1) Polymers are long chains of molecules made from

combinations of many small molecules.

2) Small molecules that combine to form polymers are called
monomers.
3) Polymerisation is a process of combining monomers to form
a long of molecules.

4) Polymers can be divided into two types:

a) natural polymer
b) synthetic polymer
 Natural polymer

1) A natural polymer is a polymer that occurs naturally.

2) Natural polymers are normally made by living organisms.

Natural polymer Monomers (small molecules)

Rubber isoprene
cellulose Glucose
Starch Glucose
Protein Amino acid
Fat Fatty acids and glycerol
Nuclei acid nucleotides
Examples of natural polymers and their monomers

Synthetic polymers

1) Synthetic (artificial) polymers are man-made polymers

that are produced from chemical compounds through
polymerization.
2) Plastic, synthetic fibres and synthetic rubbers are
three examples of synthetic polymers
3) Thare are two types polymerization:
a) addition polymerization
b) Condensation polymerization
Addition polymerization

1) Unsaturated monomers that contain double bonds

between two carbon atoms undergo addition
polymerization.
2) Monomers undergo addition polymerisation as shown
in figure 9.14.

3) If the structure of a monomer is known, the structural

formula of its synthetic polymer can be determined as
shown below:

a) step 1

Write the symbol for two carbon atoms with double

bonds in the middle. ‘Push’ the atom or molecules thet is
tied to the two carbon atoms above the two carbon
atoms.

b) step 2

Change or ‘open’ the double bond into single covalent

bonds and draw brackets.

c) step 3

Write the letter ‘n’ at the bottom right-hand corner of the

molecule.
 4) The monomers in a polymer can be determined. The
followingguidelines are given to help you to determine
the monomers in a polymer, formed through the
addition polymerisation.

a) step 1

Determine the position of the two consecutive carbon

atoms (small repeating units) in the structure of a
polymer molecule.

b) step 2

Change or ‘close’ the single bond into a double bond.

Condensation polymerisation

Small molecules such as water, H2O, and ammonia, NH3, are

released in condensation polymerisation.

Monomer Polymer
(a) Adpic acid and nylon
hexanediamine
(b) 1, 2-dicarboxylbenzene and terylene
ethane-1, 2-diol
Uses of synthetic polymers

1) Synthetic polymers are used widely in daily life.

Type of polymer Use

Polythene Make buckets, plastic bags,
raincoats, films, bowls and
rubbish bins
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Make water pipes, electric
cables, mats, vinyl records and
clothes hangers
Polypropene Make ropes,bottles, chairs,
drink cans and carpets
Perspex Make car windscreens, airplane
window panes and spectacle
lenses (optical instruments)
Nylon Make ropes, curtains, stockings
and clothes
Polysyrene Make packing boxes, buttons
and noticeboards
Terylene Make textile items such as
clothes and cloths
 3) Synthetic polyumers such as plastic, synthetic fibers and
synthetic rubber have been used to replace various natural
items such as cotton, silk, glass, metal, timber and rock

Natural compounds that have The advantages of synthetic

been replaced by synthetic polymers compared to natural
polymers compounds
Cotton and silk Stronger, more durable,
withstands dirt, and does not
wrinkle easily
Paper Waterproof, does not wrinkle or
tear easily
Timber Does not rot easily
Metal Lighter, does not corrode
easily, more easily forged and
colured
Glass and ceramics Does not break easily
Marble (rock) cheaper
Effects of the disposal of items made from synthetic polymers
on the environment.

