COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN

CHAPTER 4

RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN

Rigid Pavement Components :

Sub-grade Soil :

The sub-grade is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation of the pavement system. Sub-
grade soils are subjected to lower stresses than the surface and sub-base courses. These stresses
decrease with depth, and the controlling sub-grade stress is usually at the top of the sub-grade
unless unusual conditions exist. Unusual conditions, such as a layered sub-grade or sharply varying
water content or densities, may change the locations of the controlling stress. The soils investigation
should check for these conditions. The pavement above the sub-grade must be capable of reducing
stresses imposed on the sub-grade to values that are low enough to prevent excessive distortion or
displacement of the sub-grade soil layer.

Base Course :

The purpose of a base course is to distribute the induced stresses from the wheel load so that it will
not exceed the strength of the underlying soil layers. Figure shows the distribution of stress through
two base courses. When the sub-grade strength is low, the stress must be reduced to a low value
and a thick base is needed. When the sub-grade strength is higher, a thinner base course will provide
adequate stress distribution. Because the stresses in the base course are always higher than in the
sub-grade (Figure 5-5), the base course must have higher strength .The base course is normally the
highest-quality structural material used in a flexible-pavement structure, having CBR values near the
CBR standard material (crushed limestone). Base courses are always cohesion less materials and are
normally processed to obtain the proper gradation.

Surface Course

Concrete surfaces (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix of
Portland cement, coarse aggregate, sand and water. In virtually all modern mixes there will also be
various admixtures added to increase workability, reduce the required amount of water, mitigate
harmful chemical reactions and for other beneficial purposes. In many cases there will also be
Portland cement substitutes added, such as fly ash. This can reduce the cost of the concrete and
improve its physical properties. The material is applied in a freshly mixed slurry, and worked
mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the cement slurry to the surface to produce
a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine
molecularly in a chemical reaction called hydration. Concrete surfaces have been refined into three
common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP).

2.1 Traffic load

In determining the traffic load of the pavement, it is necessary to perform the following:

 Determine the average annual daily traffic,

 Determine the weight of individual axle of vehicles,

 Determine assessment rate of utilization of vehicles [3].

Designed traffic load is:

Tn = 365 * Td * fpp * fst * fnn * fdu * fpo , where:

Tn – designed traffic load for a period of n years,

Td – equivalent daily traffic load,

fpp – factor of the average cross section of pavement,

fst – factor of width of traffic lanes,

fnn – factor of longitudinal finish grade slope ,

fdu – factor of additional dynamic impacts,

fpo – factor of increasing traffic load due to the growth of traffic in a given period.

Designed traffic load of heavy vehicles exclusively (amps) contains weights of 2350 kN ie. 775.5 kN
+1574.5 kN, each axle, hence the factor of equivalence is:

Fe=Σfi

fe=2.44 * 10-8 * L1 4 , where:

fe – equivalence factor for the single axle,

L1 – single axle load [kN]

Fe= 158779.89 kN

Td = Fe * n, where:

n – Assumed daily number of vehicles (n=5)

As the future traffic frequency was not assessed, following equivalent traffic load will be assumed:

Td ≈793899.44 kN

Tn = 28*107 kN

In accordance with the analysis given above, the load on the structure can be considered as very
heavy.

The composition of cement-concrete pavement

Cement-concrete pavement are composed of the following layers:

 cement-concrete layer,

 interlayer of cement stabilization and

 unbound base layer.

The required thickness of cement-concrete layer and unbound layer of stone aggregate for the
applicable traffic load during the service life of pavement, and a certain CBR value should be
determined based on the nomogram.
The thickness of cement-concrete layer dCB,KP, which is shown in nomogram in Figure 2, is
determined by the average quality of cement-concrete mixtures and class C30/37. Thicknesses of
pavement layers are determined based on an assumed value of CBR of 10%: [3]

 Cement-concrete layer, class C30/37: d = 26 cm,

 Interlayer (cement stabilization): d = 15 cm,

 Unbound crushed stone: d = 35 cm.

For the new cement concrete pavement, the thickness of an unbound supporting layer of gravel
grain mixture should amount:

 heavy traffic load, min 25 cm,

 medium or low traffic load, min 20 cm

Execution of cement-concrete slabs and joints

Basic conditions, the base under the concrete pavement must meet, are the mechanical
properties of the soil, which should be more uniform, to thereby achieve uniform load load-bearing
capacity. If adequate bearing capacity can not be achieved by using natural materials, it is necessary
to introduce appropriate methods for improvement, consolidation and/or stabilization. Given that
these procedures do not require more.

investment, it is necessary to achieve the maximum possible load-bearing capacity, which

must not be less than the CBR = 10%.[3] Road section with the uniform load-bearing capacity should
be as long as possible. According to the rules, bearing capacity of the base under the pavement (the
placenta) should be uniform across the entire section of a certain new road, with the condition that
sections shall not be shorter than 500m. [3]

