Electronic Fundamental 1 RV

SL.
NO TOPIC PAGE NO
1 Atomic structure 1
2 Semi-conductor
3 P-N Junction Characteristic
4 Diodes symbols Characteristic
5 Diode Parameters
6 Diodes in Series and Parallel
7 Silicon Controlled Rectifier SCR
8 TRIAC, DIAC
9 LED
10 Photo Diode
11 Varistor
12 Rectifier Diode (Halfway, Full wave and Bridge)
13 Testing of Diode
14 Basic Transistor (NPN and PNP)
15 Characteristic of Transistor
Common base, common emitter and common collector
16 Load line
17 Model questions
MATTER -ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter. Based on the states of
matter, we have the following states:
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
Crystal line solids:

In these solids, atom and molecules are arranged in a very regular and orderly manner in a
three dimension pattern. This spatial pattern of atoms is called crystal latice structure (or)
lattice array.
Crystalline solids can be further divided into the following:
1. Conductor
2. Insulators
3. Semi-conductors
Conductors:
These materials in which plenty of free electrons are availab le for electric
conduction and they allow the electric current to flow through them easily. Their
specific resistance or resistivity is low. (10-2Ωm)
Insulators:
Those materials which do not allow electric current to pass through them are
called insulators. Their specific resistance or resistivity are very high (
10 12 Ωm).
Semic onductors:
Those materials which have electric properties in between those of good conductors and insulators are
called semi-conductors. Their resistivity lie between those of conductors and insulators. ( 10 -3 Ωm)
What makes some materials good conductors (or) semiconductors (or) insulators? To understand this,
we have to understand the atomic structure of elements.
Atomic structure:
Planetary atomic model was proposed by Niel Bohr. According to this model, atom consists
of a heavy positively charged nucleus and it is made up of protons and neutrons. Negatively
charged electrons are moving in a fixed circular or elliptical orbit around nucleus.
(a)Nucleus:
The central hard core is called nucleus. It contains protons and neutrons. A proton carries a unit positive
charge and neutron has no charge. A neutron is electrically neutral and is as heavy as proton and about
1840 times heavier than electron. The two particles are held together with strong nuclear force. The
positive charge of nucleus is due to protons only and neutron adds only mass.
(b) Electrons:
An electron carries a unit negative charge. Electrons revolve around nucleus in different elliptical
orbits at enormous speed. The charge of an electron is (= -1.6x10 -19c), but has negligible mass.
The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons, therefore the
entire atom is electrically neutral. There is a force of attraction between protons and electrons
(coulombs law) and that force is balanced by centrifugal force (outward), created by their circular
motion. Since the centrifugal force (= mv 2/r) is equal and opposite to force of attraction, electron
remains rotating around the nucleus in the orbit.
Electrons distribution:
According to Plank's quantum theory, an electron can revolve only in certain definite discrete and fixed
orbits and not in any arbitrary orbit. These orbits are designate as K, L, M, N, 0, and P. The orbit close to
nucleus is K and next is L. The maximum number of electrons an orbit can have is 2n 2
n=no of orbit from nucleus’s n=1 for k shell, n=2 for L shell and so on .
Electron distribution rules:
Rule 1 : The maximum number of electrons in the outer most shell cannot exceed eight.
Rule 2: The maximum number of electrons in the shell just prior to outer most shell cannot exceed
eighteen.
Atomic number (Z):
It is the number of protons (or electrons) contained in an atom.
Atomic mass number (A):
It is the total number of protons and neutrons contained in the nucleus of an atom.
Example: For silicon A=28, Z=l4.
It has 14 protons +14 neutrons in nucleus.
It has 14 electrons. Electron distribution is 2,8,4 For germanium A=73 and Z= 32.
It has 32 protons +41neutrons in nucleus.
It has 32 electrons and the distribution is 2, 8, 18, 4.
The atomic number of copper is 29. Its' electronic distribution is 2, 8, 18, 1.
Xenon atom has 2=54.its electron distribution is 2, 8, 18, 18, 8. It's highly stable and an insulator.
Valence electrons:
The electrons occupying the outer most orbit of an atom are called valence electrons and the
outer most orbit is called valence orbit. Valence electrons determine the chemical and
electrical properties of the element. Elements deficient of valence electrons are highly active
and are ready to chemically combine with other elements.
Elements which have one or two valence electrons are good conductors; eg: copper (easy
to remove electron from atom). Elements which have their valence orbits completely
filled are insulator e.g. xenon Elements which have 4 valence electrons are called tetra
valent and are semiconductor e.g. Silicon, Germanium and Carbon.
Orbital energy of electron:
1.The binding energy of electron is less when they revolve in higher orbits. Hence it is
easier to remove electrons from M shell than from L shell.
2. Electrons in the atoms of heavier elements have greater energy than those of lighter
elements, when revolving in the same orbit.
3. Total energy of the electron is negative i.e. it is a binding energy.
The binding energy of electrons in k shell (n=1) = -13.Gev.
The binding energy of electrons in L shell (n=2) = -3.4v.
The binding energy of electrons in M shell (n=3) = -1.51ev.
The binding energy of electrons in N shell (n=4) = 0.85ev.
E=-13.6/n2 ev
The electrons orbiting in an orbit can have certain specific amount of energy only. It cannot have any
energy lying in between two values.
If we want to lift an electron from n1 to n2, we have to give 10.2ev = (13.6) -(3.4). It cannot have any
energy in between these two values. If we try to give, say 8ev, it will not simply accept it because it is
forbidden (by quantum theory) to lie anywhere in between the permitted orbits.
Note:
1. It is easy to remove electrons from higher orbits than from lower ones because binding force
(-ve) is less at top orbits.
2. If an electron falls from higher orbit to lower orbit, energy is released in the form of
radiation.
3. Electron cannot exist in forbidden energy gaps.
4. Electrons at higher orbit are at higher energy level, but binding energy is lesser.
Valence and conduction band

The electrons in outermost orbit are called valence electrons. The energy band occupied by valence
electrons is called valence band and it is the highest occupied band. It can be completely filled or
partially filled.
The electrons which have left valency band are called conduction electrons. The band occupied by
conduction electrons is called conduction band. It may be either empty or partially filled. This is the
lowest unfilled energy band in an atom. In this band electrons move freely and conduct electric current
in solids.
The gap between valence band and conduction band is known as forbidden energy gap. Energy is
required to lift an electron from valence band to conduction band through FEG (forbidden
energy gap).
Bonds in solids:
There are three major types of atomic bonds created by valence electrons.
1.Ionic bonds
In this there is permanent transfer of valence electrons between different atoms.

