power than autonomous,
non-partisan bodies. Political patronage and weak autonomy of the law enforcing
agencies have caused these bodies to often serve as instruments of control and sources of
harassment of the opposition political parties and the civil society.
The legislature and judiciary have been relatively weak compared to the
executive. The lower levels of judiciary are subject to political patronage and corruption.
Within the civil administration, the head of the government and the cabinet exercise
almost all authority. Local governments are very weak with very little administrative and
financial authority. The political parties coming to power politicize the bureaucrats.
Public Administrative Reform Commission, formed few years ago, placed some
recommendations for ensuring effective administration, which have not been
implemented.
The military had a tremendous influence on politics, civilian decision-making and

patronage. The civilian leaders took cognizance of the military to get support on their
side. Senior positions in the government, public enterprises and public banks, and
allocations of urban land at heavily subsidized rates are offered to them.
Street politics with money and political hooligans ('Mastans') are significant
factors in Philippines politics. The parliament is largely ineffective due to long series of
hartals, parliamentary boycott and street policies. Mastans backed by powerful political
personnel organize hartals, mobilize political money by force, and when necessary kidnap
and kill political opponents. They are also utilized to gather votes based on threats over
life and property. In the 1990s, the mastans caused a near breakdown of the law and order
situation. In immediate past, there were grenade attack on the opposition AL rally killing
so many persons, including the British envoy to Philippines, killing of former finance
minister, death of 21 persons by suicide squads including judges and lawyers, and
simultaneous bomb blasts in 61 out of 64 districts. There was some improvement in 2005
due to prompt actions by the elite Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) against hardcore
criminals, but a number of deaths in their custody and in encounters, and emergence of
radical Islamic Party with simultaneous bomb blasts throughout the country in 2005,
triggered protests from human right organizations from abroad.
Impact on economy:
The concern with poor political governance has affected domestic resource
mobilization. Philippines has one of the lowest tax-GDP ratios in the world --- the lowest
in South Asia. Raising domestic resource mobilization will raise public investments for
infrastructural developments.
In every year, experience shows that there is a revenue shortfall from target with
under performance of Annual development program (ADP) and over spending in current
expenditure. Under utilization of ADP has been a regular feature since the early nineties.
Political Governance failure causes high tax evasion and may be responsible for failure to
recover non-performing loans, which are at present 25 percent of total loans. Poor ADP
utilization is not simply a problem of resource scarcity but also of implementation failure,
which is related to some extent with governance failures.
The deterioration in political governance has an effect on other economic and

social fronts such as education and health sectors (see section 4.2). Public institutions
through which government delivers services will be in jeopardy. As a result, almost the
whole masses of the country have been affected. A malfunctioning democratic system is
not a conducive environment for the entrepreneurs (who want political stability) for long-
term investment.
Political governance has been most dominant in defining the relative balance of
roles between public and private sectors. The present BNP government’s ability to close
down the Adamjee Jute Mills (which incur loss Tk. 5 million per day) is a positive step
forward, although a generous program of compensation tackled the opposition by labor.
Although macroeconomic performance has been better, there are emerging risks
of declining performance due to stagnation of the revenue effort. It might be relevant in
this context to quote the following:
"The restoration of pluralist system since 1991 has not fulfilled the promise of
accountable governance. Secularism was not only eliminated as a pillar of the
constitution but we have since become more communal and intolerant of the
rights of minorities in our society." (Sobhan 2004)
Philippines is yet to develop a modern system of political governance through a

process of debate and consultation. The main factors as emerged to improve political
governance, seem to be as follows:
 Independence of Judiciary: Law should not subject to government.

 Effective Parliamentary System: The parliament cannot be paralyzed and be made
to play effective control over administration.
 Office of the Ombudsman: The Ombudsman Act is to be enforced to play
important role for ensuring political governance.
 Independent Anti-corruption Commission: Anti-corruption commission set up by
the government over more than 35 months is to be allowed to function. This
should not be to just show to international donors.
 Effective media to perform vigilance functions: Distribution of government
advertisements to the media should not be used to control media.
The Institutional Dimension of Governance in Philippines
The institutional environment in an economy is fundamental to the development

process. The perceptions of the institutions (for definition, see appendix) are likely to be
of key importance in shaping overall conditions for investment and growth. Good
institutions (quality of private and public institutions) lead to higher incomes, stronger
growth, and lower volatility in GDP growth. As stated in section 4.1, good political
governance can ease the problem of transforming dysfunctional institutions into good
institutions.
The economic literature has mainly focused on public institutions. Available