1) Synthetic polymers are not biodegradable (not

decomposed by microorganisms).
2) The careless disposal of items made from
synthetic polymers such as plastic causes
environmental pollution.
3) The effects of burning and careless disposal of
items made from synthetic polymers on the
environment are as follows:
a) Burning of synthetic polymers
 releases pollutants that endanger health such
as smoke, gases that are smelly, poisonous and
corrosive such as sulphur dioxide, pollutants
that cause acid rain and the greenhouse effect.
b) Careless disposal of synthetic polymers
 spoils the beauty of the environment
 causes flash floods during heavy rainfall
 endangers marine life like tutles that
accidentally eat polymers such as plastic as its
food.
4) the best way to manage used items made from
synthetic polymers is to recycle them.
5) Plastics that are biodegradable can be used
instead to reduce environmental pollution.
Types, composition, characteristics and uses of
glass

1) The main component of glass is silica or

silicon dioxide, Si02, which is obtained
from sand.
2) The main characteristics of glass are:
(a) brittle
(b) hard
(c) chemically inert
(d) transparent
(e) not permeable to gas and liquid (fluid)
(f) does not conduct electricity
(g) heat insulator

3) The most simple glass is the fused silica

glass. This glass mainly condiyions, Sio2.
4) Most of the glasses are produced by
mixing molten silica, SiO2, with other
compounds.
5) Glass can be recycled. Glass can also be
melted and solidified repeatedly.
Type of glass Method of Composition Properties
production
Fused silica glass Silica, SiO2, is Silica or silicon * very high
heated until dioxide, SiO2 melting point
melted at 1700 c * not easy to
and cooled change its shape
rapidly * does not easily
expand or shrink
with changes of
temperature
* transparent to
ultraviolet rays
Soda-lime glass Molten silica, Sodium silicate, * transparents
SiO2, is mixed Na2SiO3, and * low melting
with sodium calcium silicate, point
carbonate, CaSiO3 *easily shaped
Na2CO3, and * easily broken
calcium
carbonate, CaO3,
at 1500 c and
cooled.
Borosilicate glass Molten silica, Silica, SiO2 and * withstand heat
SiO2, is mixed boron oxide, and chemical
with boron oxide, B2O3 reactions
B2O3 * high melting
point
* transparent to
light and infared
ray but not to
ultraviolet rays
* expands and
shrinks very little
and only whem
temperature
changes
Lead crystal Molten silica, Silica,Sio2, * very transparent
glass SiO2, is mixed lead(II) oxide, * shiny
with lead(ii) PbO, and sodium * high refractive
oxide, PbO, and oxide, Na2O * high density
sodium oxide,
Na2O
 6) Different types of glass have different uses.
Types of glass
Fused silica glass
Soda-lime glass
Borosilicate glass
Lead crystal glass
Uses
Lenses, spectacles, laboratory
glassware, ultraviolet column
Bottles, glass containers, mirrors,
electrical bulbs, glass windows
Bowls, plates, saucers, pots,
cookware, laboratory glassware such
as test tubes, beakers and flasks
Lenses,prisms, glasses, ornamental
items (crystals)
Composition, properties and uses of ceramics.

1) ceramics are made from clay that has

been heated at a very high temperature.
2) The main component of ceramics is
silicate.
3) Most ceramics contain silicon, Si,
oxygen, o, and aluminium,Al.
4) Unlike glass, ceramics cannot be
recycled. Ceramics that have been
solidified cannot be melted again as they
are extremely heat resistant.
5) Common properties of ceramics are:
a) brittle
b) extremely hard
c) high melting point
d) withstand compression
e) cracks when temperature changes
drastically
f) inert to chemicals (withstand corrosion)
g) good insulators of heat and electricity
6) several uses of ceramics are as follows:
a) manufacture of computer microchips
b) make dentures (enamel)
c) make porcelain, vase and ornamental
items
d) make plates, bowls and pots
e) used in the manufacturing of car
engines, spacecraft, superconductors
and nuclear reactors
f) make construction materials such as
bricks, cement, tiles, underground piping
or roof tiles.
1) In this modern world, the demand for items with specific
properties is high.
2) Compounds with specific properties are combined to produce a
composite material that meets the requirements of industry,
construction and transportation.

Composite materials

1) Composite materials are produced from the combination of two

or more different compounds such as alloys, metals, glass,
polymers and ceramics
2) The characterists of the produced material are much more
superior than those original components.
3) Several uses of composite materials are:
a) Reeinforced concrete
 Made from a mixture of cement, gravel, sand, water,
iron or steel to produce nets, rods or bars
 Stron, high tensile strength and cheap
 Construction material for buildings, bridges,
highways and dams

b) Superconductor
 Made from various components such as the mixture
of niobium and germanium
 Compound that has no electrical resistance (zero
resistance)
 Can function only under extremely low temperature
 Used in the transportation, telecommunications and
astronomy industries and in the medical field.
c) Fibre class
 Made from silica, SiO2, sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
and calcium carbonate, CaCO3
 Good insulator of heat and electricity
 Used to make protective apparel for astronauts and
firefighters

d) fibre optics
 made from glass, copper and aluminium
 enables information to be transmitted in light form at
high speeds (speed of light)
 used in the field of communications to make
electrical cables and in the field of medicine to
observe internal organs without performing surgery.
e) Photochromic glass
 Produced from molten silica that is mixed with a
little silver chloride AgCl
 Dark in colour when exposed to bright light
(ultraviolet ray) and bright when in the dark
 Used to make optical lenses and glass windows
(windshields) of certain vehicles
f) Ceramic class
 Produced by exposing glass that contains certain
amount of metals to ultraviolet rays and heating it at
high temperatures
 Withstand heat
 Used to make cooking materials and rocket heads
g) Plastic strengthened with glass fibres
 Made of plastic and glass fibres
 Composite plastics that are very strong, light, easily
formed and can withstand corrosion
 Used to make helmets, the body of cars and
aeroplanes, rods and other parts of aeroplanes
The uses of sulphuric acid in daily life

 Sulphuric acid,H2SO4 is a non-volatile diprotic acid and is also one

of the most important chemical used in chemical industries.

 Sulphuric acid is used to make :

Fertilisers

E.g:
 Calcium hydrogen phosphate is formed when sulphuric acid reacts
with calcium phosphate.
2H2SO4+Ca3(PO4)2 → Ca(H2PO4)2 +2CaSO4

 Ammonium sulphate is prepared from sulphuric acid and

aqueous ammonia.
H2S04+2NH3 → (NH4)2SO4

 Pottasium sulphate is prepared from sulphuric acid and

potassium hydroxide.
H2SO4+2KOH → K2SO4+2H2O

 Artificial synthetic fibres are polymers.

 Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents.

 Sulphuric acid reacts with hydrocarbon to produce sulphonic

acid which then neutralized with sodium hydroxide to produce
detergent.
  Neutralisation of sulphuric acid with barium hydroxide produces
barium sulphate which is the white pigment in paint

Environmental pollution by sulphur dioxide

Burning of fossil fuels

Fossil fuel such as petroleum.It contains sulphur.Sulphur

dioxide is produced when fossil fuels are burned.

 Affects the respiratory system

Sulphur is a poisonous and acidic gas.It cause coughing,

chest pains,shortness of breath,lung diseases and bronchitis.

 Burning of sulphur in industrial area

The contact process and the burning of coals or fuels produce

high sulphur dioxide content.

 Affect of acid rain

Sulphur dioxide gas dissolve in atmospheric water to produce

sulphurous acid, H2SO3 and sulphuric acid, H2SO4.These acids
causes acid rain.

SO2+H2O → H2SO3

2SO2+O2+2H2O → 2H2SO4

Acid rain corrodes concrete buildings and metal structures.Acid

rain increases the acidity of soil, unsuitable for growth and
destroys the roots of plants.Acid rain reacts with minerals in the
soil to produce salts which are leashed out of the top soil;
essential nutrients for plants growth are depleted (plants die of
malnutrition and diseases).Acid rain increases the acidity of
water in lake and rivers, causes aquatic organisms die and
disturb the ecosystem.
 The industrial process in the manufacture of sulphuric acid
The contact process
Production of sulphur
dioxide gas
*Burning of sulphur in dry
air in the furnace
S+O2 → SO2
*Burning of metal sulphides
such as zinc sulphide and
Conversion of sulphur
dioxide to sulphur
trioxide.
*Mixture of sulphur dioxide
and excess dry oxygen is
passed through a converter.
*Sulphur dioxide is oxidised to
sulphur trioxide.
2SO2+O2 2S03
Production of sulphuric
acid
*In the absorber, sulphur
trioxide is dissolved in
concentrated sulphuric
acid to produce oleum,
H2S2O7, a viscous
liquid.
SO3+H2SO4 → H2S2O7
 lead sulphide also
produces sulphur dioxide.