The minimum designed thickness of the concrete slab in a pavement layer for medium to
heavy traffic load must be 20 cm. Length of concrete slabs must not exceed 6m. In order to prevent
damages due to operation processes and stresses that occur in them, concrete slabs in the
pavement structures must be divided as follows:

 At the point of contact with other solid structural elements (curbs, manholes, connections
to the bridges) - spatial joints,

 locations (temporary) interruption of incorporation, ie. the already hardened cement

concrete, compressed (working) joints, and

 in order to prevent not controlled cracks due to exceeding the tensile strength of cement
concrete slabs (in certain places) - the apparent transverse joints.

Cement-concrete slabs should be divided with transversal joints per square shapes. If the
width of cement-concrete pavement is greater than 4m, the slabs are divided to such size with
longitudinal joints. According to the rules, cement-concrete slabs with joints must be reinforced with
smooth dowels (diameter 20 to 25 mm, length 500 mm) and ribbed anchors (diameter 16 to 20 mm,
length 800 mm).

In order to ensure height of concrete slabs and transfer of traffic and temperature changes
caused by load, disposition of dowels in the transverse joints should be as follows:

 in the rutting area at 25 cm (4 or 5 x25 cm),

  from the edge of the slab 25 cm, and

 between ruttings 50 cm. In order to to prevent spacing of cement-concrete slab, anchors in

the longitudinal joints must be built:

 on a flat road sections 5 anchors in each slab, and

 on curve sections with radius of ≤ 600m in the middle third of each plate - 3 anchors.

In cement-concrete mixtures, an admixture for the creation of air micropores, for wearing
layers, should be implemented, or their composition should be amended, to ensure their needed
degree of resistance to freezing and thawing in the presence of salt to prevent ice formation.

Influence of freezing

Based on the environment conditions, the present structure is exposed, its necessary thickness in
relation to the depth of frost penetration is:

h ≥ 0.7 * 80cm ≈ 56cm

The total thickness of the structure is 56 cm. [3]

CHAPTER 5 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

3.1 Flexible Pavement Components:

The flexible pavement design is made in such a way that the structure basically deflects under load.
The structure is designed in such a way that each layer comprising of materials receives load from
the upper layer and passes on the load to the next layer. This way the load in different layers is
reduced to a great extent. The design is made in such a way that the maximum load bearing layer
(i.e. the top layer) will comprise of the most expensive materials and the lowest load bearing layer
(i.e. the lower/bottom layers) would be made up of the least expensive materials. While making a
design for the flexible pavement two major factors that needs to be considered i.e. determination of
the approximate thickness of the layer and the composition of the materials that is required for each
layer. The composition has a significant impact on the structure of the flexible pavement because of
the impact of traffic loads and variations in the temperature.
Figure 3-1 Pavement Layers

3.1.1 Base And Sub-base Materials:

Stabilized base or sub-base layers are pavement layers composed of a compacted mixture of
aggregate and cementitious material. The binder material is usually lime or cement, though
additional pozzolanic materials may also be added. For new construction, the base or sub-base
materials are mixed with the binder and water if needed, either in place or at a plant, and 16 are
then graded and compacted. Stabilized base layers can also be formed through full depth
reclamation when binder is added to the reclaimed pavement material. Stabilized layers provide a
strong foundation for both rigid and flexible pavements, though stabilized pavement layers are
usually used in flexible pavements. It should be noted that calcium chloride is also used for
stabilization in the Southern states, and asphalt cement and asphalt emulsions have also been used
as well. However, the focus of this document will be on lime and cement based stabilization.

3.1.2 Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete:

Hot mix asphalt concrete (commonly abbreviated as HMAC or HMA) is produced by heating the
asphalt binder to decrease its viscosity, and drying the aggregate to remove moisture from it prior to
mixing. Mixing is generally performed with the aggregate at about 300 °F (roughly 150 °C) for virgin
asphalt and 330 °F (166 °C) for polymer modified asphalt, and the asphalt cement at 200 °F (95 °C).
Paving and compaction must be performed while the asphalt is sufficiently hot. In many countries
paving is restricted to summer months because in winter the compacted base will cool the asphalt
too much before it is able to be packed to the required density. HMAC is the form of asphalt
concrete most commonly used on high traffic pavements such as those on major highways
,racetracks and airfields. It is also used as an environmental liner for landfills, reservoirs, and fish
hatchery ponds.

3.2 Design Factor:

Design factors can be divided into four broad categories:

1. Traffic and Loading

• Axle Loads.
 • Number of Repetitions.
• Contact Area.
• Vehicle Speed.
2. Environment
• Temperature.
• Effect on Asphalt Layer.
• Effect on Concrete Slab.
• Frost Penetration.
• Precipitation.
3. Material
• General Properties.
4. Failure Criteria Flexible Pavements:
• Fatigue Cracking.
• Rutting.
• Thermal Cracking. Rigid Pavement:
• Fatigue Cracking.
• Pumping or Erosion.
• Other Criteria.

Traffic load

The traffic load is determined in the same way as in the case of the rigid pavement, given in Section
2.1

Asphalt overlay

Required thickness of asphalt overlay, ie. asphalt wearing course and superstructure is determined
by the average quality of asphalt mix with the designed equivalency factor of 0:38. The selection of
asphalt mix for wearing course and superstructure depends on the specific usage conditions, mainly
on the scheduled traffic load, weather conditions and the course of the route, which adjusts the
composition of the stone aggregates and type of bitumen. [3] The quality of asphalt mixture must be
chosen according to the requirements specified in the technical regulations for the manufacture and
disposition of asphalt mixtures. Very hard and heavy traffic load should contain modified bituminous
binder. For the upper layers of the asphalt pavement, which are exposed to very heavy and
extremely heavy traffic load, it is needed to use crushed stone aggregate. In addition, it is also
recommended to use modified bituminous binder. Especially for light and very easy traffic loads, a
bituminous asphalt mixture of gravel may be proposed. [3]

Unbound load-bearing layers

For new asphalt pavement, designed thickness of unbound supporting layer should be:

 heavy traffic load min. 25 cm,

 medium or light traffic load min. 20 cm

If the unbound gravel layer, thicker than 40 cm, is required, due to the weak capacity of sub-
structure and a heavy traffic load, load-bearing capacity of sub-structure should be increased.

Part or whole thickness of unbound gravel layer can be replaced by crushed stone aggregates, taking
into account the designed equivalency factor 0.14. Since the thickness of the layer of unbound
crushed stone is also limited to 40 cm, it can replace an equivalent layer of the designd gravel, which
is up to: 40 x 0.14/0.11 ≅ 50 cm.

Type of stone aggregate for unbound bearing layers can be adjusted to traffic load and economical
conditions. When creating a new asphalt pavements that are exposed to heavy and very heavy
traffic load, it is necessary, as a rule, to use crushed stone aggregates for unbound bearing layer. [3]
Quality of stone aggregates, used for unbound bearing layers, must meet the requirements of the
applicable technical regulations for manufactured and built stone aggregates. [3]

CHAPTER 3.

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The aim of this paper is to choose the pavement type which would be more cost effective and give
good serviceability in the long run. In this regard extensive literature review needs to be carried out
to acquire knowledge about past and present trend of pavement system in the world. Besides field
investigations are to be carried out to identify the problems associated with various stages of quality
control maintained in the construction of flexible pavement. Comparative analysis about various
factors in flexible and rigid pavements is also to be carried out carefully. To progress the research
work in an efficient and appropriate way the choice and selection of suitable methodologies are of
prime requirement. This chapter outlines the overall design of the study and research
methodologies that would be followed to achieve the objectives set out in the Chapter 1.

Outline of the Research Methodology

In order to carry out a comprehensive study in line with the objectives set out in the preceding
article, the following methodology is proposed:

• Problem associated with the construction of flexible pavement would be examined by undertaking
field investigation on the construction as well as quality control (QC) practices followed by the
Contractors. In this regard, for laboratory investigation Marshall Samples would be made at the
construction site using the mix prepared by the Contractors and construction material viz.
aggregates and bitumen would also be collected for further parametric studies. Close scrutiny on
quality control would be made by observing and taking relevant data during materials heating,
mixing, mix transportation to the construction site, laying, compaction operations etc. Observation
would be made both on manual and mechanized method of constructions.

• Information regarding the use of rigid pavement in national highways will be traced back.

• Detail information about the rigid pavement works so far undertaken by RHD, LGED and DCC will
be collected from the concerned Authorities.

• In order to know the present pavement selection and construction practices followed by RHD,
LGED and DCC in particular what are the underlying reasons behind not selecting rigid pavement in
road construction, a questionnaire survey will be carried out among the Engineers of these
organizations.

• Information will also be objectively gathered regarding

 o Total annual consumption of bitumen in pavement construction & maintenance
works and amount of foreign currency is being spend
o Performance and durability of flexible pavement particularly under submerged
condition, its maintenance frequency and cost involvement.

• Unit cost of flexible and rigid pavements will be estimated by undertaking several case studies of
completed projects and getting relevant information from home and abroad in particular
consideration of life cycle cost (LCC).

• A comprehensive comparative study between flexible and rigid pavements would be carried out
from the viewpoint of locally available binding material, amount of aggregates and type of
equipment requirements, construction and maintenance cost, quality control issues and above all
performance under submerged condition etc.