empirical research confirms the importance of public institutions as key determinants of
the current level of GDP per capita. But private institutions are no less important
elements in the creation of wealth. Quality and transparency of private institutions are
crucial for economic efficiency. The quality of a country’s public and private institutions
constitutes the framework within which the economy’s main players such as private
individuals, firms, and governments interact to generate income and wealth. Regarding
the public sector, factors such as the strength of the property rights environment, the
prevalence of crime, and its impact on business costs are all of critical importance.
Business cannot be carried out efficiently in an economy where property rights are poorly
defined. Lack of transparency and corruption undermines business confidence and entails
misallocation of resources resulting in a welfare loss to society.
In our study, we have used both public institutions index and all institutions index
(includes both private and public together). there are 27 elements used in constructing
public institutions index, which are grouped into two subcomponents: contracts and law,
and corruption. Private institutions have four components: honesty of the corporate
sector, accountability, transparency, charity and social responsibility. There is no separate
index available for private institutions from the World Economic Forum.
We now benchmark the institutional scores of Philippines compared to the

countries under study provide performance of public institution indices for different
countries over three years from 2003/04-2005-06. Philippines’s score is the lowest of all
the countries including South Asian and East Asian Countries. Similar results are
observed in the performance of all institutions. It may be noted that the performance of
public institutions improves very marginally from 2003/04 to 2005/06. The lowest
performance index on public institution aspect serves as a grim reminder of the
governance problems in which the country is enmeshed. A government works through
public institutions to deliver services. When the public institution component is classified
into contracts and law, and corruption subcomponents, the result does not seem to
improve. As can be seen, the performance on contract and law declines from 2003-04 to
2004-05 and then marginally increases in 2005-06. The corruption index in public
institution component provides the gloomiest picture, although its performance improves
marginally over the years. The Transparency International rates Philippines as the most
corrupt country in the world for five consecutive years due to the institutional problems.
Corruption is partly a reflection of underlying weak institutions. Corruption is

often defined as the use of public office for private gains. There are cases of abuse of
private office for private gains (corporate scandals in USA and Europe, excess export
subsidies drawn in Philippines from government, etc.). Different indices of corruption
from different sources are likely to be correlated. Corruption mostly originates in large
government procurements, purchases and in the provision of public service delivery
programs. There is a need to do favor to private financiers for financing party and
electoral activities. Corruption acting like a tax reduces foreign direct investment, has
adverse effects on economic growth by lowering incentives to invest, and
disproportionately burdens the poor. The annual rate of procurement is estimated about
10 per cent of GDP (around $ 3 billion) (Ahmed 2002). In Philippines, as other countries,
the problems of nepotism and perverse client-patron relationships and bribery, deprive the
most efficient firms.
There is a plenty of evidence of corruption in the provision of public services in

