Beruflich Dokumente
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June 2010
Tall Buildings
Typical Applications that Require Code
Compliant Anchors According to ICC: Powers Compliant
• Pipe Hanging (Water & Waste) • Windows & Doors Products Have
You Covered:
• Sprinkler Pipes • Glazing & Curtain Walls
• Ceiling Grids with Lighting • Beam Connections
or Fans • Shear & Stem Walls
• Air Handling Units • Sill Plate and Ledger
• HVAC Duct Work Attachments
• Electrical Wire Trays & Conduit • Concrete Form Work
• Fire Alarms, Exit Signs • Scaffolding, Cranes, Rails,
• Smoke Detection Devices Fall Protection
2009 IBC
2006 IBC
2003 IBC
SUPPORTING ORGANIZATIONS
National Council of Structural
Engineers Associations
Jeanne M. Vogelzang, JD, CAE
Executive Director
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C
Council of American Structural Engineers
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M Director, Coalitions
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Executive Editor Jeanne Vogelzang, JD, CAE
IRVINE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY execdir@ncsea.com
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STR 6-09
Editorial
When Will You Become a Licensed SE?
By Sam A. Rihani, P.E., F. ASCE
Earlier this year, the Structural Engineering 8
Institute (SEI) issued its first Policy Statement in UT
7
support of Structural Engineer (SE) licensure. examination will be offered for the first time
6 WA
The policy states that the Institute “encourages by NCEES which will replace the current
Professional Engineers practicing structural OR SE-I and SE-II exams.
5
engineering to further obtain a Structural Engi- 4
HI Today, there is interest among several states
neer license in jurisdictions that have any form of NV in SE licensing and it is believed that another
3
Structural Engineering license by complying with CA seven to ten will join the ranks during the
the jurisdiction’s specified requirements for educa- 2 IL coming decade. States that are actively pur-
tion, experience and examination, and by meeting 1 suing an SE license act today are Florida,
continuing education requisites to maintain this 1915 1946 1976 2007 Georgia, Ohio, Texas, and Minnesota. Idaho
license. SEI also encourages jurisdictions to license is considering the transition from a title act to
Structural Engineers as a post-PE (Professional Engineer) credential, and to a practice act, while California wants to pursue expanding their current
include in their new legislation an equitable transitioning clause for engineers partial practice act to include additional significant structures.
currently practicing structural engineering.” The full text may be found at The Professional Activities Committee (PAC) of SEI has made its priority
http://content.seinstitute.org/inside/SELicensure.html. during the past 10 years to support any state that shows interest in
Before issuing the policy, SEI sought input from various engineering the enactment of a structural engineering practice act. Such support has
organizations and received endorsement from the American Society of come through four summits (2002 – 2008) during which structural
Civil Engineers (ASCE), the National Council of Structural Engineers engineers from around the nation gathered to address the need and
Association (NCSEA), and the Council of American Structural Engineers mechanism of enacting SE practice acts. The committee has presented
(CASE). SEI previously received support from various ASCE Institutes. several papers at Structures Congresses and prepared case studies which
The National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) was the only highlight structural failures that may have been prevented had the design
organization that expressed their opposition to the policy. engineer been licensed as an SE. These case studies and other resources are
The first SE license was established in 1915 in Illinois. Today eleven available at http://content.seinstitute.org/inside/SELicensure.html.
states, representing approximately 32% of licensed engineers, have Members of PAC continue to meet with representatives of states where
incorporated the SE license into their legislation. Seven of these states the pursuit of an SE practice act is desired, to share lessons learned from
(Illinois, Hawaii, California, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington) previous experiences and to provide the necessary information and
have a full or partial practice act while the remaining four (Arizona, materials that would assist in such an endeavor.
Idaho, Nebraska, and New Mexico) have a title act. There has been It is anticipated that it will take several years before the majority of
unprecedented activity in recent years, as three out of the seven states states would adopt a structural engineering practice act; however, the
with a practice act have enacted such legislation just in the last decade. current momentum is likely to increase the number of states requiring
The primary reason for this is the recognition that new technology and licensure of structural engineers in the coming few years. If you practice
building codes have resulted in more complex analyses and designs in one of the states that is currently pursuing a practice act, you may
of structures, thus requiring increased knowledge and skills. With be among those becoming licensed as an SE in the near future. If you
this trend, and to better serve and protect the public, those engineers practice in the other states, it is a matter of when, not if, you will be
who exhibit additional or advanced expertise and credentials within licensed as an SE.▪
the structural practice area of civil engineering should be identified
through post-PE credentialing programs and become responsible for Sam Rihani is the Chair of SEI-PAC and a member of the Board
designing significant structures. In 2004, in recognition of special of Governors of SEI. He is also the past Chairman of the Structural
licensing requirements for structural engineers, the National Council Engineers Association of Metropolitan Washington. He can be reached
of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) established a at SRihani@Engineering.com.
new Model Law Structural Engineer. In April 2011, a 16-hour structural
Editorial Board
Chair Craig E. Barnes, P.E., SECB Brian J. Leshko, P.E. Mike C. Mota, P.E. Greg Schindler, P.E., S.E.
Jon A. Schmidt, P.E., SECB CBI Consulting, Inc. HDR Engineering, Inc. CRSI KPFF Consulting Engineers
Burns & McDonnell Boston, MA Pittsburgh, PA Williamstown, NJ Seattle, WA
Kansas City, MO
chair@structuremag.org Richard Hess, S.E., SECB John A. Mercer, P.E. Evans Mountzouris, P.E. Stephen P. Schneider, Ph.D., P.E., S.E.
Hess Engineering Inc. Mercer Engineering, PC The DiSalvo Ericson Group BergerABAM
Executive Editor Los Alamitos, CA Minot, ND Ridgefield, CT Vancouver, WA
Jeanne M. Vogelzang, JD, CAE Brian W. Miller Matthew Salveson, Ph.D., P.E. John “Buddy” Showalter, P.E.
NCSEA
Mark W. Holmberg, P.E.
Heath & Lineback Engineers, Inc. AISC Dokken Engineering AF & PA/American Wood Council
Chicago, IL
Marietta, GA Davis, CA Folsom, CA Washington, DC
execdir@ncsea.com
Results
More than 200 sensors of various types were
used to collect data on the performance of the
NEESWood Capstone building. Optical track-
ing was employed to obtain data on the gross
external movement of the building at each level.
Strain gauges determined tie-down forces,
accelerometers tracked floor accelerations, and
string potentiometers measured shear defor-
mation and post movement in the structure.