e.g. Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
2.Metallic bonds:
These bonds exist in metals and alloys. At room temperature, valence electrons are not bound
by any particular atom. They move freely from one atom to another. So, they are called free
electrons. Metals are good conductors because of these free electrons.
3.Covalent bonds:
These bonds occur between similar or dissimilar atoms. In this atoms share electrons from neighboring
atoms and try to fill up its outer most orbits. Covalent bonding occurs mostly in semi-conductors like Si
and Ge.
Only valence electrons have been shown in figure. Each tetravalent silicon atom shares one electron
each with four neighboring atoms, there by completing eight electrons in its outer most orbit. Such
bonds are called covalent bonds and they can be broken by supplying sufficient energy to the materials.
If a bond is broken, an electron is made free and electron leaves behind a vacancy called a positive
Hole. Breakage of each bond results in the production of two charge carriers (one electron and- Hole)
In good conductors, current flow is due to free or conduction electrons only. There is no
hole current in them. In semiconductors, current flow is due to both, electron current and
hole current.
Free electrons require less energy than holes to move them, therefore electrons have
greater mobility. Remember, electrons are free and are in conduction band whereas
holes are in valence band.
NOTE:
1. Conduction electrons are in conduction band and flow freely
2. Holes exist in and flow in valence band.
3. There are two types of current
a) Electron current in conduction band
b) Hole current in valence band.
4. Electrons move almost twice as fast as holes.
Insulators:
Valence electrons are tightly bound to their parent atom.
Insulators have:
1. Full valence band
2. Empty conduction band
3. Large energy gap between them (of several ev)
If temperature is increased, some electrons go to conduction band. This is the reason for negative
temperature coefficient of resistances of insulators. Typical resistivity =10 12Ωm.
Conductors:
Plenty of free electrons are available in conduction band. Conduction band and valence band overlap.
Forbidden energy gap is absent. There are no Holes. Typical resistivity=10 -8Ωm
Semi-conductors:
Electrical properties lie between those of insulator and good conductor. eg.
Germanium and silicon.
At room temperature they have:
1. Partially filled conduction band
2. Partially filled valence band.
3. Very narrow energy gap between them (approx. 1 ev)
◦
At 0 k, they are like perfect insulators. Conductivity increases with temperature. They have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. Typical resistivity=10-30Ωm.
Semiconductors
Types of Semiconductors:
Semiconductors may be classified as under:
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
An intrinsic semiconductor is extremely pure semiconductor or may be defined as one in which the
number of conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes.
At 0°k, all the covalent bonds are intact and there are no electrons in conduction band and no holes in
valence band and it is like insulator
At ordinary room temperature, many electrons possess sufficient energy to jump across small
energy gap from valence band to conduction band. For each electron liberated, a positively
charged hole is created. For every covalent bond broken due to thermal energy, a pair of
charge carriers (one electrons and one hole) are created and they are available for conduction
of electricity.
Semiconductor current consists of electronic current (in conduction band) and hole current (in
valance band).
Fermi level:
The energy level which lies in the center of gravity of conduction electrons and holes weighted
according to their energies.
The charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductors arc not sufficient to put it into proper use
(hence doping).
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Extrinsic semiconductors are those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity
or doping agent has been added in small amount (about 1 part in 10 8).
E.g. When P entavalent atoms (atoms having five valence electrons) are added to pure
semiconductor, the semiconductor becomes extrinsic semiconductor of N type.
Pentavalent materials: Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus, Bismuth etc.
Trivalent materials: Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium etc.
Impurities: Doping materials are called impurities because they alter the structure of pure
semiconductor crystal.
Donor impurity: Pentavalent atoms are called donor atom because, they donate or
contribute electrons to the conduction band of pure semiconductor.
Acceplor impurity : Trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms because each atom accepts
an electron from pure semiconductor and a hole is created.
Doping: The process of adding impurity to pure semiconductor (to increase the no. of charge
carriers) is called doping.
N- type Semiconductor :
When a pentavalent material like antimony is added to pure germanium; N-type
semiconductor is formed. Each antimony atom forms covalent bonds with surrounding four
germanium atoms using its four valence electrons out of five electrons. The fifth electron is
loosely bound to the atom and can easily be excited from valence band to conduction band by
applying electric field or thermal energy. Thus adding one antimony atom has introduced a
conduction electron without creating a positive hole.
It is called N-type because, electrons have negative charge. After donating an electron the atom becomes
positive ion and is firmly fixed into crystal lattice.
In N-type semiconductor electrons are majority carriers (which are produced by doping as well as
due to intrinsic action or due to thermal energy) and holes are minority carriers (which are
produced due to intrinsic action only).
P - Type Semiconductor:
When trivalent impurity like boron is added to pure germanium crystal, P-Type
semiconductor is formed .Boron has three valence electrons and they form covalent bond s with
four surrounding germanium atoms, but one bond is left incomplete, because of shortage of an
electron and that is a hole. Every boron atom added produces a hole. Since hole is a positive
charge it is called P-Type semiconductor. Boron is an acceptor impurity.
In this semiconductor, conduction is due to movement of holes in valence band. Majority carriers
are holes (produced due to doping and also few holes are produced due to thermal energy).
Minority carriers are holes (which are produced due to intrinsic action only).
Ions:
If an atom has loses an electron, it becomes positively charged ion and is fixed in the crystal structure and is
immobile.
If a hole moves away from parent atom it becomes negatively charged ion and is fixed in crystal lattice and is
immobile (or) If an electron is added to an atom, it becomes negative ion .
Conduction in Semiconductor:
When a covalent bond i s broken due low heat energy, electron - hole pair is generated . Electrons
and holes arc charge carriers, they move in opposite direction when an electric potential is applied.
When an electron fills a hole, it is neutralized and is called recombination.
In the external wire, only electrons flow. Holes flow from A to B. Recombination takes place at B. Some
valence electrons break their covalent bonds and the wire at 'A' to go to positive terminal.
Inside the semiconductor there are two currents. They are,
1. Electronic Current le
2. Hole Current Ip
Hole mobility 'is practically half of electron mobility. Electron mobility is more because, they need
less energy to move. Hence NPN transistors are preferred to PNP.
P-N JUNCTJON:
P - N Ju nction:
In a single piece of semiconductor if (either Ge or Si) one half is doped with P type impurity
and the other half is doped with N type impurity, a P - N junction is formed. A P - N
junction cannot be formed by connecting P type material to N material l by Welding etc,
because it will cause in discontinuities across- crystal structure.
During the forma t ion of P - N junction, 1.Deplet ion layer is formed 2. Junction or barrier
potential is developed across the junction.
Depletion layer:
When the junction is formed, there i s a greater concentration of holes in P region
(they are majority carriers) than i n N region. Similarly, concentration of electrons is greater
i n N region (majority carriers) than in P region (minority carriers). Due to this difference in
charge concentration, at the junction region, holes diffuse from P to N region and electrons
from N to P region. After crossing the junction, recombination of free and mobile holes and
electrons take place. After recombination negative ions are formed in P region and positive
ions are formed in N region near the junction. This region contains fixed and immobile ions
and is free from mobile charge carriers. So, the region is called depletion region or
depiction layer (the region is depleted of free and mobile charge carriers).
Junction capacitance:
The fixed ions form parallel plates of opposite charges and the depletion layer contain no
free and mobile charges. The depletion layer behaves like an insulator between the parallel
plates of ions and a capacitance is formed and is called junction capacitance also called
Transition or Space change capacitance (typical value 40 pf).
Junction or Barrier voltage (VB):

Due to charge separation, an electric potential is developed across the junction.
This is known as barrier voltage, potential hi ll, potential barrier, junction potential etc. The
potential has positive polarity on N side and negative polarity on P side. It stops further
flow of carriers across the junction. At room temperature, barrier potential for G e is 0.3V
and for Si it is 0.7V.
Barrier potential depends on doping density, temperature and electronic charge. For a
given junction, doping density and electronic change remain constant. So barrier potential
depends on temperature. When temperature increases, barrier voltage decreases. Reason:
increased temperature creates more free electrons and holes and they diffuse into
depletion layer and it become narrower. For Ge and Si, VB decreases by 2mV/ ◦C
Note:
1. Holes from P side diffuse into N side and the recombine with free electrons.
2. Free' electrons from N side diffuse into P side and they recombine.
3. Due to departure of mobile carrier from both side of junction, depletion layer is formed. The layer
contain only immobile ions
4. These ions sets up barrier potential across the junction and its stop further discussion of charges (VB
stop discussion)
5. The width of depletion layer depends on doping level. For heavy doping- depletion layer becomes thin
and vice versa
Forward biased P N junction:
When positive terminal of battery is connected to P region and negative terminal is connected to N region
of semiconductor, the junction is said to be forward biased.
Under forward bias condition

1. The charge carriers are repelled toward, the junction. Positive terminal of battery repels the
holes from P side and negative terminal or battery repels free electrons from 'N side towards the
junction.
2. Depletion layer narrows.
3. Junction capacitance increases.
4. Barrier potential decreases.
5. Applied potential and barrier potential oppose each other.
When applied voltage is more than the barrier voltage, current starts flowing through the junction .
Total forward current is the sum of hole current and electronic current. Forward biased junction has
a low resistance.
Knee voltage or threshold voltage

It is the forward voltage at which the junction starts conduction. It is practically same as barrier
voltage. It is 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si at room temperature
Forward breakdown voltage:

If the forward voltage is increased beyond a certain safe value, extremely large current will flow which
may destroy the junction due to over heating.
Ge can stand a junction temperature of 1000 C
Si can function up to 1750 c
Reverse biased PN junction
When battery connections to the semiconductor are such that positive is connected to N terminal and
negative is connected to p material, it is said to be reverse biased. In this case:
1. Both holes and electrons move away from the junction.
2. No current flows and no recombination take place.
3. Applied voltage increases the barrier potential (i.e. add up).
4. Width or depletion layer increases.
5. Junction capacitance decreases.
6. Junction offers high resistance.
When reverse voltage is increased, a small amount of reverse current flows which is called leakage
current. As the voltage is increased, the reverse current quickly increases to maximum value or
:-saturation value. If the reverse voltage is increased further, the: reverse current I increases Slightly .
This slight increase: is due to the impurities on the surface: of semiconductors. The small current due to
impurities is called surface leakage current and i t is independent of' temperature. Main leakage current
is due to minority carriers and is dependent on temperature . Leakage current for Ge is more than that
or Si
Junction breakdown:
I f the reverse voltage i s increased, at a poi n t, the reverse current increases sharply and
junction offers almost zero resistance and current is controlled by external resistance connected i n
series. This critical value of voltage i s called break down voltage. It is the critical reverse voltage at
which reverse current increases sharply and is controlled by external series resistor. Break down
voltage depends on the width of depletion region, in turn depends on doping level.
Zener breakdown:
This occurs in junction which are heavily doped. have narrow depletion layer. The electric field set up
at the depict ion layer by the reverse voltage is strong enough to break or rupture the covalent bonds,
thereby generating large electron-hole pair hence large current flows. This generally occurs
below 4V.
Avalanche breakdown:
This occurs in junctions which me lightly doped. have wide depict ion layer. Electric field is not strong
enough to produce zener breakdown. But minority carriers are accelerated by electric field and they
collide with semiconductor atoms in the depletion region and dislodge. the electrons from them. Upon
collision covalent bond s are broken and electron hole pairs· are generated. Further collision. further
production of charge carriers. This leads to an avalanche (flood ) of charge carriers and very high
reverse current flows. Junction offers very low reverse resistance.
Junction capacitance:
Capacitive. Effects are exhibited by PN junction when they are either forward biased (or) reverse
biased.
Transition capacitance (CT) or space charge capacitance (under reverse bias): Typical value of
40pf
By varying the reverse bias the capacitance can be varied. When reverse bias is varied, width of
depletion layer varies, capacitance varies. This property is made use of in varicap or varactor
(b) Diffusion or storage capacitance (under forward bias)

