LECTURE 2

Levels of
Louella G. Artates
Organization in Instructor

Animal Complexity
 A. Cells as Basic Unit of Life
The Cell Theory
 Cells are dramatic examples of the
underlying unity of all living things.

 This idea was first expressed by two

German scientists, botanist
Matthias Schleiden in 1838 and
zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839.
 Using their own observations and
those of other scientists, these early
investigators used inductive
reasoning to conclude that all
plants and animals consist of cells.
 Later, Rudolf Virchow, another
German scientist, observed cells
dividing and giving rise to daughter
cells.
 In 1855, Virchow proposed that
new cells form only by the division
of previously existing cells.
 A. Cells as Basic Unit of Life
The Cell Theory
 The work of Schleiden,
Schwann, and Virchow
contributed greatly to
the development of the
cell theory, the unifying
concept that
 (1) cells are the basic
living units of
organization and
function in all organisms
 (2) that all cells come
from other cells
A. Cells as Basic Unit of Life
The organization of all cells is
basically similar
 In order for the cell to maintain homeostasis, its contents
must be separated from the external environment.
 The plasma membrane is a structurally distinctive surface
membrane that surrounds all cells.
 By making the interior of the cell an enclosed
compartment, the plasma membrane allows the
chemical composition of the cell to be different from
that outside the cell.
 The plasma membrane serves as a selective barrier
between the cell contents and the outer environment.
 Cells exchange materials with the environment and can
accumulate needed substances and energy stores.
A. Cells as Basic Unit of Life
The organization of all cells is
basically similar
 Most cells have internal structures, called
organelles, that are specialized to carry out
metabolic activities, such as converting energy to
usable forms, synthesizing needed compounds, and
manufacturing structures necessary for functioning
and reproduction.

 Eachcell has genetic instructions coded in its DNA,

which is concentrated in a limited region of the cell.
A. Cells as Basic Unit of Life
Cell size is limited

 We can compare relative size from the chemical level to the organismic level by using a logarithmic scale
(multiples of 10) The prokaryotic cells of bacteria typically range in size from 1 to 10 pm long. Most eukaryotic cells
are between 10 and 30pm in diameter. The nuclei of animal and plant cells range from about 3 to 1O pm in
diameter. Mitochondria are about the size of small bacteria, whereas chloroplasts are usually larger, about 5 pm
long Ova (egg cells) are among the largest cells. Although microscopic, some nerve cells are very long. The cells
shown here are not drawn to scale
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Epithelial tissue (also called epithelium) consists of
cells fitted tightly together to form a continuous
layer, or sheet, of cells.
 One surface of the sheet is typically exposed
because it covers the body (outer layer of the skin)
or lines a cavity, such as the lumen (the cavity in a
hollow organ) of the intestine.
 The other surface of an epithelial layer attaches to
the underlying tissue by a non-cellular basement
membrane consisting of tiny fibers and nonliving
polysaccharide material that the epithelial cells
produce.
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Epithelial tissue forms the:
 outer layer of the skin and the linings of the digestive,
 respiratory excretory and reproductive tracts.

 As a result, everything that enters or leaves the body must

cross at least one layer of epithelium.
 Food taken into the mouth and swallowed is not really
"inside" the body until it is absorbed through the epithelium
of the gut and enters the blood.
 To a large extent, the permeabilities of the various epithelial
tissues regulate the exchange of substances between the
different parts of the body as well as between the animal
and the external environment.
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Epithelial tissues perform many functions, including
 protection,
 absorption,
 secretion, and
 sensation.

 The epithelial layer of the skin, the epidermis, covers

the entire body and protects it from:
 mechanical injury,
 chemicals,
 bacteria, and
 fluid loss.
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 The epithelial tissue lining the digestive
tract absorbs nutrients and water into the
body.

 Some epithelial cells form glands that

secrete cell products such as hormones,
enzymes, or sweat.

 Other epithelial cells are sensory

receptors that receive information from
the environment.

 For example, epithelial cells in taste buds

and in the nose specialize as chemical
receptors.
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Squamous epithelial cells
are thin, flat cells shaped like
flagstones.

 Cuboidal epithelial cells are

short cylinders that from the
side appear cube shaped,
like dice.

 Actually, each cuboidal cell

is typically hexagonal in
cross section, making it an
eight-sided polyhedron.
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Columnar epithelial cells
look-like columns or
cylinders when viewed
from the side.

 The nucleus is usually

located near the base of
the cell.

 Viewed from above or in

cross section, these cells
often appear hexagonal.
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Simple epithelium is composed of one layer of
cells. It is usually located where substances are
secreted, excreted, or absorbed or where materials
diffuse between compartments.

 For example, simple squamous epithelium lines the

air sacs in the lungs. The structure of this thin tissue is
wonderfully suited to permit diffusion of gases in
and out of air sacs.
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Simple Squamous Epithelium
Main Locations: Air sacs of
lungs; lining of blood vessels

Functions: Passage of
materials where little or no
protection is needed and
where diffusion is major form
of transport

Description and Comments:

Cells are flat and arranged as
single layer
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Stratified epithelium, which has two or more layers, is found
where protection is required.

 Stratified squamous epithelium, which makes up the outer

layer of your skin, continuously regenerates as it is sloughed off
during normal wear and tear.

 The cells of pseudostratified epithelium falsely appear layered.

 Although all its cells rest on a basement membrane, not every

cell extends to the exposed surface of the tissue. This
arrangement gives the impression of two or more cell layers.
Some of the respiratory passageways are lined with
pseudostratified epithelium equipped with cilia.
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Main Locations: Skin; mouth lining;
vaginal lining

Functions: Protection only; little or no

absorption or transit of materials; outer
layer continuously sloughed off and
replaced from below

Description and Comments: Several

layers of cells, with only the lower ones
columnar and metabolically active;
division of lower cells causes older ones
to be pushed upward toward surface,
becoming flatter as they move
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Pseudostratified Squamous Epithelium
Main Locations: Some respiratory
passages; ducts of many glands

Functions: Secretion; protection;

movement of mucus

Description and Comments: Ciliated,

mucus-secreting, or with microvilli;
comparable in many ways to
columnar epithelium except that not
all cells are the same height; so,
though all cells contact the same
basement membrane, the tissue
appears stratified
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Main Locations: Linings of kidney
tubules; gland ducts

Functions: Secretion and absorption

Description and Comments: Single

layer of cells; LM shows cross section
through tubules; from the side each
cell looks like a short cylinder; some
have microvilli for absorption
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
Main Locations: Linings of much of
digestive tract and upper part of
respiratory tract

Functions: Secretion, especially of

mucus; absorption; protection;
movement o{ layer of mucus

Description and Comments: Single

layer of columnar cells; sometimes
with enclosed secretory vesicles (in
goblet cells); highly developed Golgi
complex; often ciliated
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 The lining of blood and lymph
vessels is called endothelium.

 Endothelial cells have a

different embryonic origin from
"true" epithelium.

 However, these cells are

structurally similar to squamous
epithelial cells and can be
included in that category.
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
A gland consists of one or more epithelial cells
specialized to produce and secrete a product such
as sweat, milk, mucus, wax, saliva, hormones, or
enzymes.

 Epithelialtissue lining the cavities and passageways

of the body typically has some specialized mucus-
secreting cells called goblet cells.

 The mucus lubricates these surfaces, offers

protection, and facilitates the movement of
materials.
B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 B. Tissues
Epithelial tissues cover the
body and line its cavities
 Glands are classified as exocrine or endocrine.

 Exocrine glands, like goblet cells and sweat glands,

secrete their products onto a free epithelial surface,
t1pically through a duct (tube).

 Endocrine glands lack ducts. These glands release

their products, called hormones, into the interstitial
fluid (tissue fluid) or blood; hormones are apically
transported by the cardiovascular system.
B. Tissues
Connective tissues support
other body structures
 Almost every organ in the body has a framework of
connective tissue that supports and cushions it.

 Typically, connective tissues contain relatively few cells.

 Its cells are embedded in an extensive intercellular

substance consisting of threadlike, microscopic fibers
scattered throughout a matrix, a thin gel of
polysaccharides that the cells secrete.

 The nature and function of each kind of connective

tissue are determined in part by the structure and
properties of the intercellular substance.
B. Tissues
Connective tissues support
other body structures
 Connective tissue typically contains three types of fibers:
 collagen, elastic, and reticular.

 Collagen fibers, the most numerous type, are made of

collagens, a group of fibrous proteins found in all
animals.
 Collagens are the most abundant proteins in mammals,
accounting for about 25o/o of their total protein mass.
 Collagen is very tough (meat is tough because of its
collagen content). The tensile strength (ability to stretch
without tearing) of collagen fibers is comparable to that
of steel. Collagen fibers are wa\y and flexible, allowing
them to remain intact when tissue is stretched.
B. Tissues
Collagen Fibers
B. Tissues
Connective tissues support
other body structures
 Elastic fibers branch and fuse
to form networks.

 They can be stretched by a

force and then (like a
stretched rubber band)
return to the original size and
shape when the force is
removed.

 Elastic fibers, composed of

the protein elastin, are an
important component of
structures that must stretch.
 B. Tissues
Connective tissues support
other body structures
 Reticular fibers are
very thin, branched
fibers that form
delicate networks
joining connective
tissues to neighboring
tissues.

 Reticular
fibers consist
of collagen and some
glycoprotein.
B. Tissues
Connective tissues support
other body structures
 The cells of different kinds of
connective tissues differ in their
shapes and structures and in the
kinds of fibers and matrices they
secrete.

 Fibroblasts are connective tissue

cells that produce the fibers, as
well as the protein and
carbohydrate complexes, of the
matrix. Fibroblasts release protein
components that become
arranged to form the
characteristic fibers. These cells
are especially active in
developing tissues and are
important in healing wounds.
 B. Tissues
Connective tissues support
other body structures
 Astissues mature, the number
of fibroblasts decreases and
they become less active.

 Macrophages, the body's

scavenger cells, commonly
wander through connective
tissues, cleaning up cell debris
and phagocytosing foreign
matter, including bacteria.
 B. Tissues
Connective tissues support
other body structures
 Some of the main types of connective tissue are

 (1) loose and dense connective tissues;

 (2) elastic connective tissue;
 (3) reticuIar connective tissue;
 (4) adipose tissue;
 (5) cartilage;
 (6) bone; and
 (7) blood, lymph, and tissues that produce blood
cells. These tissues vary widely in their structural
details and in the functions they perform
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues:
Loose Connective Tissue
Main Locations: Everywhere
that support must be
combined with elasticity, such
as subcutaneous tissue (the
layer of tissue beneath the
dermis of the skin)

Functions: Support; reservoir for

fluid and salts

Description and Comments:

Fibers produced by Fibroblast
cells embedded in semifluid
matrix and mixed with
miscellaneous other cells
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues:
Dense Connective Tissue
Main Locations: Tendons; many
ligaments; dermis of skin

Functions: Support transmission

of mechanical forces

Description and Comments:

Collagen fibers may be
regularly or irregularly arranged
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues
Elastic Connective Tissue
Main Locations: Structures that
must both expand and return
to their original size, such as
lung tissue and large arteries

Functions: Confers elasticity

Description and Comments:

Branching elastic fibers
interspersed with fibroblasts
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues:
Reticular Connective Tissue
Main Locations: Framework of
liver; lymph nodes; spleen

Functions: Support

Description and Comments:

Consists of interlacing reticular
fibers
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues:
Adipose Tissue
Main Locations: Subcutaneous
layer; pads around certain
internal organs

Functions: Food storage;

insulation; support of such
organs as mammary glands,
kidneys

Description and Comments: Fat

cells are star shaped at first; fat
droplets accumulate until
typical ring-shaped cells are
produced
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues:
Cartilage
Main Locations: Supporting
skeletons in sharks and rays;
ends of bones in mammals and
some other vertebrates;
supporting rings in walls of
some respiratory tubes; tip of
nose; external ear

Functions: Flexible support

Description and Comments:

Cells (chondrocytes) separated
from one another by
intercellular substance; cells
occupy lacunae
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues:
Bone
Main Locations: Forms skeletal
structure in most vertebrates

Functions: Support and

protection of internal organs;
calcium reservoir; skeletal
muscles attach to bones

Description and Comments:

Osteocytes in lacunae; in
compact bone, lacunae
embedded in lamellae,
concentric circles of matrix
surrounding Haversian canals
B. Tissues
Types of Connective Tissues:
Bone
Main Locations: Within heart
and blood vessels of
circulatory system

Functions: Transports oxygen,

nutrients, wastes and other
materials

Description and Comments:

Consists of cells dispersed in
wastes, and other materials
fluid intercellular substance
(plasma)
B. Tissues
Muscle tissue is specialized to
contract
 Most animals move by contracting
the long, cylindrical or spindle-
shaped cells of muscle tissue.

 Each muscle cell is called a

muscle fiber because of its length.

 A muscle fiber contains many thin,

longitudinal, parallel contractile
units called myofibrils.

 Two proteins, myosin and actin,

are the chief components
myofibrils and play a key role in
contraction of muscle fibers.
 B. Tissues
Muscle tissue is specialized to
contract
 Some invertebrates have skeletal and smooth
muscle.

 Vertebrates have three types of muscle tissue:

 skeletal,
 cardiac, and
 smooth.
B. Tissues
Muscle tissue is specialized to
contract
 Skeletal Muscle
 Skeletal muscle makes up the
large muscle masses attached
to the bones of the body.

 Skeletal muscle fibers are very

long, and each fiber has many
nuclei. The nuclei of skeletal
muscle fibers are also unusual in
their position. They lie just under
the plasma membrane, which
frees the entire central part of
the skeletal muscle fiber for the
myofibrils.
B. Tissues
Muscle tissue is specialized to
contract
 Cardiac Muscle
 Cardiac muscle is the main tissue
of the heart. When this muscle
contracts, the heart pumps the
blood.
 The fibers of cardiac muscle join
end to end, and they branch and
rejoin to form complex networks.
 One or two nuclei lie within each
fiber.
 A characteristic feature of cardiac
muscle tissue is the presence of
intercalated discs, specialized
junctions where the fibers join.
B. Tissues
Muscle tissue is specialized to
contract
 Smooth Muscle
 Smooth muscle occurs in the walls of the digestive tract,
uterus, blood vessels, and many other internal organs.
 Contraction of smooth muscle allows an organ to
perform some function.
 When smooth muscle in the wall of the digestive tract
contracts, food is moved through the digestive tract.
When smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles (small
arteries) contract, the blood vessel constricts, raising
blood pressure.
 Each spindle-shaped smooth muscle fiber contains a
single, central nucleus.
 Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
Location Attach to Skeleton Walls of the Heart Walls of stomach,
intestine, etc.
Type of Control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Shape of Fibers Elongated, Elongated, Elongated,
cylindrical, blunt cylindrical, fibers spindle shaped,
end that branch and pointed ends
fuse
Striations Permanent Present Absent
Number of Nuclei Many One or two One
per fiber
Position of Nuclei Peripheral central Central
Speed of Most Rapid Intermediate (varies) Slowest
Contraction
Resistance to Least Intermediate greatest
Fatigue
B. Tissues
Nervous tissue controls
muscles and glands
 Nervous tissue
consists of neurons
and glial cells.

 Neurons are
specialized for
receiving and
transmitting
signals.

 Glial cells support

and nourish the
neurons
B. Tissues
Nervous tissue controls
muscles and glands
 A typical neuron has a cell body containing the nucleus
as well as two types of cytoplasmic extensions.
 Dendrites are cytoplasmic extensions specialized for
receiving signals and transmitting them to the cell body.

 The single axon transmits signals, called nerve impulses,

away from the cell body.
 Axons range in length from 1 or 2 mm to more than a
meter. Those extending from the spinal cord down the
arm or leg in a human, for example, may be a meter or
more in length.
B. Tissues
Nervous tissue controls
muscles and glands

Neuron
B. Tissues
Nervous tissue controls
muscles and glands
B. Tissues
Nervous tissue controls
muscles and glands
C. Organs and Organ System
Nervous tissue controls
muscles and glands
 Tissues associate to form organs.
 Although an animal organ may be composed mainly of
one type of tissue, other types are needed to support,
protect, provide a blood supply, and transmit
information.
 For example, the heart is mainly cardiac muscle tissue,
but its chambers are lined with endothelium and its walls
contain blood vessels made of endothelium, smooth
muscle, and connective tissue.
 The heart also has nerves that transmit information and
help regulate the rate and strength of its contractions.
 C. Organs and Organ System
Nervous tissue controls
muscles and glands
 An organized group of tissues and organs that
together perform a specialized set of functions
make up an organ system.
 Working together in a very coordinated way, organ
systems perform the functions required by the
organism. We can identify 11 major organ systems
that work together to carry out the physiological
processes of a mammal: integumentary, skeletal,
muscular, digestive, cardiovascular, immune
(lymphatic), respiratory, urinary, nervous, endocrine,
and reproductive systems.