In tests one to four, maximum average inter-
story drift did not exceed 1.25% in any level.
In the final MCE level shake of test five, maxi-
mum average interstory drift was just under 2%,
with the largest drift in any wall line just over
3%. Damage was primarily nonstructural in
nature and consisted of drywall cracks around
openings. These results indicated very good
performance and satisfied the performance
objectives, demonstrating both the benefits
and utility of Direct Displacement Design.
One area of keen interest in the project was have proven to be very effective in delivering
the data collected on tie-down forces. While superior structural performance under severe
a full account is not possible in this article, a ground shaking. The NEESWood Capstone
few highlights are in order. First, overall re- tests have pushed the boundaries of where
Structural Performance
performance issues relative to extreme events
Many modern buildings use steel special and other multi-story buildings in
moment frames for their seismic lateral Chicago, spawned an entire gen-
force-resisting system. A moment frame eration of tall buildings constructed
is comprised of a rectangular system of with load bearing steel frames
rigidly connected columns and beams supporting concrete floors and non-
that resist moment and shear forces devel- load bearing unreinforced masonry
oped during earthquake ground shaking. infill walls at their perimeters.
The building code considers the system Framing in these early structures
extremely ductile and assigns it the highest typically utilized “H” shapes built
allowable response modification coefficient. up from plate, “L” and “Z” sections.
It is one of only a few systems permitted Starting with the Manhattan Build-
in Seismic Design Categories D, E and F ing (1889), perimeter framing
for buildings exceeding 160 feet in height. connections typically incorporated
With the absence of diagonal braces or large stiffened triangular gusset Figure 1: Typical early built-up and riveted
structural walls, the system facilitates plates, joined to the beams and moment connection.
architectural versatility for interior space columns with angles and rivets
layout and aesthetic exterior expression. (Figure 1). Typically, steel framing was tall structures, including the Empire State
Because earthquake motions can induce completely encased by masonry, concrete, Building in New York, for many years
multiple inelastic displacement cycles, or a combination of these, to provide fire the world’s tallest structure, are of this
special proportioning and qualification resistance. Anecdotal evidence suggests construction type.
requirements are essential for robust mo- that designers of these early moment Following WWII, it became uneconomi-
ment frame performance. The numerous frame structures neglected the structural cal to construct perimeter walls out of
interrelated code provisions that address contributions of concrete and masonry infill unreinforced masonry, particularly
these special requirements are not necessar- encasement, and assumed that framing for tall buildings, and more modern glass
ily arranged in a logical sequence, making connections had sufficient flexibility to be and aluminum curtain wall systems were
their application challenging for all but treated as pinned connections for gravity adopted as part of the new modernist
the most experienced designers. loading and fixed connections for lateral architectural style. The larger windows
As part of its support for the National loading. Despite these design assumptions, possible with these new curtain wall sys-
Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program the steel framing in these structures was tems made the large gusseted framing
(NEHRP), the National Institute of substantially stiffened and strengthened connections undesirable, and engineers
Standards and Technology (NIST) is de- by composite behavior with their encase- began to design connections using un-
veloping a series of technical briefs to ments, and exhibited significant fixity at stiffened angles or split tees to connect
assist in improving seismic design and framing connections both for lateral and top and bottom beam flanges to columns
construction quality. Technical Brief No. gravity loadings. (Figure 2, page 14). In the 1950s, as welding
2, Seismic Design of Steel Special Moment This basic construction style remained was introduced into building construction,
Frames: A Guide for Practicing Engineers, popular for high-rise construction through the angles and split tees were replaced by
addresses the design, specification, and the 1930s. By the early 1900s, rolled “H” flange plates, shop welded to the column
construction of steel special moment shape sections began to see increasing flanges, then riveted to the beam flanges.
frames. This article, the first of two, con- use in place of the built-up sections, in By the 1960s, riveting had become un-
tains excerpts from the brief summarizing particular for lighter framing. Many very economical and was replaced by high
the development of the steel special mo- strength bolting. Finally, in the early 1970s,
ment frame. engineers began to use the connection type
known today as the welded unreinforced
Moment Frame flange – bolted web (WUF-B) (Figure
3, page 14) incorporating field-welded,
Historic Development complete joint penetration (CJP) groove
Although the steel special moment frame welds to join beam flanges to columns,
is a relatively recent development in build- and shop-welded, field bolted shear plates
ing codes, steel frames have been in use joining beam webs to columns.
for more than one hundred years, dating Almost from their inception as a means
to the earliest use of structural steel in of building construction, engineers began
building construction. Steel building con- to observe that steel moment-frames
struction with the frame carrying the seemed to exhibit superior performance
vertical loads initiated in Chicago in in earthquakes. More than 20 such struc-
the 1880s. One of the first of these, the tures were subjected to and survived the
Home Insurance Building in Chicago, a great 1906 San Francisco earthquake
10-story structure constructed in 1884 and the fires that followed it, while few
with a height of 138 feet, is often cred- other buildings in the central commer-
ited with being the first skyscraper. This, Figure 2: Riveted, unstiffened seat angle connection. cial district of San Francisco remained
longer seismic
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www.slottedweb.com888-4-slot-web
www.slottedweb.com today
based on cyclic tests lines.
or check us out on the web* at: Office ofprovided
Statewide
* Office ofHealth Planning
Statewide
for hospitals. and
Health Development,
Planning State of California
and Development, State of California
www.slottedweb.com Interstory Drift vs. Number of Cycles to Fracture
* Office of Statewide Health Planning3
and Development,
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The January 17, 1994 Northridge, California earthquake dramatically Adds Reynolds: “There’s a number of FEMA and ASCE guidelines
affected how structural engineers conduct the art and practice of for how to model, and we’ve really gone and tested that to get more
building design, probably more so than any other earthquake in performance out of buildings. That’s why we’re doing complicated,
recent history. Certainly changes resulted from the 1933 Long Beach non-linear analyses of buildings. Performance-based retrofitting, with
earthquake and the 1971 San Fernando earthquake; but it was the component testing, is the cutting edge in learning about the behavior of
Northridge earthquake that led to widespread and sweeping changes buildings and building components… It’s the most interesting seismic
in regulation, standards, design and products that have become well- design we’re doing right now.”
