Kellie Schneider

Traditional and Emerging Theories of

Online Learning: An Annotated Bibliography

This annotated bibliography examines traditional and emerging theories of education

and educational technology as apply to the concept of online learning. Included are articles

discussing traditional schools of through such as behaviorism, constructivism, and

cognitivism, as well as emerging theories including connectivism, activity theory, and

transactional distance theory.

Ally, M. (2004). Foundation of educational theory for online learning. In T. Anderson & F.

Elloumi (Eds.), Theory and Practice of Online Learning (pp 3-31). Athabasca, Alberta,

Canada: Athabasca University. Retrieved March 15, 2009 from

http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_book.pdf

In this article, Mohammed Ally gives an overview of educational theories as they

apply to online learning. Ally emphasizes that no single learning theory can be

followed, but several theories must be combined to develop online learning courses

and materials. Ally specifically mentions including strategies from traditional

schools of learning such as behaviorism (for the facts), cognitivism (for the

processes and principles), and constructivism (high level thinking). Ally’s analysis of

the combination of learning theories reflects the multi-dimensional nature of

education, most especially online education.

Angeli, C., & Valanides, N., (2008). Epistemological and methodological issues for the

conceptualization, development, and assessment of ICT–TPCK: Advances in

technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK), Computers & Education (52)1,

154-168. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.006
 In this article Charoula Angeli and Nicos Valanides explore the issues surrounding

the changing field of pre-service teacher education and the relevance of technology

integration in the content areas. Angeli and Valanides take on a transformative view

of education theory. This can also apply to technology integration as it relates to

distance education in the context of online learning as online learning can include

nearly any content area.

Garrison, D.R. (1993). Quality and access in distance education: Theoretical consideration.

In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical Principles of Distance Education (pp. 9-21). New York:

Routledge.

In this article, D. Randy Garrison proposes that discussion and debate of distance

education centers around two main topics: quality and accessibility. Garrison

argues that these concerns are really not helpful and can even distract from both

theoretical and practical understanding of distance education. He states that the

distance or separation is overemphasized, and the only real difference between

distance and non-distance learning is that there is a mediator in distance learning.

The quality and accessibility of education are not determined by the distance

between teacher and student, but the methodologies that are employed in

instruction.

Gokool-Ramdoo, S. 2008. Beyond the theoretical impasse: Extending the applications of

transactional distance education theory. The International Review of Research in

Open and Distance Learning. 9(3).Retrieved April 11, 2009 from

http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/541/1151

In this article Sushita Gokool-Ramdoo, of the University of South Australia, proposes

that Transactional Distance Theory, or TDT, be accepted as a global theory in

development of distance education programs. Gokool-Ramdoo claims that TDT is the

most comprehensive theory, incorporating other widely-discussed theoretical

 perspectives and expanding further. In demonstrating how TDT transitions learning

from a behaviorist to constructivist, Gokool-Ramdoo appeals to a broader audience

of theoretical opinion. She also contends that TDT can be applied to other

approaches to learning such as ADDIE.

Hratinski, S. (2008, June). A theory of online learning as online participation. Computers &

Education, 52(2009), 78-82. Sweden: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/j.comped.2008.06.009

In this article Stefan Hratinski proposes his theory of online learning as online

participation. He bases his theory on both constructivist and social perspective of

learning. He argues that these are often pitted against each other in theoretical

discussion, but in the context of online participation they can actually work

together: individuals’ engagement in learning experiences in enhanced by social

interaction. Hratinski defines participation as interaction not only between

instructors as learners, but also as interaction between learners and internal

dialogue learners have with themselves. Hratinski presents research concluding that

“learners participating in collaborative or group learning were related with as high

or higher learning outcome as those in traditional settings” and measured learning

as “perceived learning, grades, tests, and quality of performances and

assignments.” Hratinski presents his conclusions as based on empirical evidence,

although some may see “perceived learning” as subjective.

Jonassen, D.H. (2000). Revisiting activity theory as a framework for designing student-

centered learning environments. In D.H. Jonassen & S.M. Land (Eds.), Theoretical

foundations of learning environments (pp .89-121). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishing.

In this article David H. Jonassen discussed activity theory within the framework of

student centered learning environments. Jonassen describes activity theory as the

interdependence of conscious processes of the mind and performance of activity.

 Activity theory relies on the cooperation of learners, learning context and

community, expectations and tools. Online learning can be assumed to be one of

these tools that subjects of learning may utilize.

Jung, I. (2001). Building a theoretical framework of web-based instruction in the context of

distance education. British Journal of Education Technology, 32(5), 525-534.

Retrieved March 15, 2009, from Academic Search Premier database.

In this article, Insung Jung attempts to move away from the traditional theories of

cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and information process theory and develop a

new framework for web-based instruction within the context of the more recently

emerging transactional distance theory. Transactional distance theory provides a

more context specific theoretical base for web-based distance learning

environments and allows facilitators to find a better focus for appropriate

instruction.

Kop, R., & Hill, A. (2008, October). Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of

the past? International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 9(3), 1-13.

Retrieved March 16, 2009, from Education Research Complete database.

In this article, Rita Kop and Adrian Hill analyze the emerging theory of

Connectivism. In their analysis, Kop and Hill question the Connectivism on its

validity as a theory and its relevance to education. They question whether a new

theory such as this, encompassing new technologies is really necessary, or if

traditional theories will suffice. Kop and Hill cite the thoughts of Bill Kerr, a critic

of Connectivism, in that the theory behind connectivism, internal and external

knowledge, has already been addressed in Vygotsky’s theory of social

constructivism. This point is countered by the work of Downes and Siemens, in that

connectivism is the set of connections between internal and external knowledge

which could possibly be considered just an argument of semantics.

Moore, M.G. (1993) Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.), Theoretical

Principles of Distance Education (pp. 22-38). New York: Routledge.

In this article, Michael G. Moore explains the history behind the theory of

transactional distance, as mentioned by Insung Jung in her 2001 article Building a

Theoretical Framework of Web-Based Instruction in the context of distance

Education. Jung actually quotes Moore in defining distance education as

“instructional methods in which teaching behaviors are executed apart from the

learning behaviors…so that communication between the teacher and the learner

must be facilitated by print, electronic, mechanical, or other devices” (Jung, 2001,

p. 526). This may infer that distance education means through physical distance or

time, but Moore states that there is some distance education in any setting,

including face-to-face instruction. Even with varying degrees of distance, as well as

the variety of learners and instructors, all transactional distance learning is based

on collaboration.

Taylor, E.W. (2007) An update of transformative learning theory: A critical review of the

empirical research (1999-2005). International Journal of Lifelong Education (26)2,

(171-193). doi: 10.1080/02601370701219475

In this article, Edward W. Taylor of Penn State University-Harrisburg addresses the

popularity of transformative learning theory in adult education. Taylor’s

conclusions of the empirical research acknowledge transformative learning as a still-

developing theory. This theory ventures into the same field as constructivism in that

it based on making meaning. In some respects, it could be considered a more

specific form of constructivism with an emphasis on critical reflection of the

learner.