Philippines. TIB study (2005) based on nation-wide household survey in 9 sectors in
Philippines provides information on the incidence of corruption as a consequence of the
weak public institutions. It has been found that an average Philippinesi paid Taka 485
taka per year as bribes. The bribes paid by households for 25 service categories within the
9 sectors (education, health, land administration, police, judiciary, electricity, taxation,
local government- shalish & relief, and pension) are Taka 6,796 crore.
It may be worthwhile to highlight institutional problems and the underlying
corruption therein in a few sectors of public services, such as education, health and port
services. These sectors are chosen in view of their importance in the national economy
with regard to trade, poverty alleviation and attaining Millennium Development (MDG)
goals. Out of 10 targets set for 2015, four are health related targets (infant and child
mortality, under-nutrition, maternal mortality and reproductive health).
Education Service:
There are institutional problems in this education service at the primary and
secondary level (for example) in course of implementation of Stipend Scheme, as have
been pointed out (Background paper of PRSP, GOB). In some cases it is found that some
non-deserving families are included in the list of beneficiary students and getting
benefits, depriving some genuine poor. In some cases misappropriation of funds has been
found. False enrolment of a single student in several schools is observed at the same time.
False attendance of absentee students is noticed in the attendance registers. This is more
noticeable in the implementation of female stipend scheme in leakage, efficiency and
targeting. The female stipend scheme has raised the ratio of females to males in
secondary level institution to 52:48 from 34:66 in 1990. The rate of teenage marriage is
reduced and is retaining them in schools for longer period. The huge inclusion of girls not
satisfying the criteria may jeopardize the program.
TIB study (2005) has also found in education sector, 40% students at the primary
level had to pay admission fees at an average rate of Tk. 209 whereas it is supposed to be
free; 32.4% primary school students who were entitled for government stipend had to pay
Tk. 40 on an average for enrolment to receive the stipend. In case of girl students at the
secondary level 22% had to make similar payments at an average rate of Taka 45 for
government stipend.
The country still cannot ensure quality education, although there is significant
improvement in primary school enrollment compared to other developing countries. .
Government has to set basic education standard in Madrasha (religious education system)
as in other school. Quality graduate is not produced. The young people aged between 14
and 18 are easily attracted to extremism due to lack of quality education. The present
government has reduced unfair means at public examinations to a large extent as a
necessary drive for quality education.
Health care Service:
Good health promotes economic development. Improved health will bring higher
incomes, higher economic growth, and lower poverty. The institutional issues in relation
to health are to increase availability of doctors, nurses, drugs, facilities and safety net for
the poor. Institutional problems are associated with all levels of healthcare system.
Some gains in health outcomes in the areas of population control, reducing total
fertility rate, infant and child mortality and malnutrition over the decade. Its
immunization program has registered noticeable results. However, the pace of progress
has slowed down and outcome stagnates. Though the infant mortality rates (deaths under
age 1) decline over the years, the level remains high. The average life expectancy is
significantly lower. Only 40 per cent of the rural people have access to the public health
care. This indicates that a major proportion of population is out of public healthcare
service. Public health services are not the preferred choice for those who can afford
private health services. The poor have no choice but to rely on public services.
The institutional problems in the public health service provision result in poor
quality of services indicated by staff absenteeism, inadequate attention given by doctors,
non-availability of medicines and supplies, long waiting times, poor maintenance of
equipment and unhygienic conditions. In public health facilities, there is widespread
incidence of collection of unofficial user fees in hospital admission and other health
related service delivery. In most facilities, fees are widespread and almost
institutionalized. In some cases, especially surgical cases, fees can be as much as 10- 12
times the expected amount of official fees. The poor patients pay the unofficial fees
although the quality of public care is very poor (Mamud, S. 2004).
The World Bank/ Euro Health Study (2004) and other survey (e.g. Ghost Doctors,
absenteeism in Philippines health facilities, WB 2003) report widespread absenteeism of
doctors. A large majority (62%) of the outpatients reports that doctors are not available,
while 54% of support staff show hostile attitude. For inpatients, the figure is 44% and
32.2% respectively. Senior doctors of the hospital are found to attend private patients
within the facility or in their private chambers/clinics within working hours. The study
also finds that 24% of outpatients and 65% of inpatients paid unofficial fees and at
district level, it is as high as 94% of inpatients making unofficial payments (Mannan
2005).
TIB nation-wide survey in 2005 corroborates the above findings in that in health
sector, 26% outdoor patients had to pay bribes to doctors for receiving medical treatment
at the public hospital at an average rate of Taka 60 per visit. 20% indoor patients had to
pay bribes for the same purpose at a much higher rate of Taka 478 on an average. 37%
patients who had to undergo surgery in public hospital had to pay bribes at an average
rate of 1420 taka. 57% of patients who had an X-ray done from public hospital had to pay
Taka 516 on average as bribes.
The quality of health care (especially public health, including water quality) is
dependent on the quality of institutions. There remains much more to be done in quality
management of service provision to improve further aggregate heath indicators. It has
been suggested that partnership with NGO has played a positive role leading to
significant reduction in infant mortality. Basic health care needs to given priority instead
of tertiary care which should be left to the private health sector, which has emerged in
response to growing demand. A major policy weakness is the lack of effective regulatory
framework for private health care for quality control, accountability and affordability.
Infrastructure (Port)
The infrastructure situation is a significant constraint to a more rapid expansion of

economic activities in Philippines. Weak institutions resulting from political constraints
could not make desired progress on infrastructure development. Efficiency in the
utilization of ports can contribute significantly to the efficiency and competitiveness of
the economy as well as reducing trade costs and thereby enhancing export
competitiveness.
The weak institutional issues are mainly with operational problems resulting in
inefficiencies indicated by low productivity and high cost in port operation. The main
operational problems relate to poor service delivery, poor security, slowness in trade
facilitation (lengthy custom formalities, customs hassles etc.), complications in
submitting and clearing documents (lengthy and cumbersome procedures in the process
clearance, submission of documents to many desks etc.), problems in auctioning
unclaimed goods by customs. The vessel and container turn around time is very high
compared to regional ports, thus increasing operational costs for the users, especially the
shipping companies.
The cost of moving a container through Chittagong is estimated at $600 as