accepted and employed throughout the world. “We definitely have noticed, in the past few years, an increase in
The growth of performance-based design is probably the most sig- structural engineering firms using performance-based design,” says
nificant change that resulted from Northridge. Although it has been Henry Gallart, President of SidePlate Systems, Inc., based in Laguna
used for decades in the manufacture of cars, airplanes and other mass Hills, California (www.sideplate.com). “Non-linear dynamic analysis
produced products, performance-based design is difficult to employ in is definitely increasing among firms that do this kind of work.”
structures because each structure is unique, exists in a different environ- SidePlate offers a suite of high-performance steel frame connection
ment, and is built on varying ground conditions. technologies that have successfully been tested to provide protection
“Our LA office does a lot of hospital projects, mainly performance-based against blasts, progressive collapse, and earthquakes. The technology
design, for existing and new buildings,” says Aaron Reynolds, Principal was originally developed in response to the devastation caused by the
of consulting engineers KPFF, Inc., and based in their Los Angeles office 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, but it has been proven to
(www.kpff.com). “The state of the art on seismic design for buildings provide protection for other hazards as well, says Gallart.
that need a higher degree of seismic performance is performance-based Upcoming projects using SidePlate products include the Oakland
design, base isolation, or use of modern technology like BRBs.” He says: (CA) Air Traffic Control tower, which begins construction in the fall,
“We are doing a lot of retrofit performance-based design on steel moment and the Scripps Cardiovascular Institute in La Jolla, California.
frame buildings built in the 70s or concrete shear walls from the 50s.” “Another trend we’re seeing,” says Gallart, “is that patented construction
systems like SidePlate seem to have reached a
level of maturity, where more engineers are ac-
cepting them and willing to use them…When
they’ve proven to be cost effective, fabricators
also have accepted them; and that’s also been a
factor in engineers’ decisions.”
Another proprietary system that grew out
of the aftermath of Northridge is that of The
Spectrus Group’s Special Truss Moment Frame
(STMF) called Tru-Frame, which evolved from
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Torre Mayor and the new Shin-Yokohama High-speed procedures also must be addressed. To this end,
Train Station in Japan, owners, architects, engineers, ESAB North America (www.esabna.com), a
and contractors trust the proven subsidiary of Anderson Group, Inc., has been
technology of Taylor Devices’ working for about three years on electrodes that
Fluid Viscous Dampers. are certified for seismic use. “We have quite a
few certified, and they’re being used now,” says
Roger Bushey, Product Compliance Manager.
“The most famous project where these are being
used is the Freedom Tower in New York.”
Founded more than 100 years ago, ESAB Cut-
ting & Welding is involved in welding and cutting
equipment, welding consumables, welding auto-
mation, and cutting systems.
Bushey notes that electrodes must adhere to
American Welding Society (AWS) D1.8 for
seismic service. “We have had inquiries from
Mexico (about certified electrodes) as well as in-
terest from Asia, even though they don’t always
follow AWS or FEMA standards.”
Taylor Devices’ Fluid Viscous Dampers give you the seismic protection To help inexperienced welders and make experi-
you need and the architectural freedom you want. enced welders more productive, ESAB has come
out with its Dual Shield X-Series of flux-cored
w w w. t a y l o r d e v i c e s . c o m wires. The new wires are much more forgiving
than traditional flux-cored wires. “We have
seismic certified electrodes, and we’re coming out
with more. They have a wider operating range,
North Tonawanda, NY 14120 - 0748
so it doesn’t have to be dialed in exactly. The
Phone: 716.694 .0800 • Fax: 716.695 .6015 wires are forgiving because of how they’re made,”
says Bushey.▪
STRUCTURE
TAY24253 Brace Yourself Ad Structure Magazine October magazine Island June
2009 Half-Page22 2010
5" x 7.5"
For critical welds,
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ESAB Seismic Certified filler metals.
When it comes to structural fabrication, ESAB Seismic Certified
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esabna.com/seismic + 1.800.ESAB.123
High Performance Economics
By Paul W. McMullin, Ph.D., S.E.
and Ronald H. Dunn, S.E.
Tomography
Available
Quality Assurance
for Deep
Foundations
Cleveland, OH USA
+1 216-831-6131
www.pile.com sales@pile.com
Structural framing, showing moment frames and interior shear walls.
Differential Settlement
If the full footprint of a building settles evenly, at the same rate and
by the same vertical distance, no adverse effects will be experienced
within that footprint. However, unless separated by expansion joints,
if one area of a building settles more than another area this difference
may cause adverse effects including structural cracking and damage to Figure 2: South Façade Inclined Composite Lobby Columns under Construction.
non-structural building elements. A system of
drilled reinforced concrete foundation shafts is
utilized to support the towers and limit differ-
ential building settlements to acceptable levels.
To resist vertical loads, the shafts rely on end
bearing onto the dense sand below and surface
friction against the sand down the sides of the
shafts. The vertical compressive pressure on the
sand is higher on the down-lean side and lower
on the up-lean side, leading to differential settle-
Conclusions
Conventionally reinforced concrete and pre-stressed, post-tensioned
concrete is innovatively applied to the structural systems of the leaning
Veer Towers. In leaning concrete buildings, there are P-delta effects
from permanent and transient loads, differential axial shortening, and
differential settlement, all of which can amplify the lean requiring thor-
ough design checks and construction monitoring.
VeerTM Towers. Branched column transfers are readily applied to reinforced concrete
buildings, but apply horizontal membrane forces to floor systems. Struc-
façades. Over the 480-foot height of the 37 stories, the floor plates shift tural steel ‘W’ sections can also readily be embedded into tall, heavily loaded
a total of 35 feet in the north/south direction. At the sixth, nineteenth reinforced concrete columns to reduce column cross section dimensions.
and thirty-second floors, column transfers are utilized for the inclined With careful attention to reinforcing detailing, large intersecting concrete
north and south façade columns to maintain feasible spans for the transfer beams can be utilized to increase usable space at the base of tower
eight-inch-thick flat reinforced concrete floor slabs. Column transfers buildings by terminating columns and transferring their loads.
are tree-branch-shaped (Figure 1, page 26 ) with floor diaphragms The architectural success of the striking leaning Veer Towers is reliant
reinforced for the resultant horizontal forces. on an advanced structural engineering solution utilizing stiff reinforced
concrete lateral load resisting systems to withstand a natural tendency
Inclined Composite Lobby Columns
to lean further than intended.
