51 Frame Relay

Frame Relay and Cell Relay Spectrum of Switching Techniques
1 2
The introduction of frame-relay and cell-relay capabilities

represents one of the most important development in
communication networking in the last decade Fixed bit rate Variable bit rate
Representing the spectrum of switching techniques available
to transport information across a network Simplicity Complexity
circuit and packet switching are at the two extremes
cell relay and frame relay can be placed in an
intermediate position Circuit Multirate Cell Relay Frame Packet
switching circuit (Asynchronous Relay switching
switching Transfer Mode)
a.a. 2004-05 Architetture per le reti di telecomunicazioni Frame Relay a.a. 2004-05 Architetture per le reti di telecomunicazioni Frame Relay
Spectrum of Switching Techniques Circuit Switching

3 4
The techniques toward the left end of the line provide It is the traditional technique used for telephone networks
transmission with little or no variability, minimal and is the basic technology for narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN)
processing demand on attached stations for voice service
Techniques toward the right end of the line provide Establishment of a fixed-capacity circuit for the complete
duration of a connection
increased flexibility to handle varying bit rates and
different data rate requirements or multiple users at an
unpredictable traffic at expense of increasing processing
endpoint → multiplex a number of circuits in a fix,
complexity synchronous time-division multiplexing structure
Disadvantages in the use of the synchronous approaches for
B-ISDN
not flexible interface
Multirate Circuit Switching Packet Switching against Circuit Switching
5 6
It is an enhancement of the traditional synchronous TDM Circuit switching is efficient for voice connections
approach the circuit can enjoy a high percentage of utilization (most of
It provides more flexibility the time one of the two parties is talking)
the transmission technique is based on pure circuit When used for data connections, two shortcomings became
switching
apparent
constructs connections consisting of multiple synchronized
much of the time the line is idle
circuits (i.e. multiple of 64 Kbps)
the connection provides for transmission at constant data
increased switching and access complexity
rate: each of the connected devices must transmit and
it supports a variety of applications that require different receive at the same rate
sustained data rates
• this limits the utility of the network in interconnecting a
it does not efficiently support bursty traffic variety of host computers and terminals
Packet Switching: X.25 Frame relay: General Characteristics

7 8
Traditional packet switching is based on X.25, is Packet switching was developed at a time when digital
limited in two areas long-distance facilities exhibited a relatively high error
considerable overhead in the protocol rate
• it is difficult to implement X.25-based networks to there is a considerable amount of overhead built into packet-
support applications that require high data rates switching schemes to compensate for errors
variable delay in delivery packets With modern systems, this overhead is
• X.25 is not suitable for real-time applications such as unnecessary
voice services or video streaming • the rate of errors has been dramatically lowered
counterproductive
In fact, the X.25 protocol was developed when the • the overhead soaks up a significant fraction of the capacity
transmission facilities were characterized by a very provided by the network
high bit error rates
it was defined during 70’ and 80’
Frame Relay Cell relay: General Description
9 10
Frame Relay was developed to take advantage of the Known as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
high data rates and low error rates of modern Can be seen as an evolution of Frame Relay
networking facilities
both Frame Relay and ATM take advantage of reliability of
Frame Relay networks are designed to operate at user modern digital facilities to provide faster packet switching
data rates of up to 2Mbps than X.25
packet switching networks were designed with a data It allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed
rate to the end user of about 64kbps over a single physical interface
the greatest pressure to speed up the network came from
There is no link-by-link error control or flow control
LAN users that wished to extend LAN traffic to distant
destinations Provides minimum overhead for error control
The key for achieving this high data rates is to strip out
most of the overhead involved in error control
Cell Relay and Frame Relay Frame Relay: Services and Protocols
11 12
Frame Relay uses variable length packets (Frames) CCITT (now ITU.T) recommendations for Frame Relay
233: ISDN Frame Relay Mode Bearer Service (1991)
Cell Relay uses fixed length packets (Cells)
370: Congestion Management for the Frame Relay Bearer
by using a fixed packet length, the processing overhead is Service (1991)
further reduced compared to Frame Relay In the United States, ANSI has published three standards,
Cell Relay is designed to work in the range (100÷1000 relative to Frame Relay:
Mbps), compared to the 2Mbps of Frame Relay ANSI T1.606: Architectural Framework and Service Description
Cell Relay allows for the definition of virtual channels with
for Frame-Relaying Bearer Service (1990)
Draft ANSI T1.617: Signaling Specification for Frame Relay
data rates that are dynamically defined at the time that the Bearer Service (1991)
virtual channel is created ANSI T1.618: Core Aspects of Frame Protocol for Use with
Frame Relay Bearer Service (1991)
Frame Relay Forum
consists of manufacturers of frame relay equipment
e.g.: Cisco, DEC, Northern Telecom, and StrataCom
Frame Relay: Motivations Frame Relay: Motivations
13 14
The traditional approach to packet switching is X.25, whose In particular