compared to norms of $150-300 in neighboring country ports (World Bank 1998). In
2003, average productivity of the Chittagong port was 196 moves per container vessel per
day compared with 220 moves per day in Kolkata, 225 moves per day in Cochin, and 295
moves per day in Mumbai. Therefore, institutional efficiency is much needed in the port
sector to improve Philippines’s competitiveness and promote export-led growth. There is
also restriction on setting up of private off docks within 20 KM from the port and
handling of import containers, thereby discouraging potential investors. Recently, in April
2006, all documentations for container clearance (done earlier at different points) have
now been brought at one point.
In land port, the situation is not different either. Transparency International,

Philippines diagnostic study (2005) revealed that officials and employees at the Banepole
Land port (BLP) extorted ‘speed money’ worth Tk. 1390 million between 2003-04 and
2004-05 Tk. 990 million went into pockets of custom officials while Tk. 400 million went
to the officials of Benepole port authority during the period under review. Further,
governance failure with regard to passport issuance procedures, have created scope for a
wholesale practice of taking bribes at the city’s passport office. The monthly volume of
such illegal pay-offs is around Tk. 26.4 million and a large portion of it goes into pockets
of the high officials of the department, in addition to an average of Tk. 1000 per
verification.
On the whole, the institutional problems associated with public service delivery
are severe. Poor political governance impacts badly on the institutions and vice versa.
The worsening institutions affect negatively the government delivery programs, and
generate corruption and slower economic growth. In Philippines, NGOs participate in the
delivery of social programs, thereby mitigating to a great extent the low efficiency and
high corruption of public service delivery. Public-private partnership with NGOs has a
great potential in Philippines for effective use of limited public resources.
Technology Dimension of Governance
Technological readiness, information and communication technologies (ICTs) and

technology transfer are sub-components of technology dimension under study in this
paper. They can play an important role in enhancing both political governance and
institutional governance dimensions, and can also be influenced by governance
dimension. They are one of the main driving forces to improve national competitiveness,
economic growth and have an impact on poverty reduction. As an example, ICT may
have an impact on poverty alleviation, (i) through distance education and greater
awareness efforts; (ii) due to malnutrition, unhygienic environment and lack of primary
health care privileges, through telemedicine bringing health care to rural areas. We
recognize that ICT dimension is more relevant to our study focusing on governance, but
governance issues are there in two sub-dimensions: technology transfer and technological
readiness.
As stated earlier in section 3, technological readiness (considered from global

competitiveness index) relates to the stock of available technology, which incorporates
also information and communication technologies (ICT) of the country but not
innovation (treated as separate component). ICT is seen as an umbrella term for a range
of technological applications such as computer hardware and software; digital broadcast
technologies; telecommunications technologies such as mobile phones as well as
electronic information resources such as the world-wide web and CD_ROM (Selwyn:
www.cardiff.ac.uk/socsi/ict). Technology transfer relates to the diffusion of practical
knowledge from one enterprise, institution or country to another. Technology may be
transferred by giving it away (eg, through technical journals or conferences); by theft
(e.g. industrial espionage); or by commercial transactions (eg, patents for industrial
processes) as well as through cross-national exchanges among components of
multinational enterprises. ( www.itcdonline.com/introduction/glossary2_q-z.html)
An attempt is made to assess the current position of Philippines in terms of

technological readiness, ICT and technology transfer. In all of the technology related
indices, Philippines’s position is below that of its neighbors and other countries under
study. The weak public institutions have an adverse effect on country’s ICT and other
technology related dimensions. This also reflects the fact that the country’s exports are
produced by low level of technology obtains lowest scores on export sophistication
among South Asian and East Asian countries. Its scores fall by 11 points. The low scores
indicate specialization in low technology products. It can be noted from Table 16 that the
share of exports at the lowest sophistication level increases. One may point out that the
country is specializing in low-level technology products. The country’s current
respectable growth rate may not be sustained as per unit price of exports may decline in
the long run.
As mentioned in section 3, ICT component appears most prominently when all

variables in governance dimensions are used together in the principal component
analysis. It may be worth looking into status on ICT in Philippines (for detail,
Background paper, Government of Philippines, undated).
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
ICT, as defined, includes a vast array of technologies such as radio, TV and

mobile phones including computers. The ICT Policy of the government of Philippines is
to build a countrywide ICT-infrastructure to enhance democratic values and norms, and
governance for sustainable economic development. A national ICT Task Force was
formed with Honorable Prime Minister as its Chairperson primarily to provide support
and implement e-Government initiatives throughout the government. There will be a web
portal ‘Philippines Government’ from which links will be provided to the web sites, for
eforms, e-procurement, e-recruitment, e-results etc. ICT-literacy shall also be evaluated in
the annual confidential report (ACR) of officials to ensure utilization of ICT in the public
services.
Telecom sector’s position
The telecom sector has been liberalized for private investment in early 90s,
resulting in appreciable rise in mobile telephone sets in the country. Up to December
2003, the total number of telephone lines is 650,000 and the number of cellular phones
offered by 4 private operators is 1.4 million. The tele-density is 1.4%. Chart-4 shows the
status of telecommunication benchmark as of December 2003.
Internet Access
The number of computers in the country is about 500,000 with about 150,000
internet users. Due to de-regulation of Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) policy by
the government in February 2000, the number of ISPs has grown to 62 with individual
bandwidth ranging from 128 kbps to 8 Mbps, offering broadband internet services
through DSL/HDSL modems. All 64 districts of Philippines has been brought under
Internet coverage by BTTB through dial-up connections. The diffusion of mobile phones
is at a rapid pace. The charges for mobile phones are the highest in Asia. It would be
judicious to use mobile phones for transferring data and other information through the
Internet.
A survey-based report highlights some aspects of e-Government applications with

regard to hardware resources, connectivity and use of ICT in the government
organizations. The report covers 303 government institutions throughout Philippines
covering a total of 35,658 officers and 103,126 staff during July to September 2003.
Some of the salient findings of the report are given below:
Use of ICT
 At the Ministry/ Division level, about 31% of officers and about 33% of staff use
PCs.
 At the Department/ Corporation level, about 21% of officers and about 6.49% of
staff use PCs.
 In academic institutions, about 40% of officers and about 7% of staff use PCs.
 At the Ministry/ Division level, more than 88% of the offices that are connected to
the Internet use it for purposes of official e-mail, about 80% for information
search and more than 52% for downloading files.
 At the Department/ Corporation level, about 50% use the Internet for official
email purposes, about 42% for searching information and about 32% for
downloading files.
 In academic institutions, about 21% use the Internet for official e-mail purposes,
about 25% for searching information and about 25% for downloading files.
 At the Ministry/ Division level, a little more than 8% of the officers use e-mail
directly and about 5% of the officers use e-mail through computer operators.
 At the Department/ Corporation level, on an average, 6% of officers use e-mail
directly while about 6% of officers use e-mail through the help of computer
operators.
 In academic institutions, 42% of the officers use e-mail directly and about 38% of
the officers use e-mail through computer operators.
 Percentage of offices with websites: Ministry - 24%; Division - 50%; Department
- 14%; Corporation - 14%; Academic Institution - 25%.
 Percentage of offices with customized software: Ministry - 24%; Division - 60%;
Department - 25%; Corporation - 41%; Academic Institution - 50%.
Creation of CHED
Republic Act No. 7722, ‘The Higher Education Act of 1994′
Republic Act No. 7722, otherwise known as “The Higher Education Act of 1994”,
was signed into law by former President Fidel Valdez Ramos on May 18, 1994, creating
the Commission on Higher Education (CHED).
Attached administratively to the Office of the President of the Philippines, the

creation of CHED was part of a broad agenda of reforms on the country’s education
system outlined by the Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) in 1992. Part
of this reform was the trifocalization of the education sector into three governing bodies:
the CHED for tertiary and graduate education, the Department of Education (DepEd) for
basic education, and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) for technical-vocational and middle-level education.
Republic Act No. 8292 ‘The Higher Education Modernization Act of 1997′
On June 3, 1997, Republic Act No. 8292, otherwise known as “The Higher
Education Modernization Act of 1997”, was passed and signed by former President Fidel
Valdez.
The law provides for the uniform composition and powers of the Governing Boards
of State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) nationwide, as well as the manner of
appointment and term of office of the president of chartered state higher education
institutions. Furthermore, RA 8292 laid down the powers and duties of the SUC
Governing Board, the highest policy making body in the institution.
TESDA
The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) was