The south façades of both buildings’ lobbies are characterized with From an airplane window flying into Las Vegas, from a limousine cruis-
80-foot-tall exposed reinforced concrete columns, inclined to follow ing along the Strip, or from a balcony of one of MGM MIRAGE’s other
the leans of the towers (Figure 2, page 27 ). Due to architectural space iconic Las Vegas properties, the dramatic lean of the Veer Towers catches
constraints for the lobbies, and the requirement to maximize usable space the eye and the imagination, drawing visitors into MGM MIRAGE’s mag-
by minimizing column sizes, composite columns with large embedded nificent CityCenter. The project is scheduled to be completed in 2010.▪
‘W’ structural steel members were introduced at a number of locations.
Temporary shoring was required to hold the columns in their correct
position until the tops of the columns could be tied into the transfer floor Neb Erakovic, PEng, is a Principal in Halcrow Yolles’s Toronto office.
level above the podium. The vertical height and sizes of these inclined He can be reached at neb.erakovic@halcrowyolles.com.
columns are large, and required checking for lateral deflections due to Terry Dawson, BEng, is an Associate in Halcrow Yolles’s Toronto office.
self-weight in addition to slenderness, buckling and P-delta effects. He can be reached at terry.dawson@halcrowyolles.com.
Kyle Cossette, BSc, is a Project Manager in Halcrow Yolles’s Las Vegas
Pre-Stressed, Post-Tensioned Column Transfer Beams
office. He can be reached at kyle.cossette@halcrowyolles.com.
Due to retail and lobby space requirements at the podium base of
the towers, a number of tower columns above are terminated at the For applicable design codes and standards see the online
transfer floor level (Figure 1, page 26 ). A series of large pre-stressed, version of this article at www.STRUCTUREmag.org.
Simpson Strong-Tie has nearly doubled its offering of Strong Frame™ ordinary
moment frames. By adding a new 16' tall column and 14', 18' and 20' wide beams,
you not only have 368 frame configurations to choose from, but more design flexibility
for larger openings and wider interior clear spans. And because our frames are
pre-engineered, you spend minutes choosing the right frame rather than hours
designing one. Contractors also appreciate our weld-free, 100% bolted installation.
Expand your options even further with a Custom Strong Frame™
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The Nakheel Tower is part of the Nakheel Harbour & Tower Development in Dubai, United
Arab Emirates. The record breaking design of the Tall Tower, with a height of more than 3,300
feet (1 kilometer), follows many other bold initiatives taken in developing real estate in the
Emirate. It is intended to be a central focal point of the numerous large scale developments
(some constructed, some planned) that the quasi-government owned Nakheel has implemented.
The shear size of the tower, over 10 million square feet (1 million square meters), will be
a mixed-use development containing residential, office, hotel, and accompanying retail and
amenity spaces. It will be situated adjacent to the proposed Arabian Canal, and will be the
center of a 667 acre (270 hectare) development, home to 55,000 people and to a workplace
for 45,000 more.
The tower’s record breaking height and gross area necessitated a unique approach to super-
tall building design from the standpoint of functionality, structural design and constructability.
Influenced by historical Islamic patterns, the project architect, Woods Bagot, Dubai, UAE,
conceptualized a symmetric cylindrical tower that is accented by 16 points formed by
perimeter columns.
The diameter of the building was set at nearly 330 feet (100 meters) in order to limit the
height-to-width aspect ratio to approximately 1:10. Without any mitigating strategy, this would
have created a very large floor plan with central areas far from natural light. This led to the
creation of a central void which then created the opportunity to place large vertical slots through
the tower. These slots are an essential means of improving the building’s aerodynamics.
One of the main tenets of tall building design is to maximize the most valuable real estate, i.e.
the usable areas at the top of the building. This led to an almost uniform cylindrical shape for
the tower from the ground up. This is contrary to traditional tall buildings that tend to taper as
they reach greater heights. While tapering is effective to reduce the wind sail of the building, it
also reduces the most valuable real estate. However, by allowing wind to pass directly through the Nakheel Harbour and Tower. Courtesy of
Woods Bagot Architects.
center of the tower, an effective reduction in wind forces would be provided.
The slots typically divide the building into four quadrants over • Constructability issues need to be addressed and embedded
approximately 25 floors, which are then linked together by three- within the early stages of the design concept.
story “skybridges”. This effectively results in several stacked 25 • Understanding the wind aerodynamics, aero-elastic effects
story buildings – creating a vertical city. Each skybridge serves as a and approaches to mitigating those effects are the key to a
transfer point from shuttle lifts to local lifts, and provides amenity successful design.
and retail spaces for the 25 floors above. In addition, these levels Beyond its constant form from top to bottom, the tower is also
provide spaces for plant rooms, emergency medical facilities, as well characterized by its symmetry. This provides two very important
as alternate means of egress. benefits for the structure. First, there are no transfers of vertical
elements in the main body of the tower. Second, it allows for a
Structural Form uniform distribution of gravity forces throughout the structure.
These characteristics allow for a more efficient structure. Further,
In order to create an efficient structure in super tall buildings,
they address an important design consideration for super-tall
“First Principles”, as described below, have to be established early
buildings – axial shortening.
on that provide guidance throughout the design process. With
Differential axial shortening becomes a greater and greater concern
conventional buildings the design is not highly sensitive to many
with each additional story in a building. Maintaining a uniform
of these principles; overlooking them in super tall buildings would
distribution of load throughout the structure was one of the driving
have a significant effect.
forces in developing the structural systems, given that the building
• Architectural and Structural concepts need to merge and
would likely shorten more than 16 inches (400 millimeters) at its
complement each other like body and soul.
observation level due to elastic, creep and shrinkage effects.
• Structural components and systems need to follow a
Every element of the structure is interconnected. This creates
utilitarian rationale for their presence, thus reinforcing the
an extremely efficient structure where the materials perform dual
entire fabric of the structure and architecture.
roles; they provide for multiple alternative load paths for added
• Robust and intrinsic load paths and symmetry are critical virtues.
redundancy and redistribution of loads and, by placing materials
• All vertical structural elements need to participate in
only where they are required for strength, they create a uniform
supporting both vertical and lateral load effects, leaving no
distribution of loads so as not to have differential shortening.
ounce of structure under-utilized.
M Foundation Stabilization Air Structures Segmented Block Walls Sheet Piles Sea Walls Towers
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Load Tested!