*Oleum is then diluted with

*98% conversion from sulphur equal volume of water to
dioxide to sulphur trioxide is produce concentrated
2ZnS+3O2 → SO2+2ZnO achieved under conditions: H2SO4 ( 98% )

2PbS+3O2 → 2SO2+2PbO a) Catalyst : vanadium( V )

oxide,V2O5

b) Pressure : 1 atmosphere
*The sulphur dioxide is mixed
with excess air.The mixture c) Temperature : 450 c – 550 c
is then dried and purified to
remove impurities such as H2S2O7+H2O → 2H2SO4
arsenic compounds.

*Arsenic compounds found in

sulphur will poison the catalyst
in the converter, make the catalyst
ineffective.

The flow chart of contact process

 Sulphur

Sulphur dioxide, SO2

Sulphur trioxide, SO3

Oleum,H2S2O7

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4

o The two reaction in stage 3 are equivalent to add sulphur trioxide to water.

SO3+H2O → H2SO4

o SO3 is not dissolved directly in water to produce H2SO 4

because :

~ SO3 has low solubility in water

~ SO3 reacts violently in water , produce large amount of heat
which will vaporise sulphuric acid to form acid mist which is
corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense

o The SO2 gas is dried and purified before added to dry air to
produce SO3 gas.This is
a) to remove water vapour in the air
b) to remove contaminants such as arsenic
compounds

Ammonia and its salt

The uses of ammonia in industry

Nitric acid ~ can be produced through oxidation of

ammonia when platinum is used as a catalyst

Detergents ~ when ammonia reacts with oil from the

plants, detergents is produced

Prevent coagulation of latex ~ latex can be stored for

longer period of time before exporting
countries
Paint and colouring ~ reaction of nitric acid and
organic compound can produce various type colors
colouring

Synthetic fabric ~ ammonia is used to synthesis the

synthetic fabric

Explosive ~ reaction of nitric acid and toluena produces

explosive material

Cooling agent ~ ammonia is used as cooling agent in the

refrigerator.It has low point and therefore is very volatile

Synthetic fertilizers ~ synthetic fertilisers can be produced

through neutralisation between ammonia gas and acid.

The manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers

 Ammonium sulphate

2NH3 + H2SO4 → ( NH4 )2 SO4

o Ammonia reacts with sulphuric acid through neutralisation to produce

ammonium sulphate.

Ammonium nitrate

NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3

o Ammonia reacts with nitric acid through neutralisation to produce ammonium

nitrate.

Urea
2NH3+CO2 → CO( NH2 )2 ( S ) +H2O

o Ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide at temperature of 200 C and a pressure

of 200 atmosphere to produce urea.

Ostwald process : In the Ostwald process, ammonia is covered into nitric acid by three
stages.

Stage 1

Ammonia is oxidised to nitrogen monoxide gas in the presence of platinum as catalyst.

4NH3 + 5O → 4NO + 6H2O

Stage 2

Nitrogen monoxide is further oxidized to nitrogen dioxide

2NO + O2 → 2NO2

Stage 3

Nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water produce nitric acid,

2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2

The properties of ammonia

 Very soluble in water
~ an inverted filtr funnel is used to prevent the sucking
back of water

 Alkaline gas, colourless and pungent gas

~ ammonia turns the damp red litmus paper blue
~ the gas is less dense than air

 To test ammonia gas

~ ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form white fumes of
ammonium chloride

 Does not burn in air

~ ammonia gas burns in oxygen to produce nitrogen monoxide gas

 Neutralisation
~ ammonia is a week alkali which reacts with dilute acida in neutralisation to
produce salts

 Reacts with aqueuos metal ions

~ aqueous solutions of ammonia react with metal ions( except Na+, k+ and Ca2+ )
to produce precipitate of metal hydroxides

The industrial process in the manufacture of ammonia

 * massive production of ammonia in an industrial sector is known as
Haber process

* nitrogen gas used in Haber process is obtained from the fractional

distillation of liquid air.

 Hydrogen gas can be obtained by two methods:

 A) reaction between steam and heated coke (carbon)
 Formula
 H2o + C→Co+H2

c) Reaction between steam and natural gas

consist mainly of methane, CH4
Formula
2HO + CH4 → CO2 + 4H2

The uses of alloys and their compositions

 Cupro – nickel
 75% copper + 25%nickel
 hard – wearing
 attractive silver colour and shiny
 does not rust

 Brass

75%copper + 25%zinc
 harder than copprr
 does not corrode
 shiny an dstrong
 malleable

 Stainless steel

74%iron + 18% chromium + 8% nickel

 does not rust
 hard
 strong
 withstand corrosion better than carbon steel

 Bronze

88%copper + 12%tin
 harder than brass
 does not corrode
 does not rust
 sonorous
 attractive appearance
 easily shaped

 Steel

99.5%iron + 0.5%carbon
  very hard
 strong

 Manganese steel(hadfield steel)

85%iron + 13.8%manganese + 1.2%carbon

 very hard

 Duralumin

95%aluminium + 3%copper + 1%mangan + 1%manganese

 hard
 does not corrode
 light but strong

 Pewter

97%tin + 3%antimony and copper

 shiny and attractive appearance
 does not corrode
 easily cast

Ammonium fertilizers
o Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of soluble nitrates, NO 3 produce
protein

o Ammonium fertilisers are chemical fertilisers that are used to replace

elements in soil used up by plants

o Ammonium ions, NH4+ can be converted into nitrate ions by bacteria living in
the soil

o The fertilizer with higher percentage of nitrogen is more effective and this can
be determined as below :

Percentage of nitrogen by weight

= Mass of nitrogen X100%

Relative molecular mass of fertilisers

Alloys
~ An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed
cmpositions in which the major component is a metal.

The physical properties of pure metal

~ pure metals are weak and soft because the arrangement of

atom makes them ductile and malleable.

 Ductile
Ductile is the ability of a metal to be stretched

 Malleable
Malleable is the ability of a metal to be shaped

 High melting point and boiling points

The strong forces of attraction between metal atoms requires high enery
to overcome it. Hence, metals have high melting point

 Good conductor

 High density
In solid state, the atoms in a pure metal are orderly aarranged and closely
packed, causes pure metal to have high density

Arrangement of particles in pure metals

~ pure metals are soft and have atoms of same sizes

Meaning and purpose of making alloys

~ alloying is a process of mixing two or more metals ( or mixing metals

with elements such as carbon ) which cannot be separated by using
physical way

Arrangement of particles in alloys

Atoms have different sizes

Disrupts the arrangement of atoms

Harder for layers of atoms tom slide over each other

Aim of making alloy

 To increase the strength and hardness

  adding a little carbon to iron metal produces steel which is very
hard alloy of iron.

 adding magnesium to aluminium metal

produces an alloy
called Magnalium.

 adding tin to copper metal produces Bronze is an

alloy
harder than tin and copper.

 To improve the appearance

 pure metals can rust and tarnish easily because of the
formation of metal oxides.

 alloying can maintain the luster on the surface of metal.

 To prevent corrosion
 pure metals such as iron and tin are easily corroded in
polluted, damp or acidic air

 alloying can prevent metals from corrosion due to the

formation of oxide layer on the surface of the metal.

Carbon + nickel + chromium

↓ added

into iron metal

↓ produce

stainless steel