This capacitance cannot be identified in terms of insulator and parallel plates. This
capacitance is present under forward bias condition. It varies directly with forward current.
Typical value 0.02 μF. When the applied voltage is suddenly reversed I F ceases suddenly,
but a lot of majority carriers are in the depletion region. These carriers are unable to get out of
depletion region and hence they flow in reverse direction which is large initially but decreases
gradually. This capacitance creates problem when the junction is required to switch rapidly from
forward to reverse bias. This C is 5000 times CT.
Hall Effect:
If a specimen ( metal or semiconductor) carrying current I is placed in transverse magnetic
field of flux density B, and electric field is developed along the direction perpendicular to
both B and I. This is known as Hall effect.
It is used to:
1. To determine a semiconductor weather N type or P type
2. To find carrier concentra1ion.
3. To measure conductivity of material.
4. To find carrier mobility.
5. To detect magnetic field one million times smaller than that of earth by using Hall Effect magneto
meters.
Electrons will tend to crowd towards left side. Hall voltage developed VH. EH =electric field due to VH.
The EH prevents additional electrons from arriving to left.
Energy band diagram of a P N junction:

P regions are slight y higher than N region. because core attraction of valence electrons ( +3) i n a
trivalent atom is less than core atlraction of valence electrons (+5) i n a pentavalent atom. Therefore tri
valence electrons are in slightly higher orbit and hence at higher energy level.
Multiple choice Questions
1. The maximum number of electron which the M- shell of an atom can contain is
a) 32 b) 8 c)18 d) 50
Principle of electronics by V.K Mehta page-3
2. Electronic distribution of a silicon atom is

a)2,10,2 b)2,8,4 c)2,7,5 d)2,4,8
3. The energy gap between valence band and conduction band and in insulator is about
a)15ev b)1.5ev c)Zero d)0.5ev
4. In a semiconductor, the energy gap between valence band and conduction band is about…….
a) 15ev b) 100ev c) 50ev d)1ev
5. The electrons in the third orbit of an atom have…… energy than electron in the second orbit
a) more b) less c) the same
6. A semiconductor has…………….band
a) almost empty valence b) almost empty conduction
c) almost full conduction
7. Semi conductor has……………. temperature coefficient of resistance

a) positive b) negative c) Zero
8.Forbiden energy gap between conduction band and valence band is absent in
a) good conductor b) Insulator c) semi conductor
Electrical technology by BL Theraja-p-2030
9.The semi conductor in which the number of the conduction electron is equal to number of holes is
a) P- type semiconductor b) N- type semiconductor c) Intrinsic semiconductor
10. At absolute zero temperature, the semiconductor behave as

a) a good conductor b) an insulator c) Semi conductor
11. At absolute temperature , an intrinsic semiconductor has……….

a) a few free electrons b) many holes c) many free electrons d) no holes or free electrons
12. with rise in temperature, the resistance of a semiconductor

a) Increases b) decreases c) remains same
Principle of electronics by VK Mehta p-60
13. When a Pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semi conductor it becomes

a) an insulator b) intrinsic semi conductor c) p- type semiconductor d) N-type semiconductor
14. When a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semi conductor it becomes

a) an intrinsic semi conductor b) p- type semi conductor c)N-type semi conductor d) an insulator
15.An N-type semiconductor is………

a) positively charges b) Negatively charged d) electrically neutral
16. Most widely used semi conductor is

a) silicon b) Germanium c) carbon d) selenium
17. A semiconductor is formed by……bonds

a)covalent b) electrovalent c)co-ordinate
18. In a semiconductor, current conduction is due to

a) only holes b) only free electrons c) holes and free electrons
19. Electron hole pair are produced by

a) Recombination b) Thermal energy c) ionization d) doping
20 .A pure semiconductor is referred as

a) Extrinsic semi conductor b) intrinsic semi conductor c) doped semi conductor d) None
Basic electronics by Grobs Page no: 893
SEMICONDUCTOR
DIODES
Diodes:
When two small pieces of P and N type materials are joined together by heat treatment, a P N junction
diode is formed . Most commonly used materials for forming diodes are. Germanium (Ge) and
silicon(Si).
Ge: has higher electrical conduction than Si, often used in low and medium power diodes.
Si: can be operated at higher temperature, hence more suitable for high power applications
GaAs: Gallium arsenide has desirable features of Ge and Si and increasingly used in new applications.
Construction:
Schematic symbol:
P side is called anode and N side is called cathode. The diode Symbol looks like an arrow that
points from P side to N side. The arrowhead indicates the direction of conventional current when
forward biased. It is the same direction in which holes flow.
Diodes usually have some means to identify the terminals. A color band at one end indicates
cathode. Some diodes have schematic painting on their body. Some have type numbers
preceded by "IN" such as IN 1250, IN 4007.
Working:
A P-N diode is a one way device offering low resistance when forward biased and behaves l like an
insulator when reverse biased. Hence, such diodes are mostly used as rectifiers to convert Ac i n t o Dc
Diode Characteristics:
Forward characteristics: When P terminal is connected to positive and N terminal is connected to
negative of the battery, the diode is said to be forward biased
When forward bias is increased from zero, no current flows in the beginning because barrier potential V B
oppose the applied voltage. When the applied voltage approaches knee voltage, current starts flowing
and it increases slowly in the beginning and increases rapidly with increase in applied voltage. If the
current is not controlled by external resistance, the diode is likely to burn out due to excessive heat
produced
Reverse Characteristic: When anode is connected to negative and cathode is connected to positive of
battery, the diode is said to be reverse biased. When diode is reversed biased no current flows.
However, a small reverse current flow due to minority carriers and the current is called leakage current.
As the reverse voltage is increased, the reverse current reaches saturation value and it is of the order of
micro amperes for Ge and nano amperes for Si
Reverse breakdown voltage:

When reverse voltage exceeds certain value, the leakage current increases suddenly and sharply and
the diode offers zero resistance at this point. When the reverse voltage is increased,' the intense electric
field produced at the junction, breaks some covalent bonds and large number of current carriers arc
produced. As a result large reverse current flows. The voltage at which this occurs is called Zener
voltage. This property is made use of in zener diodes
Effects of temperature on diode:

The working capability of a diode depends on the temperature around it. If the temperature increases
its Ac resistance decrease and current increases to peak value at a low voltage.
Multiple choice questions
1. If arrow head of diode symbol is positive w.r.t bar of the symbol , the diode is………………biased
a) forward b) Reverse c) either forward or reverse
2. Forward resistance of a crystal diode is of the order of

a) KΩ b)Ω c)mΩ
3.The reverse current in a diode is of the order of

a)KA b) mA c) µA d)A
4.A crystal diode is used as

a) an amplifier b) a rectifier c) an oscillator d) a voltage regulator
5. The forward voltage drop across a silicon diode is above

a) 2,5V b) 3V c)10V d) 0.7V
6.The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of

a) conventional current flow v) electronic current flow c) conventional current flow
7. The forward voltage drop across a germanium diode is about

a)0.7V b)3v c)0.3V
8. The leakage current in a crystal diode is due to

a) Minority carriers b) majority carriers c) junction capacitance
9. If temperature of a crystal diode increases, the leakage current….