Spanning across the internal void at each sky bridge is a series of steel
trusses. The primary floor trusses span the void in one direction, with
a series of secondary trusses in the perpendicular direction to create Conceptual Slip-Form System. Courtesy of Taisei Corporation.
added redundancy with alternate load paths.
to the superstructure design. Fugor Consultants provided the geotechnical
Spire and Crown Structure investigation services and Golder Associates provided the geotechnical
The top of the building is characterized by a series of eight arches that consulting services. The tower foundation is a combination of raft and
extend upward to a center spire that supports several special function deep foundations using closely spaced barrettes, capped with a rein-
floors. The arch structure itself is taller than the Eiffel Tower. forced concrete raft system whose thickness ranges between 13 feet (4
The spire itself is a cylindrical concrete form that is supported from meters) and 26 feet (8 meters). Barrettes are deep foundations similar to
the upper skybridge by a series of concrete walls. The special function drilled cast-in-place piles that are constructed in a rectangular shape.
floors and the arches are to be constructed with structural steel. Normally Grab-Bucket or Hydrofraise drilling tools are use. Soletanche-
Outrigger trusses at the special function levels would serve to support Bachy, the foundation contractor, has already installed almost one half
the floor systems, as well as stabilize the spire by engaging the arch of the deep foundations for the tower.
elements. The arch elements are designed as trussed space frames to
be architecturally clad. Wind Tunnel Testing
The wind phenomenon is perhaps the single greatest challenge in the
Constructability design of super tall buildings. Establishing the wind climate, under-
Constructability was the paramount issue in creating an efficient standing wind’s behavior at different strata, direction and frequency
structural design for such a project. Reinforced concrete was chosen of occurrence, understanding the building’s aerodynamic and aero-
as the basic structural material because of its structural design and elastic response, and making subsequent adjustments to the build-
constructability efficiency in this tall building application. Self ing’s geometry to mitigate wind effects was key to addressing
climbing slip form construction has been planned for this challenge. The structural engineering, architecture
the erection of the wall system. and wind tunnel testing of the tower were very
The utilization of high performance concrete is closely intertwined throughout the development
imperative in achieving a building of such un- of the project.
precedented height. Although there is a ready Numerous alternates for the building’s
supply of concrete in Dubai, concrete be- shape were studied throughout the tower’s
yond 11,500 psi (80 MPa) is believed to development to address programming,
not have been attempted. For the Nakheel functionality and response to wind effects.
Tower, concrete in excess of 14,500 psi Ultimately, many of the refinements to the
(100 MPa) has been specified. tower’s architectural concept were driven
To this end, the design team collaborated by aerodynamics.
with concrete technologists Ancon Beton, Where it was more appropriate, computa-
Australia, to develop special design mixes. tional fluid dynamics (CFD) was also used
This was seen as a crucial element in the to study variations in geometry together
structural design of the building, and work with dozens of high frequency force balance
on the concrete mix design was undertaken (HFFB) tests. The slots through the build-
before completion of the schematic design. ing were employed to mitigate the vortex
The geotechnical investigation and foun- shedding phenomenon that is typical of
dation design were advanced in parallel tracks Foundation Barrette Plan. slender round structures. These slots serve
Summary
The design has progressed into Design Development
with most of the project’s challenging design issues
resolved. Currently, more than half of the foundation
barrettes have been placed successfully. However, the HFFB Test at RWDI.
project is on hold due to the current market
downturn and, at the moment, the future con-
struction schedule is unknown.▪
Credit
This project was the result of intense collabora- The support you need to protect
tive efforts between various international design critical infrastructure.
and construction team members under the
guidance of the ownership, in particular with When overpass foundations unexpectedly shifted
the project architect, Woods Bagot. WSP Group during construction operations at the I-94/Riverside
has been appointed as structural consultant; Drive Interchange in Battle Creek, MI, an emergency
managed by its specialty high-rise group, WSP 1-800-388-2340
nicholsonconstruction.com response was needed to keep this important route open.
Cantor Seinuk, as the lead structural engineer
In two days, Nicholson Construction Company had
in collaboration with Leslie E. Robertson Asso-
ciates, New York, and VDM Group, Australia. designed a fix and was on-site installing micropiles to
Winward Structures, Melbourne, Australia, was stabilize the bridge foundations and prevent further
assigned as the structural peer reviewer. RWDI, movement. At Nicholson, we specialize in deep foun-
Ontario, Canada was assigned as the wind dations, earth retention, ground treatment and ground
engineer in collaboration with Boundary Layer improvement techniques that help you achieve your
Wind Tunnel Laboratory at University of Western project goals. Nicholson...the support you need.
Ontario, Canada and Mel Consultants, Melbourne,
Australia as wind tunnel peer reviewers.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS EARTH RETENTION GROUND TREATMENT GROUND IMPROVEMENT
Figure 1: San Jose’s newest airport terminal and concourse elegantly marry form and function, readily meeting traveler needs while embodying the spirit of the Silicon
Valley in a shape reflective of an unraveling fiber optics cable. Courtesy of Magnusson Klemencic Associates.
On a recent shuttle bus trip to Mineta San Jose International Airport, produce an early bid package that included the basement excavation,
the new airport terminal and concourse came into view (Figure 1). dewatering, and shoring walls. Because the ground water on site can rise
My fellow passengers came alive with spontaneous comments that up to within 5 feet of grade, minimizing the depth of excavation was
were overwhelmingly positive: “Wow, that’s a sexy looking building.” very important. The cost of dewatering and the hydrostatic uplift pres-
“It’s beautiful.” “I can’t wait to use it! We’ve needed a new terminal sure increased dramatically the deeper the hole became. Two solutions
for years.” Achieving this reaction was no accident; it was the result of were developed to minimize basement depth:
insightful leadership and smart decisions. The airport authority, and • Precast concrete tension piles driven into the ground below the
the project’s design and construction team, worked hard and cohesively basement level, with a reinforced concrete mat foundation. The
to create a new form that functions well and leaves a lasting impression pattern developed for pile placement reduced the mat foundation
on those who travel to the Capital of Silicon Valley. It’s clear to visitors thickness by several feet.
and locals alike: San Jose has a sparkling new airport that embraces • A reinforced concrete flat plate ground-floor structure. This
form and function. solution reduced the structural depth of the floor by about 2 feet
compared to conventional steel beam and composite deck.
Travel Planning 101: Be Flexible and Adaptable These features alone reduced the cost of excavation and substructure
by over $10 million. The basement readily accommodates the required
For years, the San Jose Airport operated out of Terminals A and C,
bag conveyors and additional equipment, with capacity for future
both of which had significant operational and cosmetic issues. The
systems as well. continued on next page
roadways, parking, and rental car facilities were not up to par, especially
on busy travel days, and post-9/11 passenger screening requirements
were causing long, unacceptable waiting lines for passengers. It was
clear San Jose needed a new airport.