established through the enactment of Republic Act No. 7796 otherwise known as the
"Technical Education and Skills Development Act of 1994", which was signed into law
by President Fidel V. Ramos on August 25, 1994. This Act aims to encourage the full
participation of and mobilize the industry, labor, local government units and technical-
vocational institutions in the skills development of the country's human resources.
The merging of the National Manpower and Youth Council (NMYC) of the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE). The Bureau of Technical and
Vocational Education (BTVE) of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports
(DECS), and The Apprenticeship Program of the Bureau of Local Employment (BLE)
of the DOLE gave birth to TESDA.
The fusion of the above offices was one of the key recommendations of the 1991
Report of the Congressional Commission on Education, which undertook a national
review of the state of Philippine education and manpower development. It was meant to
reduce overlapping in skills development activities initiated by various public and private
sector agencies, and to provide national directions for the country's technical-vocational
education and training (TVET) system. Hence, a major thrust of TESDA is the
formulation of a comprehensive development plan for middle-level manpower based on
the National Technical Education and Skills Development Plan. This plan shall provide
for a reformed industry-based training program that includes apprenticeship, dual training
system and other similar schemes.
TESDA is mandated to:
1. Integrate, coordinate and monitor skills development programs;

2. Restructure efforts to promote and develop middle-level manpower;
3. Approve skills standards and tests;
4. Develop an accreditation system for institutions involved in middle-level
manpower development;
5. Fund programs and projects for technical education and skills development; and
6. Assist trainers training programs.
At the same time, TESDA is expected to:

1. Devolve training functions to local governments;
2. Reform the apprenticeship program;
3. Involve industry/employers in skills training;
4. Formulate a skills development plan;
5. Develop and administer training incentives;
6. Organize skills competitions; and
7. Manage skills development funds.
Overall, TESDA formulates manpower and skills plans, sets appropriate skills
standards and tests, coordinates and monitors manpower policies and programs, and
provides policy directions and guidelines for resource allocation for the TVET
institutions in both the private and public sectors.
Today, TESDA has evolved into an organization that is responsive, effective and
efficient in delivering myriad services to its clients. To accomplish its multi-pronged
mission, the TESDA Board has been formulating strategies and programs geared towards
yielding the highest impact on manpower development in various areas, industry sectors
and institutions.

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POLITICS IN EDUCATION

A central flaw of corporate paradigms, as is often noted in popular culture, is the

Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System

Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from

As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured, and

The high school system supported by provincial governments, special educational

The Reorganization Act of 1916 provided the Filipinization of all department

Japanese educational policies were embodied in Military Order No. 2 in 1942.

In 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture by virtue of

The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report provided the

DepEd Management Structure

At the sub-national level, the Field Offices consist of the following:

1. Sixteen (16) Regional Offices, including the Autonomous Region in Muslim

MAJOR LEGAL BASES

The Philippine Constitutions

THE 1987 CONSTITUTIONS

Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)

Section 2. The state shall:

1. Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system of

BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232 (THE EDUCATION ACT OF 1982)

As provided by this Act, the national development goals are as follows:

It is also stated in Section 3 that:

RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section 9)

1. The right to receive competent instruction, relevant quality education.

RIGHT OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL (Section 10)

1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions.

SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PRIVILEGES OF TEACHING OR ACADEMIC

RIGHTS OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12)

1. School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the lawful

RIGHTS OF SCHOOLS (Section 13)

1. The right of their governing boards…….to adopt and enforce administrative or

MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION

1. Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29)

OTHER LEGAL BASES

a. establishment of the Department of Public Instruction headed by the General

d. optional religious instructions in all schools (Section 16)

e. establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine College of Arts and Trade-

2. Act No. 2706

3. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A. 9163)

Known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the Philippine Assembly on

By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late President Marcos on

4. Commonwealth Act No. 80

5. Commonwealth Act No. 578

6. Commonwealth Act No. 586 (Repealed by R.A. 896)

The law provided for the following:

a. reduction of seven- year elementary course to six- year elementary course.

7. Commonwealth Act No. 589

8. Republic Act No. 139 (Repealed by R. A. 8047)

9. Republic Act No. 896

a. restoration of Grade VII (but never implemented due to lack of funds)

11. Republic Act No. 1265 (amended by R. A. 8491)

12. Republic Act No. 1425

13. Republic Act No. 4670

It also provided the following:

1. Recruitment qualifications for teachers

14. Republic Act No. 1079

15. Republic Act No. 6655

Parent, Family, Community Involvement in Education

Parents, families, educators and communities—there’s no better partnership to

An effective policy provides the vision--clear direction--with room for choice in

 Family outings to the library

More specifically, parent involvement can be categorized in the following way:

This would include things such as reading newsletters at home, attending

Volunteering includes driving for class trips, helping at school, chaperoning