a) remains constant b) decreases c) increases d) become zero
10. When forward biased a diode

a) block current b) conduct current c) has a high resistance d) drop a large voltage
11. When a PN diode is forward biased:

a) The only current is hole current
b) The only current is electron current
c) The only current is produced by majority carrier
d) The current is produced by both electrons and holes
12. If the doping level of a crystal diode is increased the breakdown voltage
a) remains the same b) is increased c) is decreased
13. A photo diode is normally

a) forward biased b) reverse biased c) Neither forward or reverse biased d) emitting light
14. When the light increases, the reverse current in a photo diode
a) increases b) decreases c) is unaffected
15. A Pn junction that radiates energy as light instead of as heat is called a

a)LED b) photo diode c) Photo cell c) Zener diode
16. To display the digit 8 in s seven segment indicator

a) C must be lighted b) G must be off c) F must be ON d) All segment must be lighted
17. To display digit 0 in a seven segment display

a) A must be lighted b) F must be lighted c) G must be lighted d) All segment must be lighted
18. A LED is basically a………….P-N junction

a) forward biased b) reverse biased c) lightly doped d) heavily doped
19. LEDs are fabricated from gallium compound like gallium arsenide and gallium phosphate because
they
a) are cheap b) are easily available c) emits mole heat d) emit more light
20. Before illuminating a P-N junction photo diode it has to

a) reverse biased b) forward biased c)Switched on d) Switched off
DI ODE PA RA METERS
PIV: (Peak inverse voltage)
Peak inverse voltage or peak reverse voltage or reverse break down voltage (BV).
Peak inverse voltage may be defined as maximum reverse voltage that can be safely applied across a
diode (without causing any damage to i t). In a rectifier diode, the reverse breakdown is usually
destructive. The PIV is mentioned in the data sheet of a diode as VRRM (peak repetitive reverse voltage)
and should not be exceeded
I N 4001 VRRM - 50V,
I N 4002 VRRM – 100V,
I N 4007 VRRM - 1000V.
2 (i) Bulk resistance:

It is the sum of the resistance of P and N type semiconductor materials of diode.
It is usually less than 1 Ω
V= Forward voltage
Vk= Knee voltage
IF= Forward current
It is ohmic resistance and is linear
(ii) Junction Resistance ( rJ ):

It depends on forward Dc current.
r = 25mV/IF mA –for Ge
J
rJ= 50mV/IF mA- for Si

It is non -linear.
Dynamic or AC resistance
rac (or) rd = rB+ rJ

Maximum Dc forward current:
The maximum current a diode can safely handle without causing damage to i t. If the current is too large,
the excessive heat can destroy i t. It is listed i n the data sheet as I max, Ifmax.
Power Dissipation
PD= VD.ID
VD= Voltage drop across diode

ID= Diode forward current
Forward Voltage drop = Power dissipated / Forward Dc current

Knee voltage:
It is the forward voltage at which diode starts conducting. It is approximately equal to barrier
potential( 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si)
Applications
1) As power or rectifier diode
2) As signal diode for modulation and demodulation
3) As zener diode for voltage regulation
4) As varactor diode for tuning of frequency
5) In logic circuit used in computer
Diodes in series and parallel:
Diodes in Parallel:
When the load current exceeds the value of “maximum Dc forward current", the rectifier diode will
be destroyed due to excessive heat produced. To increase the current, similar diodes may be
connected in parallel so that all parallel diodes share current equal l y.
Diodes are con nected in parallel for charging batteries which need large current
Diodes in Series:
When the voltage to be rectified is excessively high (EHT- Extra High Tension), the diode may not be
able to withstand PJ V and hence it will get damaged. In such case, if similar and identical diodes are
connected in series, so that the PIV is equally shared by the diodes.
Example: If the PI V rating of a diode is 2000v, three such diodes may be used in series, so tha t PIV is not
exceeded for each diode
SCR (Silicon Cont rolled Rectifier)
It is a three junction, four layers, PN device having three terminals (Anode, cathode and gate) it consists
of three diodes connected back to back with gate connection. It can control power delivered to load by
switching ON and OFF many thousand times a second, it has the advantages of a switch and a rheostat.
SCR will conduct only when. anode is given positive voltage and cathode is given negative voltage
(Forward bias for any normal diode) and gate is given positive voltage. Once SCR starts conduction
(fired), it continues conduction even when gate voltage is removed.
Operation: When anode is connected to positive terminal and cathode i s connected to negative terminal,
junction s J 1 and J3 are forward biased but J2 is reverse biased, Hence no current flows through SCR.
When anode is connected to negative and cathode is connected to positive junctions J1 and J3 arc
reverse biased and junction J2 is forward biased. No current flows through SCR.
Forwar
d Voltage: When SCR is connected with supply as shown in fig (a) above, no current flows as junction 2
is reverse biased if the anode voltage is increased, at a certain critical value called Forward break over
voltage VBO is reached, J2 breaks down and SCR offers very little forward resistance (0.01ohm to 1.0
ohm) and the voltage drop across i t to low value (1v) current is Iimited by power supply and load
resistance current keeps flowing until circuit is opened briefly.
Reverse Voltage: If we give reverse voltage as shown in fig(b) J 1 and 13 are reverse biased.
No current flows. When zener break down occurs and very high reverse current flows and may
destroy SCR.
Firing and Triggering: Generally SCR is operated with anode voltage slightly less than VBO
and triggered into conduction by low power gate pulse once switched on gate has no control
on the device current. Gate signals can be (a) De firing signal (b) Pulse signal.
Turning off SCR: SCR once fired remains on even when gate trigger pulse is removed. This
property is called Latching. SCR is a latching device.
Methods to turn off SCR: SCR can be switched off by

a) Anode current interruption
b) Reversing polarity of Anode - Cathode voltage
c) Reducing current through SCR below holding current (Ih) also called low current dropout.
Application or Uses:
1) Mainly u sed to control power delivered to load. (can control power up to 10M w,
rating of 2000A at J.8Kv)
2) Motor speed control
3) Relay control
4) Regulated power supply
5) Heater control
6) Phase control
7) Battery charger
By using battery source of analog multimeter is ohms x I range SCR can be tested. Touch
the negative lead (Black lead caries positive of battery) on anode and positive lead (Red
lead carries negative of battery) on cathode. SCR is forward biased momentarily short
anode and gate with a piece of wire to give positive voltage to gate and sec SCR fires and
current flows which is indicated by the meter. The current flows even after removing the
short between anode and gate.
Note: The meter should be able to provide a current which is more than holding current (lh) therefore
meter range should be lowest range of ohms (R x L).
Triggering current is obtained from supply itself, if R is adjusted to low value. SCR Will trigger almost
immediately) at the commencement of positive half cycle. If Value of R is set high, SCR will switch on
only at an angle (after a certain positive value of signal).T h us SCR can be made to switch on at any point
between 0 and 90 degree of positive half cycle. It will continue to conduct till supply reaches zero below
changing polarity. During negative half cycle, it does not conduct as it is reverse biased thus power
delivered to R L can be varied by varying the value of R. Diode D ensures only positive voltage is given to
gate.
Latch circuit: SCR is a latching device
Col lector current of Q1 is also base current of Q2. Collector current of Q2 is also base current of Q 1 .If
the voltage between A and C is such that junction J2 breaks down, current through the device begins to
rise. Since base is connected to the collector of other transistor, Regeneration takes place and current
reaches maximum value.
TRIAC
Triac is a bidirectional thyristor which can conduct in either direction ." Triac" is short form of
'Triode ac'. It is a three terminal device and it conducts in both direction and hence called triac. It acts
like' two SCRS in reverse parallel (with a common gate)
It has three terminals A1, A2 and G. G is closer to A1. Triac responds to both positive and negative
voltages at the anodes and hence the electrodes are named A 1 and A2 and the concept of cathode is
dropped.
Operation:-
a) When A2 is +ve and A1 is – ve , the gate can be given either +ve or -ve to Turn on the Triac.
b) When A1 is + ve and A2 is ve, the gate can be given either +ve or -ve to turn on the Traic.
Thus there are four triggering modes, two each for two anodes .
Opening of Triac(switching OFF of Triac)