Gensler, as Master Architect, held several community outreach meet-
ings and workshops with airport staff to clearly define the airport’s
vision, budget, and needs. The existing airport site is constrained by the
Guadalupe River and Highway 87, leading to a linear solution for the
concourse and terminal.
It soon became clear that the new concourse structure needed to
accommodate an architectural design that was still evolving: the airport
vision was being defined, room locations were not set, the bag conveyor
system was conceptual, and interior and exterior designs were in
flux. Yet, even with the terminal and concourse shape in the midst of
formulation, early construction packages for excavation and structural
steel had to be released for bid. In response, the structural solutions
developed allowed a great deal of design flexibility.
Not Your Typical Restraint System elements were supported on a metal roof deck that bends naturally
along the weak axis of the deck. In areas where curved members were
Selection of the lateral-restraint system was one of the design team’s
necessary, the radius of the curve was repeated to minimize set-up time
most important decisions. Braced- and moment-frame systems were
and fabrication costs (Figure 3).
evaluated based on cost, speed of erection, seismic ductility, adaptability
to design changes, and capacity to accommodate future expansion.
Ultimately, the team selected a special truss moment frame (STMF) Adapting to Changes in Itinerary
as their preferred system. Although STMF systems have been imple- Once construction of the concourse was well underway, the airport
mented for other important facilities such as hospitals, this was the first solicited design/build proposals for the next phase of construction, the
use of an STMF structural system at an international airport. Terminal Area Improvement Project (TAIP), which includes Terminal
The STMF system (Figure 2, page 35) is a unique form of moment- B and a renovation/expansion of Terminal A. The winning design/
resisting frame with steel trusses used to resist gravity, seismic, and wind builder, Hensel Phelps Construction Company and Fentress Architects,
loads. The design of the STMFs restricts inelastic response due to earth- reconciled the TAIP scope and value-engineered the program while
quake loading to special segments located in the middle half of the truss building upon the original City-Council-approved vision for Terminal
spans. As such, the system is a very ductile and robust seismic-restraint B. In collaboration with airport staff, Hensel Phelps suggested moving
solution – critically important in a high seismic region such as San Jose. Terminal B to the north several hundred feet and tying it directly to the
The STMF trusses proved to be fairly easy to fabricate, pre-assemble, new concourse. This shift produced great cost savings, as it eliminated
and ship to the site. In addition, field connections between the truss a planned temporary terminal, allowed the bag conveyor system to be
and the support columns required only fillet welding, thus avoiding placed within the concourse basement, and utilized already-constructed
slow and expensive complete-penetration welds. The STMF also new concourse airside hold room space.
simplified routing of ventilation ducts, pipes, and conduits, as many of This design shift was possible because the concourse structure was
these services could be located between the truss diagonals and through designed with expansion in mind. In fact, the timing was just right
the center special segment. for the Terminal B structure to be attached directly to the concourse
Even though structural steel prices were rising radically upward at the structure, eliminating costly seismic separation joints and a cumbersome
time, the concourse steel bids came in several million dollars below double row of columns. In essence, the wisdom of implementing an
budget. Furthermore, the structural steel was erected ahead of schedule. adaptable and expandable structure proved tremendously cost-effective.
The design/build team determined that the most effective method of
Sleek, Silver, and Silicon Style creating the curvilinear form of Terminal B would be to construct the
roof using curving wide-flange beams welded together to create tubular
As Gensler’s interior and exterior design firmed up, the City Council
shaped ribs at 30 feet on center. The deep acoustical roof deck spans 30
approved an architectural shape that embodied the spirit of San
feet between the arched roof beams to create a very open and inspiring
Jose and the Silicon Valley. Gensler’s vision included an interesting
space within the baggage claim area and the passenger screening
curvilinear exterior landside façade, with a skin that is both transparent
mezzanine. Curbside, in front of Terminal B, the arched roof ribs are
and glistening day and night – somewhat reflective of an unraveling
supported on three Teflon-coated bearings (Figure 4), which allow the
fiber optics or data cable. Within the concourse on the airside, a
terminal roof to slide during major seismic events.
curvilinear transparent roof was designed to celebrate dappled, natural
light as it cascades onto a fabric Paseo canopy. The combination of
the concourse shape and light produces a truly startling effect and a Navigating through the Airport
unique sense of place. A fully integrated Revit building information model (BIM) of Terminal
To create economical curvilinear shapes, MKA developed straight-line- B was developed by the design team (Figure 5). The design/build team
generated curves that allowed most of the structural support members employed the use of an integrated BIM model to minimize conflicts
to be straight, rather than physically curved. Many of the cladding between systems, speed up construction, and document existing condi-
elements were created from straight-line faceted panels. Other cladding tions for future building operations. Although the BIM model was not
Project Team
Terminal B Concourse
Architect – Gensler (also airport Master Planner)
Figure 4: The arched roof ribs of Terminal B are supported on three Teflon-coated Associate Architect – Steinberg Architects
bearings which allow the terminal roof to slide in the event of a major earthquake.
Structural – Magnusson Klemencic Associates
Courtesy of Magnusson Klemencic Associates.
Construction Manager – Gilbane
finalized until construction of the structure was well underway, Hensel Program Manager – Parsons Brinkerhoff Aviation
Phelps has seen a substantial reduction in field changes attributable to
interferences between separate systems. The BIM model was also very Terminal B
effective during installation of the intricate baggage conveyor system, Design Builder – Hensel Phelps Construction Company
shortening the installation time substantially. Architect – Fentress Architects
Structural – Magnusson Klemencic Associates
Passing through Security
Secure solutions were integrated into the design and layout of Terminal
B, the Terminal B Concourse, the roadways, and the new Rental Car Terry Palmer, P.E., is a Principal at Magnusson Klemencic Associates
Garage. MKA performed blast analysis to establish parameters for (MKA), and head of the firm’s Aviation Specialist Group. He is
parking, fuel tank locations, vehicle check points, and vehicle barriers also co-author of the TSA’s newest blast-resistant provisions in the
without impeding the operation of the airport or approach roadways. “Recommended Security Guidelines for Airport Planning, Design
These secure solutions were woven into the design in a manner that & Construction” published in June 2006. Terry may be reached at
avoided adverse impact to cost or the architectural design of the terminal tpalmer@mka.com.
and concourse.
Figure 5: A fully integrated Revit Building Information Model of Terminal B was used to minimize conflicts, speed construction, and document existing conditions
for future operations. Courtesy of Hensel Phelps.
Conclusion
Even though FRP has already come a long way
in its many uses for structural strengthening Figure 3: Application of FRP on Exterior (Left)
and Interior (Above) of Plum Point Chimney.
and rehabilitation of existing structures, we
have only begun to scratch the surface of this
powerful strengthening tool. As demonstrated
over the past 20+ years, new advancements
and applications will be found through exten-
sive testing and research. Once the structural to see how these relatively expensive materials
testing has validated a particular application, can still be more cost effective when all aspects Scott F. Arnold, P.E. is the Senior Vice-
the next step is to prove that the application of an installation are considered. We expect President and Technical Manager at Fyfe
will provide a cost effective solution when com- the type and number of projects to continue Co. LLC. Scott can be reached via email at
pared to conventional retrofit schemes. It is to grow as we realize a larger market share of scott@fyfeco.com.
interesting to compare these overall costs and our civil infrastructure.▪
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Exhibits Open
Robert D. LiMandri, Commissioner, 8:15 am – 8:30 am Roll Call and Introduction
NYC DOB of Candidates
9:00 am – 10:00 am Wood Frame 7-Story Building 8:30 am – 9:30 am Underpinning
on Shake Table in Japan Tim Lynch, NYC DOB
Steve Pryor, Simpson Strong-Tie 9:30 am – 10:00 am Coffee Break
10:00 am – 10:30 am Coffee Break 10:00 am – 11:00 am Masonry Standards Joint Committee
10:30 am – 11:45 am High Strength Concrete Design Ed Huston, Smith & Huston
Including Freedom Tower 11:00 am – 12:00 pm TBD
Caz Bognacki, Port Authority 12:00 pm – 1:15 pm Lunch Sponsor
of New York and New Jersey Gary Higbee, SINY
11:45 am – 1:00 pm Lunch Sponsor 1:15 pm – 2:15 pm East Side Access
Concrete Institute Board Colin Barratt, MTA
1:00 pm – 2:00 pm Emergency Responder Legislation 2:15 pm – 3:00 pm Afternoon Break
Vicki Arbitrio, Gilsanz, Murray, Steficek 3:00 pm – 4:00 pm AISC Seismic Design Provisions:
2:00 pm – 2:45 pm Afternoon Break Past, Present, and Future
2:45 pm – 3:45 pm Structural Performance in James Malley, Degenkolb Engineers
Fire Conditions 4:00 pm – 5:00 pm Renovation of the
Exhibits Open
Craig Thomas Discovery and Visitor Center, photo courtesy of Nic Lehoux Photography.
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE
combination analysis, structural reliability and practices. He has made the most
and risk analysis of engineered facilities, and profound civil engineering research
as a leader in the technical development and contributions in subjects such as dynamic
implementation of probability-based codified wind load effects, system identification
design standards for building structures. and control, simulation and computational
methods, uncertainty, safety, and risk.
Dan M. Frangopol, Sc.D., P.E., Dist.M.ASCE
Paul F. Mlakar, Ph.D., P.E., Dist.M.ASCE
is a world-renowned expert in several
has been an icon in forensic engineering.
areas of civil engineering, including life-
Going much beyond his high impact
cycle civil engineering, bridge safety and
research and development of new
maintenance-management, structural
capabilities to deal with force protection
systems reliability, and integration of
and terrorism, he has served as a key
lifetime monitoring-maintenance-
individual in a number of the largest and
management and life-cycle cost through
most intense forensic analyses of the last
multi-criteria optimization. He is the
half century.
first to hold the Fazlur R. Khan Endowed
Chair of Structural Engineering and Distinguished Membership is the highest award the Society
Architecture at Lehigh University, one may confer, second only to the title of ASCE President. Members
of the most influential institutions in or Fellows elected to this prestigious and highly selective list have
the development of code provisions for attained acknowledged eminence in a branch of engineering or
structural design and maintenance. its related arts and sciences. To learn how you can nominate an
outstanding professional for Distinguished Membership, please
visit www.asce.org/awards or contact awards@asce.org.
The Villanova University team for their design of the Amigos Ben Sitler of Princeton University for the Design of a Grid-
de Jesus Proposed Dormitory. Student team members included: shell for the University Physics Building, Faculty Advisor: Sigrid
Colin Doyle, Timothy Harrington, Nicholas Martignetti, Adriaenssens. Mr. Sitler designed a steel and glass gridshell roof
Brian Mellen, Richard Runyen, with Faculty Advisors: Shawn as a retrofit over the unused courtyard of the University Physics
Gross and David Dinehart. Amigos de Jesus is a home for the Building. The project utilized an integrated digital design to
disenfranchised boys of Honduras. The expansion of their construction workflow, enabling the design stage to proceed
community requires the building of new facilities to house the rapidly. Included in this workflow was an advanced numeric
first girls on campus. Research into the environment of Honduras form finding method to assure that the architectural form was
was conducted in order to effectively determine the design wind generated from structural principles. This produces a more efficient
and seismic loads which may be experienced by the building. structure, while maintaining a visual order and distinct elegance.
Members of the design team traveled to Honduras to spend a
week at Amigos de Jesus over spring break. During this time,
the design team conducted field tests on the soil conditions,
Errata
SEI posts up-to-date errata information for our
publications at www.SEInstitute.org. Click on The FAMU-FSU College of Engineering Jolley Team for their
“Publications” on our menu, and select “Errata.” design of the Judge S.S. Jolley Bridge. Students that participated
If you have any errata that you would like to submit, include: Lacey Brady, Jacqueline Petrozzino, Brian Reeves, Fausto
please email it to Jim Rossberg at jrossberg@asce.org.▪ Rozon, Samantha Smith, Robert Walters, with Faculty Advisor:
Michelle Roddenberry. The design was for the two-lane Judge S.S.
Jolley Bridge, which will be built parallel to an existing bridge.
To complete the project, the students had to learn new codes,
standards, software, design methods not taught in traditional
undergraduate courses, and prestressed concrete design.
SEI Philadelphia Chapter The student groups made presentations of their winning projects
during the 2010 Structures Congress in Orlando, Florida.
The Philadelphia Structural Technical Group (STG) is the most
recent to become a local chapter of SEI, joining the ranks of nine
other SEI chapters around the US. For a complete listing of SEI
chapters and STGs, visit the SEI Local Activities Division webpage
2011 SEI/ASCE Student
at http://content.seinstitute.org/committees/local.html.
