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[Repair Methods for Basic Machine Elements Im'. I
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REPAIR METHODS FOR BASIC MACHINE ELEMENTS
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broader perspective to describe the fault, flaw, mistake, deficiency or shortcoming of any
type or situation. But in general, the tenn failure refers to malfunctioning, stoppage, crash,
I fatigue damage, deterioration etc. of any equipment or system for any reason.
Definition off ailure:
I As regard to industrial scenario, the term failure may be defined as one of the following:
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(iii) a loss of asset availability
(iv) the unavailability of equipment
(v) any secondary defect
(vi) a deviation from the existing state
(vii) not meeting the target expectations.
4.1.1. Failure Mode and Failure Density
Maintenance Engineering
Failure mode is defined as the manner in which an equipment or machine failure can
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Repair Methods for Basic Machine Elements
Depending on the mechanical I electrical design, operating context, environment and
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maintenance effectiveness, a machine's failure rate as a function of time may Jecline, remain
occur. The main criteria of all fail.ure analysis are to identify the failure modes. It gives us the constant, increase linearly or increase geometrically shown in Figure 4.1.
information regarding the failure causes and helps in planning to prevent failures in future.
The typical failure modes are: 4.1.3. Classification of Failures
(1) Premature operation The failures are broadly classified into the following types according to the effect it will
have on the overall performance of the equipment or system.
(2) Failure to operate at the prescribed time
(3) Failure to cease operation at the prescribed time (i) ·System failure
(4) Failure during operation and (ii) Component failure
(5) Degraded or excessive operational capability. In the case of sy.;tem failure, failure of a component or system may make the entire
Failure density is the ratio of number of failures during a given unit interval of time to equipment or system completely inoperable and the same cannot be used without repairing
the total number of items at the very beginning of test. the failed component. It is mainly possible in case of high risk "'quipment or system. For
example, failure of any equipment in an airplane mi :es it completely inoperable. Similarly,
4.1.2 • .Failure rate failure of braking system in ·an automobile makes it completely inoperable without repairing
it.
Failure rate is defined as the frequency of failure of equipment or system or component.
It is the ratio of number of failures during particular unit interval to the average population On the other hand, failure of a component or system may not make the entire equipment
during same interval. This failure rate is also known as hazard rate and instantaneous failure or system completely inoperable and the same can be used with reduced performance. This
rate. It is expressed in terms of number of failres per unit of operating hours, cycles, type of failure can be classified as component failure. For e>.'Ullple, failure of wiper
distance or other applicable measure. The failure rate of a component usually depends on I mechanism and air-conditioning system in an automob;Ie does not make it completely
time with the rate varying over the life cycle of the system. Failure rate is normally expressed inoperable; the system can be effectively used during winter season. When the elements I
in terms of Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF).
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compcnents are placed in series, failure of one will make the system completely inopeble.
t Whereas the same are placed in parallel, failure of one element I component may not make it
I completely inoperable. The system can work butits efficiency may be reduced. For examµle,
I in an automobile engine, failure of one of the cylinders in a multi cylinder engine will not
make it complet!y inoperable but the performance may be reduce<f. Hence, this system falls
under this category.
There are further two types of failure based on engineering consideratirm.
I (i) Intermittent failure: This type of failure may result the lack of some i-unctions of the
component only for a very short pe1::>d of time. For example, overheating of an
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automobile engine may be considered as this type of failure. If the heat is reduced,
the system may restore to normal condition.
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Time
Perm::nent /ailure: This type of failure may result the pennanc!l :lamage to the
.Figure 4.1 Different failure rates I i
system. When this type of failure occurs, repair I replacement of component ""ill need
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(i) Completefailure: This type of failure may make the equipment I system inoperative )> presence of stress raisers owing to sharp change in cross section
and it cannot be repaired I used further. For example, when a major accident happens )> changing the desigr,i without proper consideration of its influence on stress
to automotive vehicles, it will become completely inoperable. distribution especially in high stress areas of the component
(ii) Partial failure: This type of failure leads lack of some functions but the equipment I :> duplicating a successful design for more severe loading conditions
system can be used with care which may be with reduced perfonnance. )> design is developed without full knowledge of stress conditions owing to
Failures may further be classified into the following types based on the nature of failure: complexity of th.e geometry and
)> inability to use a proper criteria for designing the engineering components.
(i) Catastrophic failure: This type of failure may be sudden and complete failure. It
means that this type of failure may not be predicted in advance. For example, In general, more than 50% of failures in engineering components occur due to
bursting of tyre of an automotive vehicle during running may fall under this category. localization of stresses in the presence of stress raisers such as sharp fillets, notches,
keyways, holes etc. Localization of the stress initiates the cracks and facilitates their
(ii) Degradation failure: This type of failure may be gradual and partial failure. It means
propagation. Hence, a premature ·fracture is encouraged by the presence of stress raisers.
that these types of failures can be forecast during inspection I testing. For example,
worn out brake pads or tyres of an automotive vehicle may be identified during A deficient design can also be resulted from important factors like inability to calculate
regular servicing of vehicle. the type and magnitude of stresses accurately and dependence of designer under the tensile
data for the design purpose which may not always be equally relevant.
4.1.4. Causes or Sources of Failures
(b) Improper selection of materials:
There may be many factors such as design, materials, manufacturing, service conditions · Selection of a material that is incapable of providing adequate mechanical properties for
etc. which cause failure of an engineering component in actual working conditions. the application (including strength, fatigue resistance, fracture toughness, corrosion
Systematic analysis of equipment failures reveals the physical root causes that fall into one of resistance, elevated temperature resistance, etc.) may lead to failure. Materials can exhibit
the following categories. r
anisotropy or variability in properties within a product such as between thick and thin
)> Design errors or design deficiencies f portions of a castmg or between longitudinal and transverse properties in a wrought material.
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)> Improper selection of materials A material can be shown to meet the properties required or specified but the specific
)> Presence of defects in raw metal properties required for the application may rely on strength, toughness or stress-corrosion
)> Manufacturing defects I cracking resistance in a direction other than longitudinal direction.
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)> Misuse or abuse of a component
manufacturing for developing the raw material. For example rods, plates and flats produced
)> Improper or inadequate maintenance by bulk defonnation based processes such as rolling, forging ·and extrusion may have
)> Unforeseen operating conditions l!nfavorable flow of grains, surface cracks etc., while castings may have blow holes, porosity
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for tightening purpose. Under such conditions, any sort of loosening of nut which is s ubjected
to external load will lead to fatigue failure.
(d) Manufacturing defects: (g) Misuse or abuse of a component:
A wide range of manufacturing processes are used for obtaining the desired size, shape
Incorrect use of a component may lead to failure. Manufacturer of a machinery or
and properties in stock material. These processes include primary processes such as castings,
component may issue service catalogue which contains handling procedure of each part of the
forming, machining and welding ·and secondary shaping processes ·such . as heat treatment,
equipment. For example, loading and unloading of work piece in a CNC machine has certain
case hardening, surface coating etc. These processes' are primarily designed to impart the
procedure. Ignoring this procedure may lead to failure of the system.
desired combination of properties either at the surface or core of raw materials as dictated by
the requirement of applications. The selection of_ inappropriate combination of process (h) Improper or inadequate maintenance:
parameters can lead to development of discontinuities, defects, unfavorable transformation The failure of many moving mechanical components takes place due to poor
and metallurgical changes and so deterioration in the performance of final product during the maintenance plan. A well-developed maintenance plan having each and every important step
service. These imperfections and . discontinuities are _mostly process specific and they can is to be used for·maintenance such as what, when, where, who and how. These steps should
exist in variety of .forms .due · to improper selection of manufacturing process . and their be explicitly specified for maintenance. Lack of information in a propr schedule of
parameters. maintenance, procedure of the maintenance, frequently causes the premature failure of
moving components. For example, the absence of lubrication of a proper kind in right
(e) Improper heaJ treaJments:
quantity and conditions frequently leads to the failure of assemblies working under sliding or
Heat treatment of many metals such as iron, magnesium, copper, titanium etc. is a rolling friction conditions. To avoid any catastrophic failure of critical components during
common industrial practice to obtain the desired combination of properties as per the needs of service, usually a well-planned and thought out maintenance plan is developed which
end application of the ·component. Heat treatment mostly involves a ·squence of the involves the periodic inspection and testing of components that is crucial for uninterrupted
controlled heating up to predetermined· temperature followed by holdng fo.. some time operations of entire plant.
(soaking) and then controlled cooling. Eac step · of heat treatment from heating to the
controlled cooling is determined by the purpose of heat treatment, method of manufacturing, (i) Unforeseen operating conditions:
size and shape of the component. Thus, inappropriate selection of any steps of heat treatment Failure of an engineering component can occur due to abnormal service condition
namely heating rate, peak temperature, soaking time and ·cooling rate can re :an experienced by them for which they are not designed. These abnormal service conditions may
unfavorable metzllurgical transformation and mechanical properties that can eventually lead appear in the form of exposure of component to excessively high rate of loading, unfavorable
to failure. For example, overheating of hardenable steel components for prolonged duration oxidative, corrosive, erosive environment at high or low temperature conditions for which it
can cause oxidation, decarburization, excessive grain growth, dissolution of the fine has not been designed.
precipitates, increased hardenability, high temperature gradient during quenching and ths
increased cracking tendency. 4.1.5. Basic Failure Mechanisms or Categories of Failures
(/) Assembly errors: The general types of failure mechanism include the following types:
Error in assembly can result due to various reasons uch as ambiguous, insufficient or )I. Failure due to distortion
inappropriate assembly procedure, misalignment, poor workmanshi . Sometimes, failures e ) Failure by fracture due to overload
also caused by the inavertent error performed by the workers during assembly. For xample, ) Failure by fatigue fracture
the failure of nut and stud assembly (used for holding the car wheel) by fatigue can occur
owing to lack of information regarding the sequence of tightening nuts and torque to be used
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) Failure due to stress concentration
) Failure due to impact loading
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Bii Maintenance Engineering
Repair Methods for Basic Machine Elements
) Failure due to creep
Load
);;>- Failure due to corrosion Load
);;>- Failure due to wear
);;>- Failure due to contamination.
of fracb.Jre including brittle fracture, ductile fracture and many progressive cracking Load
mechanisms that can lead to final fracture. Overload fracture failures are caused by forces (a) Brittle (b) Ductile
that exceed the yield strength or the tensile strength of a material. As depicted in Fi gure 4.2,
the appearance of an overload failure depends on whether the shaft material is brittle or Figure 1·1Brittle and ductile overload failltres
ductile. The fracture can be classified either as ductile or bdttJe depending upon plastic (d) Failure due to stress conce11tration:
I,. deformation of the material before any catastrophic failure. Ductile fracture is characterized Stress concentration is defined as a physical or metallurgical condition that increases the
by tearing of metal and significant plastic defonnation. This type of fracture occurs due to local stress in the machine component. The presence of a notch or any sudden change in the
. error in design, incorrect selection of materials, improper manufacturing technique and
t section of a piece of material can significantly change the stress at which the fracture occurs.
!' handling. Brittle fracture is characterized by rapid crack propagation with low energy release The notch or sudden change in section produces stress concentrations. The amount by which
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and without significant plastic defonnation . Brittle metals experience little or no plastic the stress is raised depends on the depth of notch or change in section and radius of the tip of
I deformation prior to fracture. notch.
! (c) Failure byfatigue fracture: (e) Failure due to impact loading:
Fatigue is caused by repeated cyclical loading. It is a progressive localized damage due Another factor which can affect the fracture of a material is the speed of loading. A
to fluctuating stresses and strains on the material. Metal fatigue cracks initiate and propagate sudden blow to the material i.e. impact loading may lead to fracture where the same stress
in regions where the strain is most severe. The process of fatigue consists of three stages. applied more slowly would not. With a high rate of application of stress, there may be
} Initial crack formation insufficient time for plastic deformation of a material to occur under normal conditions and
) Progressive crack growth across the part ductile materials will behave in a brittle manner.
Wear may be defined as damage to a s.olid surface caused by the removal or ) Improper lubrication
displacement of material by the mechanical action of a contacting solid, liquid, ·or gas. Wear ) Impact loading
generally results the loss of material and load-carrying capabiJity, adhesion, increased fricti9n ) Excess vibration
and debris generation. There is a significant influence of friction and lubrication on the rate
and severity of wear damage. Abrasive wear is a method in which the particle contamination
> Excess temperature
) Contamination
causes the majority of the wear. Particles such as dirt or wear debris can Jead to three-body
abrasion or surface fatigue which results the surfaces becoming pitted and scored. Adhesive ) Over loading and
wear involves in two surfaces coming to direct contact with each other or transferring ) MisaJignment of shafts and spindles.
material from one face to the other. It appears in areas where the lubricant can no long Causes offailures in shafts:
support the load or in areas of lubricant starvation.
Shafts function in wide ranging service conditions, indud.ing corrosive environments
(i) Failure due to contaminatipn: and both very high and low temperatures. Shafts may experience a range of loading
Contamination is the presence of an unwanted constituent, contaminant or impurity in a conditions. In general, sha.fts may experience tension, compression, bending, torsion or a
material, system, work fluid, etc. In fact, studies have revealed that as much as 70 % of all combination of these loading conditions. Additionally, shafts may experience vibratory
premature machine failures can be attributed to contamination. Sources of contamination can stresses.
include the manufacturing process, hydraulic fluids, environmental exposure, system wear Wear is a common cause of shaft failure. Abrasive wear is one of the fonns of wear·
and servicing. failures. Abrasive wear or abrasion is caused by the displacement of material from a solid
surface due to hard particles or protuberances sliding along the surface. Abrasive wear can
I reduce the size and destroy the shape of a shaft. Some examples of abrasive wear f shafts are
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