Low current drop out is the only way to open a triac .
Triac exhibits same characteristics as that of SCR for either polarity of voltage. Therefore triac has latch
current in either direction
Application
One of the fundamental application is to control ac power to a load by switching ON and OFF during
positive and negative half cycles of input ac power.
During + ve half cycle of input D1 is forward biased, D2 is reverse biased and gate is +ve w.r.t. A1.
During -ve half cycle, D1 is reverse biased and D2 is forward biased and gate is +ve wrt A 2 . By adjusting R
conduction angle can be varied.
Other applications:
1. As a static switch to tum ac power OFF & ON.
2. For light control (dimmer) 3.For motor speed control 4.To minimize radio interference
Disadvantage:
It takes longer time to recover to off state. Its use is limited to ac supply frequencies of up to 400 HZ
DIAC
Diac is a two terminal device which can breakdown in either direction. Hence it is called Diac. It is
equivalent to a Triac without its gate terminal.
Voltage applied across a diac in either direction turns ON one diode, reverse biasing the other,
(when the applied voltage exceeds diac's break over voltage).Hence it can be switched from
OFF to ON state for either polarity of the applied voltage.
Use:- Since diac has symmetrical bidirectional switching characteristics. diacs an
frequently used as triggering devices in triac phase control circuit s used for light
dimming, universal motor speed control (Fan speed control ) and heat control.
Silicon Controlled switch:(SCS)
Silicon controlled switch (SCS) is a four layer, four terminal PNPN device having a Anode A,
cathode C, anode gate G1 and cathode gate G2.In fact, it is low current SCR with two gate
terminals
Switchin g ON and OFF:-
The device may be switched ON or OFF by. a suitable pulse applied at either gate. A negative pulse is
required at anode gate G 1 Lo turn the device ON where as positive pulse is needed to turn it OFF.
Similarly, at cathode gate G2, a negative pulse is required to switch the device OPF and a positive pulse
to turn it ON.
Explanation:-
When a negative pulse is applied at G1 it forward biases Q1 ( being PN P) Which is turned ON. The
resulting heavy collector current lc, being the base current of Q 2, turns it ON . Hence SCS is
switched ON. Positive pulses at G1 reverse bias E/ B Junction of Q 1 there by switching it OFF.
Application :-
1. Used in cou n ter, register and timing circuits of computers.
2. Pulse generator
3. Voltage sensors
4. Oscillators- SCS has much reduced turn- OFF time compared to SCR
LIGHT - EMITTING D I O DE ( LE D)
LED is a special purpose diode which emits light when forward biased. When LED is forward biased, the
electron from n-type material cross the Pn junction and recombine with holes in the p type material.
Recall that the free electrons are in the conduction band and are at higher energy level than the holes in
the valence band. During recombination, the electrons release extra energy in the form of light. In
germanium and silicon diodes the released energy is in the form of heat. LEDs are not made from
germanium or silicon
LEDS are made by using elements like gallium, phosphorus and arsenic. By varying the quantities of
these elements, it is possible to produce different colors.
E.g. If gallium arsenide (Ga As) is used for manufacturing, LED will produce Red light
Ga As------Red
Gap---------Green
Ga Asp-----Yellow
Most common colors of LEDS are Red, green, yellow and orange.LED emits no light when reverse
biased.
Operating Voltages and current :
The forward voltage rating of most LEDs is from 1V to 3V and forward current rating range from 10MA to
50MA. A series resistance is connected to keep the current through LED with in safe value
Reverse break down voltage:

LEDS have low reverse voltage ratings. They have maxi mum reverse voltage rati ng
between 3 volts and 5volts.They are easily destroyed with high level of reverse bias.
Protecting LEDS against reverse bias : -

To protect LED agai nst high reverse bias, a rectifier diode is connected parallel to
LED (but i n verted) as shown i n diagram.
If the reverse voltage exceeds the reverse voltage rating of LED, the rectifier diode will be turned on and
only 0.7V will be applied across LED .
Multi- color LEDS:-
A LED that emits one color When forward biased and another color when reverse biased is called
multi-color LED. They actually contain two Pn junctions that are connected in reverse - Parallel.
When A is positive left LED glows and when B is positive right LED will glow. They are of different
colors.
Advantages of LED:
LED is a solid state light source. They have following advantages.
1. They operate on low voltage
2. They have longer life (more than 20 Years)
3. They are capable of fast ON-OFF switching
Applications of LEDS:
Most common applications are
1. As a power indicator. LED can be used to indicate whether power is on or not.
2. Seven segment display: They are often grouped to form seven segment display.
3. Used in video displays, optical communication etc.
Some applications: Circuits
Photo diode
They are junction type photo conductive devices. They are 3 types
1. PN-photo diode.
2. PIN photo diode.
3. Avalanche photo diode.
PN junction photo diode:

A reverse biased PN junction has a small amount of reverse saturation current Is or Io due to thermally
generated electron hole pair. The number of this minority Carrier depends on the intensity of light falling
on the junction. When light energy bombard PN Junction it can dislodge valence electrons & produce
current carriers (minority).Therefore, light falling on the junction can control reverse current.
The reverse current that flows when no light falls on junction is called dark current. If the light is
stronger, reverse cu rrent is larger. If light is brighter, reverse current is more. It can vary the
current by a factor of 20.
Uses:
A photo diode can turn its current ON and OFF in nano seconds. It is one of the fastest photo
detectors.
1. Light detection.
2. De-modulation.
3. Switching.
4. Optical communication equipment.
5. En coders.
6. High speed switching and logical circuits.
In photo diode:
A layer of intrinsic silicon is sandwiched between two highly doped P and N silicon materials. They
have faster response time than PN photo diode. In these diodes transit time of electron hole pair is
reduced as they have less distance to travel. Thick layer of I material ensures absorption of most
incident light.
They have ultrafast switching speed, less noise, widely used for detecting laser pulses and ultra fast
switching
Avalanche photo diode:

They operate in the avalanche break down region. Due to avalanche effect, more carriers are
produced to achieve photo multiplication of 50 or so. They are also ultra-fast, can operate at GHZ and
have excellent signal to noise ratio.
14. Varistors
It is a semiconductor device (like back to back zeners) with a high breakdown voltage in either
direction. It is also called transient suppressor. It will clip all spikes above break down voltage and
protect the equipment’s against high voltage spikes.
Due to lightning, power line faults, reactive load switching etc Ac power line may contain high voltage
spikes or dips and other transient which may damage electronic equipment. Some equipment use filter
between power line
and primary transformer to eliminate the problem of transients.
By using varistor in the primary side of transformer, all spikes above break down voltage will be
clipped as varistor short circuit above break down voltage. E.g.: Varistor V I30 LAZ has breakdown
voltage of 184v and a peak current of 400A. It clips all spikes above 184v. (Equivalent to 130v Ac)
FUNCTION OF DIODE –RECTIFIER
Rectification: The process of conversion of AC into DC is known as rectification and rectifier is a
device which converts AC into DC. There are many types of rectifier like
1) Selenium rectifier
2) Copper oxide rectifier
3) Solid state rectifier
Solid state rectifier: P-N diode. E.g: 1N 4001, By127
During positive half cycle ( when A is positive), the diode forward biased and it conducts and gives the
output pulse. During next half cycle( A become negative), the diode is reverse biased and does not
conduct. Therefore the output is pulsating Dc. To smoothen the pulsating Dc, a reservoir
capacitor( electrolytic capacitor of large value) is connected. During positive half cycle, the diode
conducts and charges the capacitor to peak value. During the next half cycle, when the diode does not
conduct, the capacitor discharge and supplies current to load.
Ripple: The Variation i n the output voltage is called ripple. Ripple frequency of a half wave
rectifier is same as input frequency(50Hz).
PIV=Vm. If filter capacitor is used PIV= 2Vm
Output voltage: The average value of Dc output= Peak value/π(pi)=0.318xpeak value
Since the diode conduct only for half cycle, the output is half of average value= 0.637/2=0.318
of peak value
Average value of Ac=0.637 of peak value

Rms value= 0.707 of peak
Disadvantages: 1. Efficiency is poor (40.6%).
2. Regulation very poor.
Advantages: cheaper, Resistor can be used in place of Transformer.
2. Full wave Rectifier (Half voltage Full wave rectifier)
ln full wave rectifier, full wave i:s rectified. During positive half cycle D1 condu cts and during
negative half cycle D2 conducts. The output will be two pulses for each cycle of input. Hence it is
called Ful l wave rectifier.
i) PIV = 2Vm for each diode.
ii) Efficiency is high (81 .2%)
iii) Ripple frequency is 100Hz
iv) Centre tapped transformer is needed
v) De magnetic saturation is less
Output voltage= Double of half wave rectifier(0.637 of peak voltage)
Bridge rectifier: It is the most frequently used circuit for Dc power supply it requires four diodes
During positive half cycle (when A become positive and B become negative), Diodes D1 and D3 are
forward biased and they conduct and charge C to Vm. During negative half cycle (A become negative and
B becomes positive) D2 and D4 conduct and charge the capacitor. Thus both the half cycle are rectified.
Full voltage of secondary winding of transformer is rectified hence it is also called full voltage full wave
rectification
The average output voltage is 0.636 of Vm
PIV=Vm(Total PIV= sum of secondary voltage Vm and V across RL Vm= 2Vm).This voltage is divided
among two open diodes.
PIV across each diode=Vm
Ripple frequency= 100Hz
Efficiency= High (81.2%)
Advantages:
1.No center tap transformer is required
2. Smaller transformer are required because full voltage of secondary is rectified
3. It has less PIV rating per diode
4. High efficiency
5. Suitable for high voltage application
Disadvantage: Four diodes are required
Bleeder Resistor: I t is a high value resistor connected across t he ou tput voltage. The value is
chosen to allow 10% of total current.
1. It improves the voltage regulation