key features are: Data frames and ACK frames: at each hop through the
call control packets, used for setting-up and clearing virtual network, the DLC protocol involves the exchange of a data
circuits are carried on the same channel and virtual circuit as frame and an ACK frame
data packets State tables: at each intermediate node, state tables must
• in-band signaling is used be maintained for each virtual circuit to deal with the call
multiplexing of virtual circuits takes place at layer 3 management and flow control/error control aspects of the
both layers 2 and 3 include flow control and error control X.25 protocol
mechanisms all this overhead is justified when there is a significant
This approach results in a considerable overhead error probability on any link in the network
Frame Relay: Motivations X.25 and Frame Relay: Key Differences

15 16
Call control signaling is carried on a separate logical
Intermediate connection from user data
node
11
intermediate nodes need not maintain state tables or
14
6 process messages relating to call control on an individual
3 per-connection basis
4
5 Multiplexing and switching of logical connections take
13 12 place at layer 2 instead of layer 3
1 2 8 7 one entire layer of processing is eliminated
16 15 9 10 there is no hop-by-hop flow and error control
Source Destination • end-to-end flow and error control are responsibility of a
higher layer, if employed
Packet-switching network: flow of data link frames required for
the transmission of a single data packet from source to destination
and the return of an acknowledge packet
Frame Relay: Motivations Frame Relay: Disadvantages
17 18
Intermediate
Impossibility to perform link-by-link flow and error
node control
6 this is easily provided at higher layer
2
increasing reliability of transmission and switching
facilities
7 3
in X.25 LAPB provides reliable transmission from the
1 8 5 4 source to the packet-switching network and from it to the
destination
Source Destination in X.25 at each hop the link control protocol can be used
for reliability
Frame Relay Network: a single user data frame is sent from
source to destination and an acknowledgment generated at higher
layer is carried back in a frame
Frame Relay: Advantages DTE and DCE in the Frame Relay WAN
19 20
With Frame Relay the communications process has been

streamlined
the protocol functionality required at the user-network
interface is reduced as is the internal network processing
lower delay and higher throughput can be expected
reduction in frame processing time of an order of magnitude
• experimental results prove that a frame relay takes some
20ms to reach the distant end, where an x.25 packet of similar
size takes in excess of 200ms (for a given network
configuration in terms of links capacity and number of
intermediate nodes)
Frame Relay is to be used at access speeds up to 2 Mbps
(CCITT I.233)
Frame relay: Architecture Frame Relay Architecture
21 22
Two planes of operation can be distinguished

Control plane (C-Plane): involved in the establishment
and termination of logical connections C-Plane U-Plane U-Plane C-Plane
• C-Plane protocols are between a subscriber and the
network I.451/Q.931 User-selectable I.451/Q.931
User plane (U-Plane): responsible for the transfer of user terminal
data between subscribers functions
• U-Plane protocols provide end-to-end functionality Q.922 Q.922
• the U-Plane protocol for what concerns information transfer Core functions Core functions
between end users is the Q.922 of Q.922 of Q.922
Physical layer Physical layer
USER NETWORK
S/T
Frame Relay Architecture Frame Relay Architecture

23 24
Only the core functions of Q.922 are used for Frame
Relay for the U-plane Based on the core functions, the network offers frame
frame delimiting, alignment and transparency relaying as a connection-oriented link layer service, with the
frame mux/demux using the address field following properties
inspection of the frame to ensure that it consists of an èreservation of the order of frame transfer from one edge of
integer number of octets prior to zero bit insertion or the network to the other
following zero bit extraction
non-duplication of frames
inspection of the frame to ensure that it is neither too
short nor too long small probability of frame loss
detection of transmission errors In the control plane, Q.922 is used to provide a reliable DLC
congestion control functions (with error and flow control)
Above this, the user may select additional data link or
network-layer end-to-end functions
these functions are not part of the Frame Relay service
Frame Relay Architecture Frame Relay Architecture
25 26
This architecture reduces to the minimum the amount

of work accomplished by the network
user data are transmitted in frames X.25 Implemented by
no processing is required to intermediate nodes, other interface but
Implemented Q.922 upper not network
than check for errors and to route based on connection by interface LAPB or LAPD
number and network Q.922 core
Implemented
an errored frame is simply discarded by interface
Physical layer Physical layer and network
• error recovery is left to higher layers
A comparison of X.25 and Frame Relay protocols stacks
Comparison of X.25 and FR Comparison of X.25 and FR

27 28
Function X.25 FR Function X.25 FR
Flag generation/recognition X X Ack received I-frames X

Transparency X X Check received N(S) against V(R) X
FCS generation/recognition X X Generation of REJ X
Recognize invalid frames X X Respond to P/F bit X
Discard incorrect frames X X Act upon reception of REJ X
Address translation X X Respond to RNR X
Fill interframe time X X Respond to RR X
Multiplexing of logical channels X X Management of M bit X
Manage V(S) state variable X Detection of out-of-sequence packets X
Manage V(R) state variable X Management of network layer RR X
Buffer packets awaiting ack X Management of network layer RNR X
Frame Relay Virtual Circuits Frame Relay Virtual Circuits
29 30
It provides connection oriented data link layer
PVC (permanent virtual circuits)
communication
permanently established connections
SVC (switched virtual connection):
it does not require call setup and termination
temporary connections for sporadic data transfer
PVCs always operate in one of the following states
a session consists of
• Call setup data transfer
• Data transfer idle
• Idle
• Call termination
few manufacturers of FR DCE equipment supported
SVC in the past
• now widely supported because companies have found
SVCs save money
Frame Relay processing Frame relay: User Data Transfer

31 32
Y N
Valid frame?
Flag Address Information FCS Flag
Octet
Discard
N 1 2-4 Variable 2 1
Known DLCI?
Frame format of frame-relay
Y
Discard
The format is similar to that of LAPD and LAPB
Layer 2 The main difference is that there is no control field
Layer 3
User Data Transfer User Data Transfer
33 34
The lack of a control field implies The flag and frame check sequence (FCS) fields
function as in (HDLC)
there is only one frame type, used for carrying user
data Also the flag field (01111110)
• there are not control frames The information field carries higher-layer data
it is not possible to use in-band signaling a data link frame can be carried in this field, if the user
selects to implement additional end-to-end DLC functions
• a logical connection can only carry user data
The address field carries a (DLCI - Data Link
it is not possible to perform flow and error control Connection Identifier), which functions as the Virtual
• there are no sequence numbers Circuit Number in X.25
it has a default length of 2 octets and can be extended to
3 or 4 octets
it allows for multiple logical frame-relay connections to be
multiplexed over a single channel
User Data Transfer User Data Transfer

35 36
2 octets address field is usually adopted and the DLCI values Frame Relay frames can be multiplexed with LAPD
are limited to the range 480-1007 frames on the channel
the two types of frames are distinguished on the basis of
bits 8 to 3 in the first octet of the address field
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The length of the address field and hence of the DLCI
C/R=Command/Response
DLCI C/R EA EA=Address field extension
is determined by the address field extension EA bits
(high order) 0/1 0 DE=Discard eligibility indicator The C/R bit is application-specific and is not used by
DLCI BECN=Backward explicit congestion the standard frame relay protocol
EA
FECN BECN DE notification
(low order) 1
FECN=Forward explicit congestion
Address field 2 octets notification
(default) DLCI=Data Link connection
identifier
User Data Transfer Frame Relay: Network Functions
37 38
The frame-relaying function performed by ISDN, or any

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 other network supporting frame relaying, consists of
Address field DLCI(high order) C/R 0/1 EA 0 routing frames based on their DLCI values
DLCI FECN BECN DE EA 0 The frame relay control point is responsible for making
3 octets DLCI (low order) EA 1 routing decisions
Typically routing is controlled by entries in a connection
table based on DLCI that map incoming frames on one
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 channel to another
DLCI(high order) C/R 0/1 EA 0 The frame handler switches a frame from an incoming
DLCI FECN BECN DE EA 0
Address field channel to an outgoing channel based on the
DLCI EA 0 4 octets appropriate entry in the connection table and translates
DLCI (low order) EA 1 the DLCI in the frame before transmission
Frame Handler Operation Frame Relay: Network Functions

39 40
The FCS of each incoming frame is checked
Frame relay
When an error is detected the frame is discarded
control point
it is the responsibility of the end-user to institute error
recovery above the frame relay protocol
DLCI=0 DLCI=0
Protocols involved in frame-relay can be seen from the
TE A TE D
point of view of the individual frame relay connections,
DLCI=312 DLCI=334 that is, there is
DLCI=0 DLCI=342 a common physical layer
TE B DLCI=0 a common frame-relay sub-layer
DLCI=306
TE E an optional layer 2 DLC protocol can be included above the
DLCI=0
frame relay sub-layer
TE C
DLCI=308 DLCI=322
Frame Handler
Multiplexing at the Frame Relay Sub-layer Frame Relay: Congestion Control
41 42
It has the task of avoiding the catastrophic effects of

DLCI k DLCI m DLCI n congestion
Two kinds of congestion can be distinguished:
Higher Higher Higher DLCI 8191
...
DLCI 0 Mild congestion: the queuing delays at the nodes result in
layers layers layers increased end-to-end delay and reduced capability to
Mgt
provide the desired throughput
I.451 procs L
a Severe congestion: the classic queuing response results in
y dramatic growth of delays and in collapse in throughput
Q.922 DLC-k DLC-m DLC-n Q.922 e
r
Frame Relay Sublayer 2
Physical Layer
The Effects of Congestion Objectives of Congestion Control

43 44
No Mild Severe The objective of congestion control techniques is to limit

congestion congestion congestion queue lengths at the frame handlers so as to avoid
Throughput
throughput collapse
Network
A B
Objectives of frame-relay congestion control (I.370)
1. minimize frame discard
Offered load 2. maintain agreed-upon quality of service, with high probability
and minimum variance
B 3. minimize the possibility that one user can monopolize network
resources at expense of other end users
Delay
4. be simple to implement and place little overhead on either end

A user or network
Offered load
Objectives of Congestion Control Frame Relay: Congestion Control
45 46
5.create minimal additional network traffic The challenge of congestion control is particularly acute
6. distribute network resources fairly among end users for a frame relay network
7. limit spread of congestion to other networks and elements limited tools available to the frame handlers
within the network frame relay protocol has been streamlined in order to
maximize throughput and efficiency
8. operate effectively regardless of the traffic flow in either
direction between end users frame handlers cannot control the flow of frames coming
from a subscriber or an adjacent frame handler using the
9. have minimum interaction or impact on other systems in the typical sliding window flow control protocol such as is found
frame-relaying network in LAPD
10. minimize the variance in QoS delivered to individual frame Congestion control is joint responsibility of the network
relay connections during congestion and the end user
Congestion Control Strategies Congestion Control Strategies

47 48
Congestion Avoidance Procedures Congestion Recovery Procedures

these are used to prevent network collapse in the face of
these are used at the onset of congestion (prior to point A
severe congestion
in the diagram) to minimize the effect on the network
these are typically initiated when the network has begun to
congestion is prevented from progressing to point B
drop frames due to congestion
near point A there would be little evidence available to end
such dropped frames will be reported by some higher
users that congestion is increasing layer of software and serve as an implicit signaling
there must be some explicit signaling mechanism for the mechanism
network that will trigger the congestion avoidance work around the point B and within the the region of
severe congestion in the diagram
Congestion Avoidance Congestion Avoidance: BECN and FECN
49 50
Two bits of the address field of each frame are Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)
provided for explicit signaling: BECN and FECN it notifies the user that congestion avoidance
procedures should be initiated where applicable for
either bits may be set by any frame handler that detects traffic in the opposite direction of the received frame
congestion indicates that the frames that the user transmits on this
• if a frame handler receives a frame in which one or both of logical connection may encounter congested resources
these bits are set it must not clear the bits before Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)
forwarding the frame
it notifies the user that congestion avoidance
the bits constitute signals from the network to the end procedures should be initiated where applicable for
user traffic in the same direction as the received frame
indicates that this frame has encountered congestion
Congestion Avoidance: network response Congestion Avoidance monitoring queue lengths

51 52
For each frame handler, it is necessary to monitor its The frame handler must monitor queue lengths
queue behavior a cycle begins when the outgoing circuit goes from idle
if queue lengths begin to grow to a dangerous level, FECN or (queue empty) to busy (non-zero queue size, including
BECN or both should be set to try to reduce the flow of the current frame)
frames through that frame handler the average queue size over the previous and the current
cycle is calculated
the frame handler has some choice as to which logical
if the average size exceeds a threshold value, the circuit
connection should be alerted to congestion
is in a state of incipient congestion
if the congestion become serious all logical connections
• by averaging two cycles the system avoids reacting to
through a frame handler might be notified temporary surges that would not necessary produce
congestion
Congestion Avoidance: user response Congestion Recovery
53 54
It is determined by the receipt of BECN and FECN It is based on implicit signaling

signals when the network discards a frame, this fact is detected by
the end-user at a higher layer
Response to a BECN: is the simplest procedure the end user deduces that congestion exists
the user reduces the rate at which frames are transmitted
Discard eligibility (DE)
until the signal ceases
indicates a request that a frame should be discarded in
Response to a FECN: requires the user to notify its peer preference to others, if necessary
user to restrict its flow of frames can be set by a frame handler
the core functions used in the frame relay protocol do not
provide a guide in discard decisions
support this notification, that must be done at a higher layer
(such as transport layer) it is a tool for providing a guaranteed level of service
DE and Committed Information Rate DE and Committed Information Rate

55 56
The DE field can be used to assure that heavy users The frame handler to which the user’s station attaches
can get the throughput they need without penalizing performs a metering function
lighter users if the user is sending data at less than the CIR, the DE bit is
each user negotiates a CIR (in bits per second) at not altered
connection set-up time if the rate exceeds the CIR, the frame handler sets the DE
• the requested CIR represents the user’s estimate of its bit on the excess frames and then forward them
normal traffic during a busy period • such frames may get to through or may discarded if
• the granted CIR (which can be lower than the requested congestion is encountered
CIR) is the network commitment to deliver data at that rate a maximum rate is defined, such that any frames above are
in the absence of errors discarded at the entry frame handler
Operation of the CIR
57
Maximum
CIR Transmit if allowed rate
possible
Guaranteed Discard
transmission all excess
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Frame Relay and Cell Relay Spectrum of Switching Techniques

The introduction of frame-relay and cell-relay capabilities

Spectrum of Switching Techniques Circuit Switching

Packet Switching: X.25 Frame relay: General Characteristics

The traditional approach to packet switching is X.25, whose In particular

Frame Relay: Motivations X.25 and Frame Relay: Key Differences

With Frame Relay the communications process has been

Two planes of operation can be distinguished

Frame Relay Architecture Frame Relay Architecture

This architecture reduces to the minimum the amount

A comparison of X.25 and Frame Relay protocols stacks

Comparison of X.25 and FR Comparison of X.25 and FR

Function X.25 FR Function X.25 FR

Flag generation/recognition X X Ack received I-frames X

Frame Relay processing Frame relay: User Data Transfer

User Data Transfer User Data Transfer

The frame-relaying function performed by ISDN, or any

Frame Handler Operation Frame Relay: Network Functions

It has the task of avoiding the catastrophic effects of

The Effects of Congestion Objectives of Congestion Control

No Mild Severe The objective of congestion control techniques is to limit

4. be simple to implement and place little overhead on either end

Congestion Control Strategies Congestion Control Strategies

Congestion Avoidance Procedures Congestion Recovery Procedures

Congestion Avoidance: network response Congestion Avoidance monitoring queue lengths

It is determined by the receipt of BECN and FECN It is based on implicit signaling

DE and Committed Information Rate DE and Committed Information Rate

a.a. 2004-05 Architetture per le reti di telecomunicazioni Frame Relay

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