The changeover is a milestone in the long history of the ASCE
Structural Design Competition
Philadelphia section. SEI Philadelphia has more than 450 Enter the 2011 Student Structural Design Competition! Inno-
members. Their activities include arranging guest lecturers, vative projects demonstrating excellence in structural engineering
short courses, field visits, technical meetings with other local are invited for submission. Awards include cash prizes and
groups, promoting PDHs, offering training abroad, and an opportunity to present the winning designs at the 2011 SEI
providing resources and mentoring to engineering students. Structures Congress in Las Vegas, Nevada, April 14-16, 2011.
For more information on SEI Philadelphia, contact Dr. Deadline for Submissions: June 30, 2010
Mohiuddin Ali Khan, P.E., Chair, SEI Philadelphia Chapter For competition guidelines, entry form and a poster to promote
at mohidin@temple.edu. the competition, visit: www.SEInstitute.org.
Some of the articles in C401 change the way the Agreement, and there is no lead or over- Article 7.1
we have been accustomed to doing things. all coordinator. Given today’s project delivery
CASE Document 6-2009 highlights these and schedule practices, it is rare for the SER “…the Consultant grants to the Architect a
items. For instance, did you know you are to have all the information needed for proper license to use the Consultant’s Instruments of
agreeing in C401 to the following: coordination with all other disciplines at the Service in the same manner and to the same
go-to-press date for bid documents. extent as the Architect has granted a license to
Article 1.6 Article 1.5 does state that “the Architect shall the Owner in the Prime Agreement.”
“If applicable, the Architect and Consultant be the administrator of professional services for
agree to share the costs and expenses incurred the project, and shall facilitate the exchange of The Consultant’s Instruments of Service, i.e.
in marketing, promotion, display, and information among the Owner, Consultant and Plans, may be reproduced by the owner, con-
procurement of this project as follows:” other consultants as necessary for the coordination tractor or subcontractors for use in perform-
of This Portion of the Project”, but it stops short ing services or construction for the project.
You may be agreeing to share the cost of mar- of actually placing any duty of coordination This is made clear in Article 7 of AIA Docu-
keting, promotion, display and procurement on the Architect. Coordination issues should ment B101 which C401 makes applicable to
of the projects. Did you include this expense be resolved at the beginning. the Consultant. The Structural Engineer can
in your fee? no longer refuse to allow his plans to be used
Article 4.2 in preparing shop drawings.
Article 2.4 These are a few of the clauses that you should
The Consultant shall provide____ ( ) site be aware of when negotiating your contract
The Consultant shall coordinate all aspects visits…. under the terms of AIA C401. As Art Johnson
of its design of the Work for This Portion of stated in the August 2009 article, you are en-
the Project with the Work designed by the The number of site visits can now be estab- couraged to obtain CASE Document 6-2009
Architect and other consultants, as necessary lished in the Agreement. Site visits in excess of for a more complete commentary. It is also
for the proper coordination of the Project. that number are considered Additional Ser- worth reiterating that many of the Terms
vices. This is clearly a favorable change. and Conditions and Scope of Work are in-
Although this language is essentially un- cluded in the Owner/Architect Agreement,
changed from AIA C141-1997, some who Article 6.2
AIA B101, rather than in AIA C401, and
have not read either AIA contract recently you should always review that as-executed
may be surprised to note that there is no “....the Consultant shall prepare and submit
Owner/Architect Agreement to make sure
burden of coordination on the Architect in to the Architect an estimate of the Cost of the
the terms and changes to that agreement are
Work for This Portion of the Project.”
consistent with your proposal.▪
This section may be intended for Consul-
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The United States has almost universally Federal Building, killing 168 people. Four protective design; that was the responsibility
adopted the International Building Code columns were destroyed; one directly due of the architects (NIST NCSTAR 1).
(IBC 2009) that includes provisions for to blast, and three due to a combination The Port Authority of New York and
design against geographical hazards (snow, of blast and the loss of lateral support. New Jersey adopted the 1968 Edition of
wind, flood and earthquake) and fire. Like most U.S. buildings, the Murrah the New York City Building Code for the
There are no blast resistant structural de- Building met the then current building WTC design. NIST identified at least two
sign provisions in the IBC. In the United code requirements and was conventional code violations that may have contributed
States, recent acts of terrorism against The in design and construction. It had no to the disaster (NIST NCSTAR 1):
World Trade Center, the Pentagon and supplementary ductility or toughness, or • The code required a minimum of four
the Murrah Building in Oklahoma City, seismic resistance that might have mitigated independent means of egress from the
had precipitated disastrous consequences. the blast force (Corley 1998). Studies of observation deck at the top of each
The Chilean earthquake caused extensive strengthening schemes showed that special building. Only three were provided.
nonstructural damage in an area of weak moment frames and perimeter shear walls • The design for both buildings
ground shaking. In contrast, the U.S. could have effectively reduced direct blast- specified a 0.5-inch thickness of
Embassy facility’s performance in the 2010 induced damage (Hayes 2005). sprayed-on fire resistant insulation on
Port au Prince earthquake demonstrated floor truss members in order to meet
that IBC requirements for Seismic Design World Trade Center Towers a 2-hour fire endurance rating. NIST
Categories D or above can mitigate seismic fire tests for 0.75-inch insulation
On September 11, 2001, terrorists flew
damage. These code provisions can also received a rating of 2-hours; the 0.5-
jetliners into the Twin Towers of the World
mitigate terrorist blast attacks. They should inch insulation thickness received a
Trade Center. Although seven buildings in
be applied to all important buildings. rating of 45 minutes.
the complex were destroyed, this article
Building Codes set minimum require-
focuses on the Twin Towers attacks. The
ments to safeguard the public health, safety
and general welfare and are legally enforce-
110-story Towers buildings were office Chile Earthquake Feb 2010
buildings of almost identical structural Current Chilean building codes require
able by the adopting jurisdiction. The IBC
design as vertical structural steel cantilever modern earthquake resistant design and
seismic design provisions are based on
tubes. The planes penetrated the Towers construction. The M 8.8 Chilean earth-
occupancy category and seismic microzo-
buildings and exploded, causing signifi- quake of February 27, 2010, generated
nation maps. For economic reasons, the
cant damage and extensive fires. Designed strong ground shaking throughout Chile.
maximum earthquake ground motion for
to resist the impact of a jetliner crash, the In Concepción, near the epicenter, about
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