2. It provides safety to technicians handling the equipment. When the equipment is switched
off, it provide a path for filter capacitor to d ischarge. If the capacitor is not d ischarged, it can be
dangerous for technician to work in the equipment.
TESTING OF DIODES
A diode can be tested for serviceability by using a diode checker or an ohm meter ( or ohm meter scale of
a multi meter). The ohm meter scale of a multi meter has its own DC source. This DC source is used for
testing the diode by giving forward and reverse bias. Secondly it enables us to know which terminal is
anode and which terminal is cathode.
Testing Procedure (By using Analog multi meter)
Selector switch of the ohm meter should be placed in Rx100.Connect black lead of the meter to anode
and Red lead of meter to cathode as shown in below figure.
(NOTE: - The black lead of the meter carries positive voltage and red led carries negative voltage in most
of the analog meter). Since the diode is forward biased, it starts conducting and the ohm meter reading
should be less than 100Ω. Now reverse the leads as shown in figure below. Since the diode is reverse
biased, it does not conduct and ohm meter should read more than 5000Ω
1. A low resistance reading in one direction (forward) and high resistance reading in the other direction
(reverse bias) indicates that diode is serviceable.
2. Low resistance reading in both directions indicate that the diode is shorted
3. High resistance reading in both directions indicate that the diode is open
4. Before testing a diode, at least one lead of the diode should be disconnected from circuit.
Identification of anode and cathode

The anode and cathode terminals of the diode can be determined by observing the polarity of voltage
given. When the ohm meter shows low reading, the terminal which gets +Ve voltage ( through black
lead) is anode, because diode conducts only when anode gets +ve voltage and cathode -Ve voltage
Testing procedure by using Digital multi meter:- (DMM)

Digital mul ti meters generally have a diode testing position. Select diode Testing
position and test the diode by giving forward bias and reverse bias. D uring forward
bias a low value is indicated in the display and during reverse bias, a high value is
indicated or 'OL' (over load) is indicated in some models.
(NOTE: - Digital multi meter provides DC voltage for testing diode with polarity just opposite to that
of analog meter. Red lead provides positive voltage and black lead provides negative voltage)
In diode check position, the meter displays actual forward voltage drop of the diode in volts during
forward bias, hence it shows a low reading. During reverse bias, it shows a high voltage drop by
indicating 'over load ' OL
If diode check position is not provided in DMM, use Ω function and check the diode as usual by
applying forward bias and reverse bias. During forward bias, meter indicates low resistance and
during reverse bias meter shows high resistance
Anode and cathode can be identified by observing polarity of the voltage applied to anode or
cathode. (A diode conducts only when + ve voltage is given to anode and negative voltage to
cathode)
BASIC TRANSISTOR
The word transistor is derived from two words” Transfer Resistor” because it is basically a resistor
that amplifies and transfers electrical signal from input resistance to output resistance.
Construction
It consists of two back-to-back P-N junction manufactured in a single piece of semiconductor. One type
of semiconductor is sandwiched between two layers of the other type. There are two type s of
transistors as shown below.
There are two junctions

1) Emitter –Base junction(E/B)
2) Collector base junction(C/B)
a. The arrow head is always at the emitter
b. For normal operation collector and base have same polarity with respect to emitter
c. The direction of arrow indicate direction of conventional current
E.g. If emitter is given positive, base and collector are given negative with respect to emitter
If emitter is given negative, both base and collector are given positive with respect to emitter
Emitter: It is more heavily doped than any other region, because it has to supply majority charge carriers
(electrons or holes) to the base.
Base: It is lightly doped and very thin(10 -6m) to keep recombination to minimum. Light doping means
that free electrons have a long life time. Thin base means that electrons have a short distance to reach
collector Because of these two reasons, most of the injected electrons pass through the base to
collector.
Collector: Its main function is to collect majority charge carriers through the base. It is
made physically larger than emitter, because it has to dissipate much greater power. The
doping level is intermediate. Since it is physically larger region, a transistor cannot be
inverted. (That is collector cannot be used as emitter and emitter cannot be used as
collector).
Biasing of a Transistor:
For proper working of a transistor for normal operation,
1) Emitter-Base junction is always forward biased, and
2) Collector-Base junction is always reverse biased.
For a PNP transistor, both collector and base are negative with respect to emitter. Of
course, the collector is more negative than base.
For NPN transistor, both collector and base are positive with respect to emitter. Collector is
more positive than base.
The following diagram illustrate the biasing of PNP and NPN transistors
Different potentials have been given double subscripts. The first subscript represents higher potential.
VBE represents E at higher potential i.e. positive
NOTE:
Base and collector have same polarity with respect to emitter.

1. If emitter has positive voltage(PNP), base and collector are given negative potential of course
base has less negative and collector has more negative voltage
2. In case of NPN transistor , emitter has negative voltage and base and collector has positive
voltage , base has less positive voltage and collector has high positive voltage
WORKING OF A TRANSISTOR
In a NPN transistor, emitter and collector are made up of N type semiconductor and base
is made of P type semiconductor. The majority carriers in emitter are electrons and
minority carriers are holes. The majority carriers in base are hole and minority carriers are
electrons. Electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in collector. E/B
Junction is forward biased and C/B junction is reverse biased as per biasing rule.
When forward bias between emitter and base is more than knee voltage, large number of electrons are
injected to base region from emitter. (Emitter is heavily doped to supply large number of carriers).
In the base region, small numbers of holes are available as majority carriers, due to light
doping and width being very small. The holes are neutralized by recombination of
electrons and holes. This constitutes base current. The remaining large numbers of
electrons are swept away to collector due to high positive voltage available at collector.
This consti tutes collector current.
Relation between IE, IB and IC

IE = IB +IC
Example:
If emitter current IE = 100mA.
Base current IB =2mA
Collector current = IE -IB = 1 00-2 = 98mA
Alpha (α) = current gain = collector current/emitter current = 98/100 = 0.98
Transistor Dc current gain ratio:

Current gain alpha(α) is always less than unity
IE=100, IB=2, IC=98

IE= 1, IB=0.02, IC=0.98
IE:: IB : IC::1:(1- α): α

In a PNP transistor, emitter and collector are made of P-type semiconductor, whereas base is made of N-
type of semiconductor. The majority carriers in emitter are holes and minority carriers are electrons. In the
base region electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers. As per biasing rule, E/B
junction is forward biased and C/B junction is reversed biased
When forward bias between emitter and base is more than knee voltage, large numbers of holes are
injected into base region. Base being lightly doped and is made of N type semiconductor, small number of
electrons are available at the base as majority carriers. Recombination takes place between these
electrons and holes and this constitutes base current. Remaining large number of holes are swept away
to collector region as collector has high negative voltage with respect to emitter. This constitutes collector
current.
Why NPN transistors are preferred to PNP transistors?

Current flow in NPN transistor is due to electrons (majority carriers). Since electrons have greater mobility
(twice that of holes), they can respond to high frequencies. In PNP transistor, current flow is due to holes.
Holes are not so mobile as electrons. Hence, PNP transistors cannot respond to very high frequencies
due to high transit time effect. Hence NPN transistors are preferred to PNP transistors.
CURRENTS IN A TRANSISTOR
(CURRENT GAINS AND THEIR RELATION)
Cu rren ts in a Transistor:
1. Emitter current IE: It is the largest current in a transistor.
2. Base current IB: Base current is the least current as base is lightly doped end
width is very less.
3. Collector current IC: collector current is slightly less than emitter current and is
given by IC = IE - IB.
NPN Transistor:
In case of NPN transistor, current flow is due to flow of mobile electrons. (Majority carriers).Though
majority carriers in base (p type semiconductor) are holes, they are neutralized due to recombination
and the current flow is mainly due to electrons.
PNP Transistor:
In case of PNP transistor, current flow is due to flow of mobile holes.(majority carriers in
emitter and collector). Though the majority carriers are electrons in the base, they are
neutralized during recombination and the current flow is due to flow of mobile holes.
Current gains in a transistor:

1) Alpha dc: The ratio of collector current to emitter current is called de alpha of a transistor.
Alpha dc = -IC/IE
It is always less than 1
It is also called forward current transfer ratio (-hFB) F stands for forward, B stands for
common base. Dc denotes that the definition for dc values of Ic and I E. Alpha is a measure
of quality of a transistor. Higher the value of alpha better is the transistor.
αac= Δ IC / Δ IE
It is the ratio of change in collector current to change in emitter current. For all practical
purpose alpha dc = alpha ac = alpha
Negative sign indicates IE and IC flow IN and OUT
2. Beta dc: (βdc) (for CE configuration)
It is the ratio of dc collector current to dc base current
βdc= Ic/ Ib (or) Ic=β. IB

It is also called common emitter dc forward transfer ratio written as HFE
βac
It is the ratio of change in collector current to change in base current
βac= ΔIc/ ΔIb = hfe

It is possible to have β as high as 500
Relationship between alpha and beta:
α =β / 1+β, α= IC / IE
β=α / 1- α, β= IC/IB
Relationship between transistor currents:
The three transistor dc currents always bear the following ratio
IE: IB: IC::1(1-α):α
Leakage currents in a transistor: I CBO (or) I co:

As per biasing rule, C/B junction is reverse biased for majority carriers. But it is forward bias for thermally
generated minority carriers. Therefore current flows due to minority carriers even when emitter is
disconnected from its Dc supply. This current is called leakage current I CBO (Current from collector to base
with emitter open) or simply called ICO.
It flows in the same direction as the collector current of majority carriers (Because the
minority carriers are of opposite polarity).
Since it is a PNP transistor, the majority carriers are holes and minority carriers are electrons.
Reverse current is electronic current which flows in opposite direction to conventional current. We
draw arrow to show the direction of conventional current (hole current). Electronic current flows in
opposite direction. The collector current consists of main current (hole current) and leakage current
due to minority carriers (electrons)
NOTE:
The leakage current ICBO is extremely temperature dependent, because it is made up of
thermally generated minority carriers. ICBO doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature for Si
and 6°C for Ge
Thermal Runaway:
The leakage current is highly temperature dependent. For every 6◦c rise in the temperature,
collector current increases two times (double) for Ge. and for every 1◦ c rise in
temperature, Collector current doubles for Si
A slight increase in Ico will affect lc considerably. Any increase in Ico is magnified (I+β)
times ie.200 to 300 times. As lc increases, collector power dissipation increases, thereby
increasing the temperature. Due to rise in temperature, lco and hence le increases beyond
safe value and transistor gets damaged due to excessive heat. This is known as thermal
runaway.
Remedy:
1) By using stabilized circuits, the collector current can be controlled to be with in safe
value. By using heat sink, the temperature is controlled.
2) By using thermistors of positive temperature co-efficient in emitter ccts, collector

current is controlled. When emitter current increases, the temperature of thermistor
increases, its resistance value increases and controls the current within safe value
and prevents thermal runaway.
COMMON- BASE AMPLIFIER
Input signal is injected into emitter base circuit and output is taken from collector base circuit.
EB junction is forward biased by VEE and C/B junction is reversed biased by Vcc. Working point
or ‘Q’ point is determined by DC batteries along with Rc and RE. The voltage VCB is given by
equation VCB=VCC-ICRC
When no signal is applied to the input circuit, there is no output signal, the output just sits at Q-
point.
Circuit operation
When positive half cycle of signal is applied, then

1. Forward bias is decreased because VB is already negative wrt ground
2. IB decreases
3. IE and IC decreases ( both are B times IB)
4. Drop across RC decreases
5. Collector voltage VCB increases. Thus positive half cycle is produced
Amplification:
The input circuit has low resistance where the output circuit has a very large resistance.
The changes in the input current (IE) and the changes in the output current IC are almost
same. AC drop across RL is very large due to high value of resistance. Hence changes
in VCB are much larger than changes in input signal
Voltage gain: AV=r0/rin = r0/re

Current gain: Ai=Δ Ic / Δ IE= ꝏ is less than 1
Power gain: AV.Ai,GP= 10 log10 P0/P1 db
Characteristics:
1. Input resistance is very low (30-150)Ω.

2. Output resistance very high (500k).
3. Current gain α < 1 .
4. Voltage gain very large (1500 limes).
5. Power gain up to 30 db (1000 times).
6. No phase reversal
Uses:
Matching a low impedance circuit to high impedance circuit. It has high stability of collector current with
temperature changes.
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
Here, base is the driven element. The input signal is injected to the base emitter
circuit .and output is taken from collector-emitter circuit E/B junction is forward biased
and C/B junction is reverse biased. 'Q' point is decided by VCC along with RB and RC
IB= VBB/RB IC=βIB
Circuit operation:
1. VBE is increased (Already is positive wrt ground)

2. Increase in forward bias.
3. IB increases
4. IC increases β times IB
5. Drop across RC increases (ICRC)
6. VCE decreases. Hence negative half cycle is obtained i.e. positive going input
signal becomes negative going output signal. So, there is phase reversal of input
signal
Characteristics of a CE amplifier:
1.lt has moderately low input resistance ( 1 k to 2k).
2. Its output resistance is moderately large (50k).
3. Its current gain (β) is high.
4. It has high voltage gain of the older of 1500 or so
5. It produces very high power gain of the order of I 0,000 times.
6.It produces phase reversal of input signal
Uses:
Most widely used configuration because of large gains in voltage, current and power. It's
moderately low input impedance and moderately large output impedance arc suitable for many
applications.
COMMON- COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER
The input signal is injected into base collector circuit and output signal is taken out from
emitter collector circuit. E/B junction is forward biased by V EE and CB junction is
reversed biased by Vcc. The standing or quiescent IB and IE are set by Vcc and VEE
along with RB and RE
Circuit operation
When positive half cycle of signal is applied
1. Forward bias is increased since VBE is positive wrt collector i.e., ground.
2. Base current increases.
3. Emitter current increases.
4. Drop across RE increases.
5. Hence output is increased. (Drop across RE is the output).
So, positive going input signal results in positive going output signal i.e., input signals and
output signals are in phase.
Characteristics:
1. High input impedance (20 - 500k).

2. Low output impedance (50 - 1,000 ohms).
3. High current gain of (l+β).
4. Voltage gain is less than 1.
5. Power gain is low (10 to 20db).
6. No phase reversal between input and output signal.
Uses:
1. For impedance matching: For connecting a circuit having high output impedance to one
having low input impedance.
2. For circuit isolation.
3. As two way amplifier since it can pass a signal in either direction.
4. For switching circuits.
Note. A common collector circuit is also known as emitter follower.
Multiple choice questions
1.Which transistor region id very thin and lightly doped?

a) emitter region b) the collector region c) the anode region
d) the base region
Basic electronics by Grob's (10th edition) Page.905)
2. Which region of transistor is most heavily doped?

a) the emitter region b) the collector region c) the gate region
d) the base region
3. In a transistor which is the largest of all doped region?

a) The emitter region b) the collector region c) the gate region
4. For a transistor to function as an amplifier

a) both the EB and CB junction must be forward biased
b) both the EB and CB junction must be reversed biased
c) the EB junction must be forward biased and the CB junction must be reversed biased
d) the CB junction must be forward biased and the EB junction must be reversed biased
5. For a typical transistor, which two current are nearly the same
a) IB and IE b) IB and IC c) IC and IE d)None
6.When a transistor is in saturation

a)VCE=VCC b) IC=0A c)VCE=0V d)VCE= ½ VCC
7. The βdc of a transistor equals

a) IC/IE b) IB/IC c) IE/IC d) IC/IE
8. The α dc of a transistor equals

a) IC/IE b) IB/IC c) IE/IC d) IC/IE
9. In a transistor which current is the largest?

a) IC b) IB c) IE d) ID
10.In what operating region does the collector of a transistor act like a current source?
a) the active region b)the saturation region c) the cut off region d) the breakdown region
11. On the schematic symbol of a PNP transistor

a) The arrow points out on the emitter lead
b) The arrow points out on the collector lead
c) The arrow points in on the base lead
d) The arrow points in on the emitter lead
Basic electronics by Grob’s (10th edition) Page.905)
12. On the schematic symbol of NPN transistor

a) The arrow points out on the emitter lead
b) The arrow points out on the collector lead
c) The arrow points in on the base lead
d) The arrow points in on the emitter lead
13. Hybrid parameters symbol hfe is used to indicate

a) αdc of a transistor b) βdc of a transistor c) voltage gain of a transistor d) Power gain of a transistor
14. The end point of a dc load line are labeled

a) ICQ and VCEQ b) IC(sat) and VCE(off) c) IC(off) and VCE(sat)
15. Which of the following techniques produces the most unstable Q point
a) Voltage divider bias c) emitter bias c) collector bias d) base bias
16. The most popular way to bias a transistor is to

a) Voltage divider bias b) base bias c) collector bias d) emitter bias
17. Emitter bias with two power supplies provides a

a) Very unstable Q point b) Very stable Q point c) Large base voltage
18. What is the βdc of a transistor whose αdc is 0.996?

a) 249 b) 100 c) approximately 1 d) impossible to determine
19.With voltage divider biasing, how much is the collector emitter voltage, VCE, When the transistor is
cut off
a)VCE= ½ VCC b) VCE=VCC c)VCE=0V
20. In a transistor amplifier, what happens to the collector voltage, V C, when the collector current IC
increases
a) VC increases b) VC stays the same c) VC decreases d) Impossible to determine
LOAD LINE
A load line is a straight line which describes graphically the relationship between possible voltage and
current values of a circuit. It is drawn between saturation current and cut off voltage or a
transistor.
DC Load Line:
To draw a load line, we need to know

1. Saturation current of transistor
2. Cut off voltage of VCE.
When the transistor is saturated, it acts as a closed switch and voltage drop across CE is 0 volts and the
entire voltage drops in RL. Therefore current is given by Ic = VCC/ RL.
When the transistor is cut off, it acts as an open switch and the entire voltage VCC appears across
CE. Load line can be drawn only if VCC and RL are known.
Example:
Saturation current of transistor VCE=0, Ic sat=30/5k= 6mA
Cut off voltage= VCE=30V= Vcc
VCE=VCC (because there is no drop across RL and entire VCC appear across CE)
When VcE is 20v lC will be 2mA. DC load line has negative slope. (AB =-1/RL).
Quiescent point: (or) operating point.

It is a point on the de load line. which represents the values of le and VcE that exists in a transistor
circuit when no input signal is applied.
Active Region:
All points lying between cut off and saturation points of a load line from active region'.
The best position of Q point is midway between saturation and cut off point (centre of
load line) where VcE = ½ VCC
'Q' Point And Nature of Output:

Where Q point is near cut off, negative swing of signal drives the transistor to cut off
and half cycle is cut off. (CE configuration NPN) and the output is distorted.
When Q point is near saturation point, the output signal will be distorted as during half
cycle the transistor is driven to saturation. When Q point is at center, the output is maximum and
signal is undistorted.
AC Load Line:
AC load line takes into account the ac load resistance whereas DC load line considers only dc load
resistance.
AC load line is steeper than de load line but both intersect at Q point determined by biasing de voltage. Ac
load line is steeper because ac signal sees less load resistance
MODULE 4 CATEGORY B1
1. The PIV rating of each diode in a bridge rectifier is......... that of the equivalent center tap rectifier
1. One half.
2. Same as.
3. Twice.
4. four times .
(Ref: VK MEHTA Principles of Electronics page no. 102)
2. LEDs are made from

J. Silicon
2. Germanium
3. Elements like gallium phosphorus and arsenic
3. The varactor is usually

l. Forward biased.
2. Reverse biased .
3. Unbiased,
4. In the breakdown region.
4. A photo diode is normally

l. Forward biased.
2. Reverse biased.
3. Neither forward nor reverse biased.
4. Emitting light.
5. The barrier potential of a PN junction for silicon is about

1. 3V.
2. 0.3V.
3. 0.7V.
6. If the arrow of the diode symbol is positive w.r.t bar then diode is ......... biased
1. Forward.
2. Reverse.
3. Either forward or reverse.
4. None of the above.
7. The filter circuit which gives best voltage regulator is

1. Choke input.
2. Capacitor input.
3. Resistance input
(Ref: VK MEHTA Principles of Electronics page no. 104).
8. If the doping level of a diode is increased, the breakdown voltage.........

1. remains same.
2. Is increased.
3. Is decreased.
9. Which type of transistor amplifier is also known as emitter follower.

1. Common base amplifier
2. Common collector amplifier.
3. Common emitter amplifier.
4. None of the above
Ref: Basic electronics by Grob's (10th edition) Page.952)
10. Which region in a transistor is most heavily doped?

1. The emitter region.
2. The Collector region.
3. The gate region
4. The base region.

1. The emitter region
2. The collector region
3. The gate region.
4. The base region.
12. In a transistor, which is the largest of all doped regions?

2. The collector region.
3. The gate region.
4. The base region
13. For a transistor to function as an amplifier,

1. Both the EB and CB junction must be forward biased.
2. Both the EB and CB junction must be reverse biased.
3. The EB junction must be forward biased and the CB junction must be reverse biased
14. For a typical transistor, which two currents are nearly the same?
1. IB and IE.
2. IB and IC
3. lC and lE
15. When a transistor is in saturation

1. VCE =VCC
2. IC=0A
3.VCE= 0V
4.VCE= ½ VCC
16. The Bdc of a transistor equals.

1. IC/IE
2. IB/IC
3. IE/IC
4. IC/IB

1. IC.
2. IB.
3. IE.
4. ID.
18. The end point of a dc load line are labeled.

1. ICQ and VCEQ.
2. IC(sat) and VCE(off).
3. IC(off) and VCE(sat).
19. On the schematic symbol of a PNP transistor

1. The arrow points out on the emitter lead.
2. The arrow points out on the collector lead
3. The arrow points in on the base lead.
4. The arrow points in on the emitter lead.
20. An SCR has ......... semiconductor layers.

1. Two
2. Three
3. Four
21. The terminals of an SCR are

1. Cathode, anode, gate.
2. anode, Cathode, grid
3. anode, Cathode, grain
(Ref: VK MEHTA Principles of Electronics page no.555 )
22. An SCR is turned off by....

1. Reducing anode voltage to zero
2. Reducing gale voltage to zero.
3. Reverse biasing the gate.

3. The gate region.
4. The base region.
(Ref: Basic electronics by Grob's (10th edition) Page.905)
24. Which transistor region is very thin and lightly doped?

3. The anode region.
4. The base region.
25. In a transistor which is the largest of all doped regions?

3. The gate region.
4. The base region.
26. 1. Both the EB and CB junction must be forward biased.

2. Both the EB and CB junction must be reverse biased.
3. The EB junction must be forward biased and the CB junction must be reverse biased
27. For a typical transistor, which two currents are nearly the same?
1. IB and IE.
2. IB and IC
3. lC and lE
28. When a transistor is in saturation

1. VCE =VCC
2. IC=0A
3.VCE= 0V
4.VCE= ½ VCC
29. The transistor configuration in which input and output signals are l80° out of phase.
1. Common Base
2. Common Emitter
3. Common Collector.
30. Which type of transistor amplifier is also known as emitter follower?

I. Common base amplifier
2. Common collector amplifier.
3. Common emitter amplifier.

1. IC.
2. IB.
3. IE.
4. ID.
32. The end points of a dc load line are labeled.

1. ICQ and VCEQ .
2. IC(sat) anti VCE(off).
3. IC(off) and VCE(sat)
33. On the schematic symbol of a PNP transistor.

1. The arrow points out on the emitter lead.
2. The arrow points out on the collector lead.
3. The arrow points in on the base lead.
4. The arrow points in on the emitter lead.
34. An SCR has ......... semiconductor layers.
1. Two
2. Three
3. Four
35. The terminal of SCR are

1. Cathode, anode, gate.
2. Anode, Cathode, grid
3. Anode, Cathode, grain
36. An SCR is turned off by....

1. Reducing anode voltage to zero
2. Reducing gale voltage to zero.
3. Reverse biasing the gate.
37. In a semiconductor the current conduction is due to

1. Only to holes
2. Only to free electrons
3. To holes and free electrons
38. The leakage of current across a PN junction is due to

1. Minority carriers
2. Majority carriers
3. Junction capacitance
(Ref: VK MEHTA Principles of Electronics page no.71 and 87 )

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3 P-N Junction Characteristic

4 Diodes symbols Characteristic

6 Diodes in Series and Parallel

7 Silicon Controlled Rectifier SCR

12 Rectifier Diode (Halfway, Full wave and Bridge)

14 Basic Transistor (NPN and PNP)

Common base, common emitter and common collector

Crystal line solids:

Electron distribution rules:

Valence and conduction band

In this there is permanent transfer of valence electrons between different atoms.

Semiconductors may be classified as under:

Junction or Barrier voltage (VB):

Under forward bias condition

Knee voltage or threshold voltage

Forward breakdown voltage:

(b) Diffusion or storage capacitance (under forward bias)

Energy band diagram of a P N junction:

2. Electronic distribution of a silicon atom is

7. Semi conductor has……………. temperature coefficient of resistance

10. At absolute zero temperature, the semiconductor behave as

11. At absolute temperature , an intrinsic semiconductor has……….

12. with rise in temperature, the resistance of a semiconductor

13. When a Pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semi conductor it becomes

14. When a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semi conductor it becomes

15.An N-type semiconductor is………

16. Most widely used semi conductor is

17. A semiconductor is formed by……bonds

18. In a semiconductor, current conduction is due to

19. Electron hole pair are produced by

20 .A pure semiconductor is referred as

Reverse breakdown voltage:

Effects of temperature on diode:

2. Forward resistance of a crystal diode is of the order of

3.The reverse current in a diode is of the order of

4.A crystal diode is used as

5. The forward voltage drop across a silicon diode is above

6.The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of

7. The forward voltage drop across a germanium diode is about

8. The leakage current in a crystal diode is due to

9. If temperature of a crystal diode increases, the leakage current….

10. When forward biased a diode

11. When a PN diode is forward biased:

13. A photo diode is normally

15. A Pn junction that radiates energy as light instead of as heat is called a

16. To display the digit 8 in s seven segment indicator

17. To display digit 0 in a seven segment display

18. A LED is basically a………….P-N junction

20. Before illuminating a P-N junction photo diode it has to

2 (i) Bulk resistance:

It is usually less than 1 Ω

(ii) Junction Resistance ( rJ ):

rJ= 50mV/IF mA- for Si

rac (or) rd = rB+ rJ

VD= Voltage drop across diode

Forward Voltage drop = Power dissipated / Forward Dc current

Methods to turn off SCR: SCR can be switched off by

Opening of Triac(switching OFF of Triac)

Reverse break down voltage:

Protecting LEDS against reverse bias : -

PN junction photo diode:

Avalanche photo diode: