Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

School of Engineering
KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

ANTENNA SYSTEM IN CELLULAR MOBILE

COMMUNICATION

Project report submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
(Electrical & Electronics Engineering)

By:

SANJAYA GURUNG
NILAB PRADHAN

July 2004
 ANTENNA SYSTEM IN CELLULAR MOBILE
COMMUNICATION

Project report submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
(Electrical & Electronics Engineering)

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

School of Engineering
KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

July 2004

Approved by:

1. Project Supervisors

______________________ ________________________ _____________

(Signature) (Name) (Date)

______________________ ________________________ _____________

(Signature) (Name) (Date)

2. Head/In-Charge of the Department

_______________________ ________________________ _____________
(Signature) (Name) (Date)
Abstract
“Antenna System in Cellular Mobile Communication” is the project which reveals
the general antenna system for mobile communication in Nepal in front of all the
individuals. Those people who are working in antenna system for Cellular Mobile
Communication (CMC) or who are directly and indirectly relevant to this field will take
much benefit from our project.
In this project report, general description of various types of antenna used in CMC
system are described. Antenna plays an indispensable role in CMC system. The general
block diagram of cellular mobile communication system is also given. Various
calculations regarding the channel capacity, antenna gain, transmitted power versus
distance etc. are also included in this report. You can also know how to design the
antenna viz; omni-directional and sectorized antenna by going through this report. As all
the communication system undergoes through various types of degradations, noise and
interferences, it is necessary to have a general concept about these factors. These are also
included. The various schemes for the significant improvement in the quality and
quantity aspects of reception of mobile is mentioned here in this report. Here, in this
report, an experimental observation for the measurement of intensity of received power
of MS is also affixed. For the various calculations, the C-programming language codes
are also included in this report.
Acknowledgement:
During our project “Antenna System in Cellular Mobile Communication”, we faced
many problems and without the co-operation of the people mentioned below, we would
not have completed this project. So, we would like to pour our great gratitude towards
those who gave their hands in our hands during this year. We know that two heads are
better than one and sure and certainly the involvement of several minds and hands in any
project can lead it to much more culmination than only one hand can. So in order the
project to be successful, each and every project should have proper design focusing the
needs of the customers. Those who assisted us in this semester, we admired them a lot for
their friendly behaviour and their precious ideas and views for our project. First of all,
we’d like to express our sincere gratitude to our project advisors Mr.Bhupendra Bimal
Chhetri for his great support to our project and the brilliant views and ideas that he gave
for our project and to Mr.Anand Raj Khanal for his kind dealing and guidances which
helped us a lot in choosing and following the right track.
We would like to give special thanks to our teacher Mr. Anand Sharma for helping
us in solving our various kinds of problems we faced during our project.
Also we would like to express our gratitude towards Mr. Praveen Bajracharya
(Sr.engineer in Base Station section of NTC) for his assistance in understanding the
antenna system in mobile communication and GSM technology of Nepal. We would
also like to thank our senior brother Mr. Sixit Bhatta (engineer in BTS section in UTL)
for his kind and precious assistance he showered on us in understanding the CDMA
technology in communication system and general antenna system for CDMA telephone
system that is currently being installed in Kathmandu. We also like to thank our senior
brother Mr. Summit Raj Tuladhar for his kind help and co-operation. Last but not the
least, we would like to pour our special gratitude upon our senior brother Mr. Dil Kumar
Gurung for assisting us in different critical situations during our projects and especially in
Auto CAD drawing during our project report preparation.
2. Some Important Definitions

1. Antenna
The simple dictionary meaning of an antenna is that it is usually metallic device (as
a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving radio waves. The IEEE Standard Definitions of
Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std. 145-1983) defines the antenna as “a means for radiating
or receiving radio waves.” In other words, the antenna is the transitional structure
between free space and a guiding device. The antenna is also referred to as aerial.
Combining all these definitions, we can extract an excellent definition of antenna as “a
metallic (usually) device used for radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves which
acts as the transition region between free space and guiding structure like a transmission
line in order to communicate even in a longer distance.”

1.1 Isotropic antenna

An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in
all directions. It radiates its power equally in all the direction in space co-ordinate
system.

1.2 Directional antenna

Directional antenna receives or radiates electromagnetic waves more
effectively in one particular direction than in other directions.

1.3 Omni directional antenna

This type of antenna radiates or receives electromagnetic waves in all direction
except in azimuth plane. This type of antenna is non-directional in azimuth plane and
directional in any orthogonal plane.

2. Directivity
Directivity of the antenna describes how well it concentrates, or bunches, radio
waves in a given direction. Mathematically, directivity can be defined as the ratio of
maximum radiation intensity of an antenna to the radiation intensity of the isotropic
antenna.

3. Radiation pattern
It is the mathematical function or graphical representation of radiation properties
of the antenna as a function of space co-ordinate. Radiation properties include radiation
intensity, power flux density, field strength, directivity phase or polarization.

3.1 Power pattern

It is the graphical diagram of received power at a constant radius.
3.2 Field pattern
It is a graph of spatial variation of the electric or magnetic field along a constant
radius.

4.1 Line Of Sight signal (LOS)

LOS signal is the signal traveling directly following the straight path from
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna without any obstacle in its path. LOS signal
is also referred to as direct signal or direct wave.

4.2 Out Of Sight signal (OOS)

The signals other than the LOS signal are referred to as OOS signals. These
signals reach to the receiving antenna from transmitting antenna not directly but
following different paths. Other waves are ground reflected wave, sky wave and surface
wave. The ground reflected waves are highly affected by fading due to the presence of
various scatterers. The sky waves will not return to the earth since the frequencies of
these waves are greater than that of the critical frequency. The surface waves are always
diffracted around the surface of the earth and are highly attenuated with distance.

5. Reflection
It is the change in the direction of a signal without penetrating the object. It occurs
when the path of a signal is obstructed.

6. Scattering
Scattering can be defined as the deflection of a wave or beam of particles caused by
the collisions with other particles. It occurs when the dimensions of the particles are
comparable to the wavelength of the signal.

7. Interference
A process in which two or more waves are super-imposed in such a way that they
produce higher peaks, lower troughs, or a new wave pattern. In other word, it is the effect
when the tow or more waves overlap or intersect with each other and the amplitude of the
resulting wave depends upon the frequencies and phases of the individual waves.

7.1 Co-channel Interference

The interference between the signals form the co-channel cells is called the co-channel
interference.

7.2 Adjacent channel Interference

The interference between the signals from the adjacent channel cell is called the
adjacent channel interference.
8. Cell
Cell, in mobile communication system, can be defined as the range area covered by
one of the transmitters in a mobile telephone system that automatically switches a
traveling user between short-range base stations.
9. Handoff / Hand Over
It is the process of transferring of mobile station from one channel or base station
to another base station. When a mobile station (subscriber carrying mobile) moves from
one cell to the different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station. This process is
known as handoff.

10. Channel capacity

It is the maximum number of subscribers in a channel sharing the same frequency
within the cell.

11. Grade Of Service (GOS)

It is the measure of ability of a user to access a trunked system during the busiest
hour (peak calling time). It is a measure of congestion which is specified as the
probability of a call being blocked or the probability of a call being delayed beyond a
certain amount of time.

12. Trunking efficiency

It is the measure of the number of users which can be offered a particular GOS
(Grade Of Service) with a particular configuration of fixed channels.

13. Blocked call

The call which can not be completed at the time of request, due to congestion
especially in peak calling time is called blocked call. It is also refereed to as a lost call.

14. Traffic intensity

It is the measure of channel time utilization. It is also known as the average channel
occupancy measured in Erlang.

15. Cell splitting

Cell splitting is the process of sub-dividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each
with its own base station and reduction in antenna height and transmitter power in order
to get the improvement on the cell coverage area and the capacity in cellular system.

16. Sectorization
The technique of replacing single omni directional antenna by several directional
antennas for decreasing co-channel interference as well as adjacent channel interference
and thus increasing the system performance is called sectoring
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page No.

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................……………1

Chapter 2: Overview of the Report................................................................……………2
Chapter 3: Block Diagram of Antenna System
for telephone and mobile communication …………………………………...3
Chapter4: Classification of antenna ……………………………………………………...4
4.1 General Classification ……………………………………………………4
4.2 Antennas used in cellular mobile communication system ……………….6
4.3 Types of Mobile antenna Vs cell site ……………………………………11
Chapter 5: Design of Antenna……………………………………………….….……….12
5.1 Design of omni-directional antenna system ……………………………..12
5.2 Design of directional antenna system …………………………………...14
Chapter6: Cell site antenna height …………………………………………….………...17
6.1 Visualization of the effective antenna height …………………………….18
6.2 Lowering the antenna height ……………………………………………..18
Chapter 7: Antenna pattern in free space and in mobile environment ……..…………....20
7.1 Theoretical analysis …………………………...…………………………21
7.2 Antenna pattern …………………………………………………………..23
Chapter 8: Performance of mobile communication system ……………………………..24
8.1 Scheme for significant improvement of mobile in quality aspect ………..24
8.2 Scheme for significant improvement of mobile in reliability aspect ……..25
8.3 Scheme for significant improvement of mobile in quality aspect ………..25
8.4 Scheme for significant improvement
of mobile in quality as quantity aspect ………………………………...…26
Chapter 9:Some Calculations …………………………………………………………...27
9.1 Capacity of a system ……………………………………………………...27
9.2 Channel of a cell ……………………………………………………...…..28
9.3 Loss between Tx and Rx in mobile communication ……………………..28
9.4 Friis transmission formula ………………………………………………..29
9.5 Received Power versus different parameters ……………………………..29
Chapter 10:Simulation using Matlab ……………………………………………………30
Chapter 11:Analysis of received power intensity of mobile station ………….…………32
Chapter 12:Antenna Layout ……………………………………………………………..33
Chapter 13:Informations obtained from NTC about CMC system of Nepal ……..……..35
Chapter 14:Calculations with the use of C-Programming language …………………….36
Chapter 15: Gantt Chart …………………………………………………………………40
Chapter 16: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… 41
Reference …………….………………………………………………………………….42
1. Introduction
A general mobile system and designing of antenna for mobile communication are
the gist in the report of our project titled “Antenna System in Cellular Mobile
Communication”. In order to know the antenna system and designing, first of all, we
should know well the behaviour of antenna. An antenna is a “a metallic (usually) device
used for radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves which acts as the transition region
between free space and guiding structure like a transmission line in order to communicate
even in a longer distance.” Without antenna communication is not possible in longer
distance. Here the longer distance means the distance which can’t be covered by the
length of the transmission channel (cable). It is not practically realizable to deploy the
cable as the communication channel for the longer distance. For example, for
communication between USA and Nepal (air distance = about 12,000 km), it is not
possible to assign the cable or any physical transmission channel of length about 12,000
km.
An antenna consists of two parts; Transmitter and Receiver. The antenna at the
time of transmitting electromagnetic waves is called transmitting antenna and the same
antenna in the time of receiving electromagnetic waves is called receiving antenna. A
transmitting antenna takes waves that are generated by electrical signals inside a device
such as a radio and converts them to waves that can travel in an open space. The waves
that travel in an open space are known as free-space waves. The receiving antenna takes
free-space waves and convert them into guided waves (electrical signals) that are
compatible for cables or wires. So, for the communication between USA and Nepal (say
a call from Nepal to USA), the transmitting antenna located in Nepal transmits the
electromagnetic waves which are received by the receiving antenna located in USA and
hence the communication between them is possible.
2. Overview of the report
Antenna pattern, antenna tilting, gain, antenna tilting, and antenna height all affect the
cellular system design. The antenna pattern can be omni directional, directional, or any
shape in both the vertical and the horizon planes. Antenna gain compensates for the
transmitted power. Different antenna patterns and antenna gains at the cell site and at the
mobile units would affect the system performance and so must be considered in the
system design. Here we have considered about cell splitting, Sectorization, umbrella
pattern of antenna system, and different types of mobile antenna for reducing
interference.
Here we have also given a short overview of the design of the directional and
omni directional antenna for mobile communication.

The antenna patterns seen in cellular systems are different from the patterns seen
in free space. If a mobile unit travels around a cell site in areas with many buildings, the
omni directional antenna will not duplicate the omni pattern. In addition, if the front-to-
back ratio of a directional antenna is found to be 20 dB in free space, it will be only 10
dB at the cell site.
Antenna tilting can reduce the interference to the neighboring cells and enhance the weak
spots in the cell. Also the height of the cell-site antenna can affect the area and shape of
the coverage in the system.
 3. Block Diagram of
Antenna System for telephone and mobile communication

Dialing a number of Electrical signals The guided waves

any international produced by dialing a are taken and
call from one place number generate guided converted into space
waves which travel waves by the
( Tx ) through cables or wires transmitting antenna

Free space waves are The uplink radio waves

Call received in received and or free space waves are
another place converted into guided received by the satellite
( Rx ) waves with the down from the satellite dish
link frequency by the antenna kept on Earth
receiving antenna
4. Classification of antenna
4.1 General classification
Antenna can be classified on various bases such as its geometrical shape and size,
its directivity, its radiation pattern, its application and its frequency and wavelength.
Antennas are so classified in order to have the proper selection of different type of
antennas for various applications to meet the requirement. Here are some brief details
about different types of antenna.
Antenna can be classified on the basis of:

i) Geometrical shape & size

ii) Directivity
iii) Radiation pattern
iv) Application

i) Geometrical shape & size

We can classify antenna on the basis of its physical shape & size or its
orientation. There are various kinds of antennas falling in this category of
classification.
a) Linear wire antennas
- Half-wavelength dipole (mono-pole) antenna, dipole antenna
b) Aperture antennas
c) Array antennas
d) Microstrip antennas
e) Reflector antennas
f) Lens antennas

ii) Directivity
Antenna can also be classified on the basis of their effective direction, i.e. the
direction in which the antenna can show its effect (radiation or reception). There are
two types of antennas available falling in this category:
a) Directional antenna
b) Omni directional antenna

a) Directional antenna
This type of antenna receives or radiates electromagnetic waves more effectively
in one particular direction than in other directions.

b) Omni directional antenna

This type of antenna radiates or receives electromagnetic waves in all direction
except in azimuth plane. This type of antenna is non-directional in azimuth plane and
directional in any orthogonal plane or elevated plane. That means this antenna does
not point only in one direction or it has not the specific direction to radiate or receive
electro-magnetic wave in any of orthogonal plane.

iii) Radiation pattern

Basically, there are three types of radiation pattern – directional, omni
directional and isotropic pattern. Among these, an isotropic antenna is a hypothetical
lossless antenna having equal radiation in all directions.

iv) Application
On this basis, different antennas can be deployed into different application to
meet our requirement. That is we have to choose the best antenna for the specific
purpose. We can choose antennas for mobile communication, for FM & AM
broadcasting, for television broadcasting, for satellite communication, RADAR
communication etc.
4.2 Antennas used in cellular mobile communication system

1) Mobile antenna
The requirement of mobile (motor vehicle mounted) antenna is an omni directional
antenna, which can be located as high as possible from the point of reception. However
the physical limitation of antenna height on the vehicle restricts this requirement.
Generally the antenna should at least clear the top of the vehicle.

a. Roof mounted antenna

The antenna pattern of a roof mounted antenna is more or less uniformly
distributed around the mobile unit when measured at an antenna range in the 3 dB high
gain antenna shows a 3 dB gain over the quarter wave antenna. However the gain of the
antenna used at the mobile unit must be limited to 3 dB because the cell site antenna is
rarely as high as the broadcasting antenna and out of site conditions often prevail. The
mobile antenna with a gain of more than 3 dB can receive only a limited portion of total
multipath signal in the elevation as measured under the out of site condition.

b. Glass mounted antenna

There are many kinds of glass-mounted antennas. Energy is coupled through the
glass: therefore there is no need to drill a hole. However, some energy is dissipated on
passage through the glass. The antenna gain range is 1 to 3 dB depending on the
operating frequency. The position of the glass-mounted antenna is always lower than that
of the roof-mounted antenna; generally there is a 3 dB difference between these two types
of antenna. Also glass-mounted antennas cannot be installed on the shaded glass found in
some motor vehicles because this type of glass has a high metal content.

c. Mobile high gain antennas

A high gain antenna used on a mobile unit has been studied. This type of high gain
antenna should be distinguished from the directional antenna. In the directional antenna,
the antenna beam pattern is suppressed horizontally; in the high gain antenna, the pattern
is suppressed vertically. To apply either a directional antenna or high gain antenna for
reception in a radio environment, we must know the origin of the signal. If we point the
directional antenna opposite to the transmitter site, we would in theory receive nothing.
In a mobile radio environment, the scattered signals arrived at mobile unit from
every direction with equal probability. That is why an omni directional antenna is used
the scattered signals also arrived from different elevation angles. Lee and Brandt used
two types of antenna, one /4 whip antenna with an elevation coverage of 39o and one of
4 dB gain antenna (4 dB gain with respect to the gain of a dipole) with an elevation
coverage of 16 o, and measured the angle of signal arrival ion the sub urban Keyport-
Matawan area of new jersey. There are two type of test: a line of sight (LOS) condition
and an out of sight (OOS) condition. In Lee and Brandt's study the transmitter was
located at an elevation of approximately of 100 m (300 ft) above sea level. The measured
area were about 12 m (40 ft) above sea level and the path length about 3mi.The received
signal from the 4 dB gain antenna was 4 dB stronger than that from the whip antenna
under line of sight conditions. This is what we would expect. However, the received
signal from the 4 dB gain antenna was only about 2 dB stronger than that from the whip
antenna under OOS conditions.
This is surprising. The region for the latter observation is that the scattered signals
arriving under OOS conditions are spread over a wide elevation angle. A large portion of
the signal outside the elevation angle of 16 o cannot be received by high gain antenna we
may calculate the portion being received by the high gain antenna from the measured
beam width (the beam width can be roughly obtained from the equation:

114.6
D
0

where,
D is the directivity
and o is beam-width
For instance, suppose that a 4:1 gain (6 dBi) is expected from the high gain antenna, but
only 2.5:1 is received therefore, 63% of the signal is received by the 4 dB gain antenna
(i.e. 6 dBi) and 37% is felt in the region between 16 o and 39 o generally 2 to 3 db gain
antenna (4 to 5 dBi) should be adequate for general use. An antenna gains higher than 2
to 3 dB don't serve the purpose of enhancing level. Moreover, measurements reveal that
the elevation angle for scattered signals received in urban areas is greater than that in sub
urban areas.

d. Horizontally oriented space diversity antenna

A two-branch space diversity receiver mounted on a motor vehicle has the advantage
of reducing fading and thus can operate at a lower reception level. We must consider the
following factor. The two antennas can be mounted either in line with or perpendicular to
the motion of the vehicle. Theoretical analysis and measured data indicate that the inline
arrangement of the two antennas produces fewer level crossings that is less fading that
the perpendicular arrangement does.

e. Vertically oriented space diversity antenna

The vertical separation between the two space diversity antennas can be determined from
the correlation between their received signals. A set of measured data was obtained by
using two antennas vertically separated by 1.5 wavelengths.
2) Microwave antenna

Microwave antenna location

Sometimes the reception is poor after the microwave antenna has been mounted
on the antenna tower. A quick way to check the installation before making any other
changes is to move the microwave antenna around within a 2 to 4 ft radius of the
previous position and check the reception level. Surprisingly favorable results can be
obtained immediately because multipart cancellation is avoided as a result of
changing reflected paths at the receiving antenna.
Also, at any fixed microwave antenna location, the received signal level over a 24-hr
time period varies.

Characteristics of microwave antennas:

Microwave antennas can afford to concentrate their radiated power in a narrow

beam because of the size of the antenna in comparison to the wavelength of the
operating frequency; thus. High antenna gain is obviously desirable. Some of the
more significant characteristics are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Beamwidth:
The greater the size of the antenna, the narrower the beamwith. Usually the
beamwidth is specified by a half-poer (3 dB) beamwidth and is less than 100 at higher
microwave frequenceies. The beamwidth sometimes can be less than 1.0 The
narrowbeam can reduce the chances of interference from adjacent sources or objects
such as adjacent antennas. However, a narrowbeam antenna requires a fair amount of
mechanical stability for the beam to be aimed at a particular direction.

Side lobes:
The side lobes of an antenna pattern would be the potential source of interference
to other microwave paths or would reder the antenna vulnerable to receiveing
interferehce from other microwave paths.

Front-to back ratio: This is defined as the ratio of the maximum gain in the
forward direction to the maximum gain in the backward direction. The front-to-back
ratio is usually in the range of 20 to 30 dB because of the requirement for isolating or
protecting the main transmission beam from interference.

Repeater requirement:
The front-to-back ratio is very critical in repeaters because the same signal
frequencies are used in both directions at one site. An improper design can cause a
pung-pong ringing type of oscillation from allow front-to-back ratio or from poor
isolation between the transmitting port and receiving port of the repeater.

Site-side coupling loss:

The coupling loss, in decibels, should be designed to be high as a result of the
transmitting antenna carrying only the output signal and the receiving antenna
receiving only the

If the transmitting and receiving antennas are installed side by side, the typical
transmitter outputs are usually 60 dB higher than the receiver, input level. Longer link
distance results in increased values. Therefore, the coupling losses must be high in
order to avoid internal system interference. The space separation between to avoid
internal system interference. The space separation between two antennas and the filter
characteristics in the receiver can be combined with a given antenna pattern to
achieve the high coupling loss.

Back-to back coupling:

The back-to-back coupling loss also should be high (e.g., 60dB) between two
antennas. Two antennas are installed back to back, one transmitting and one
receiving. However, it is much easier to reach a high back-to-back coupling loss than
a side-to- side coupling loss.

Polarization and space diversity in microwave antennas

Polarization:
To reduce adjacent channel interference, microwave relay systems can interleave
alternate radio-channel frequencies from a horizontal polarized wave to a vertical
polarized wave.
The same approach can be applied to the left-and right-handed circularly
polarized waves, but the beam widths of antennas for this loss is defined as the ratio
of the poor received in the desired polarization to the poor coupling into other
polarization. The cross coupling required for one hop.

Space diversity:
The two antennas separated vertically or horizontally can be used for a two-
branch space-diversity arrangement. In a space-diversity receiver, the required
reception level is relatively low so that the transmitted power on the end of the link
can be reduced. This is also an effective method for increasing the coupling loss
between the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna.
 Types of microwave-link antenna:
Two kinds of antenna are used for microwave links
1. A parabolic dish, used for short-haul systems. Antennas sizes range form 1.5 m
(5fg) to 3 m (10ft) in diameter.
2. A horn-reflector antenna, to trap the energy outward from the focal
a. Good match–return loss 40-50 dB.

Installation of microwave antennas:

A microwave antenna cannot be installed at any arbitrary location. Selection of an
optimum position is very important. In many situations if we cannot move horizontally,
we can move vertically. In a microwave-link setup, there are two fixed effective antenna
heights, one at each end based on each reflection plane where the reflection point is
incident on it. The gain of the received signal also relates to the two effective antenna
heights if they are low. The antenna location can be move around to find the best
reception level. Sometimes it is worthwhile to take time to search for the location that
gives the best reception.

Types of antenna used in BS and MS in cellular mobile communication

In MS (Mobile Station)
Omni-directional (monopole antenna)
It is used due to its broadband characteristics and simple construction, monopole

antenna is used in the hand held unit (Mobile Station).A monopole is very popular in
4
mobile communication. Other alternatives of monopole antenna are loop antenna, micro-
strip antenna, spiral antenna etc.

In BS (Base Station)
Panel antenna
i) Omni-directional
ii) Sectoral
Panel antenna = dipole array inside it and is covered with radome
Frequency range of population --- 1420 to 1530 MHz
Sectoral antenna operates in polarization diversity
4.3 Types of Mobile Antenna Vs cell site

Traffic congestion criteria

i) Congested traffic in some particular areas
The sectorized antennas must be installed in the tower. Generally the three
sectorization is the most popular one. The three sectorization means using three
separate antennas in 120o We may direct each antenna to those directions where the
subscribers are located. We use these types of antennas in the towers of highly
congested city and where the omni-directional antenna can’t accomplishes the need of
the very large traffic.

ii) Congested traffic in a particular area

In this case, we use directional antenna which is directed only in a fixed
particular area. We use directional antenna instead of omni-directional antenna to
avoid waste of power of omni-directional antenna in undesired directions (areas).
Generally the directional antenna is used in the towers of highway where there are
people (subscriber) residing only in a particular area.

iii) Equally distributed Traffic (subscribers) within a particular area

In this case, we use omni-directional antenna. No need of sectorization in this
case. The power radiated by the omni-directional antenna is equally showered in all
direction within a particular region within the limit of its power. Generally the
omni-directional antennas are used in the towers of small city where there are few but
equally distributed in all directions.
5. Design of antenna
5.1 Design of an omni directional antenna system
K = 7 cell pattern doesn’t provide a sufficient frequency reuse distance separation
even when an ideal condition of flat terrain is assumed. The worst case is at the location
where the mobile unit would receive the weakest signal from its own cell site but strong
interference from all interfering cell sites.

D+R




D+R
D
R


M
D-R D



D-R

Fig.(1) Illustration of 1st tier co-channel cells for a cluster size of N = 7.

 In the worst case the mobile unit is at the cell boundary (point X), as shown in the
figure (1).the distances from all six co channel interfering sites are also shown in the
figure: two distances of D-R, two distances of D, and two distances of D + R. following
the mobile propagation rule of 40 dB/decade, we obtain C  R-4, I  D-4,
Then the carrier to interference ratio is:

C R 4

I 2( D  R) 4  2 D 4  2( D  R) 4

1
 ----------------------------------------------------------- (1)
2(q  1)  2q  4  2(q  1)  4
4

D
where q  = co-channel reuse factor.
R
We may use the shortest distance D-R for all six interferer as a worst case then the above
equation can be written as
C R 4
 -------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
I 6( D  R )  4
D
here for K = 7, we have q =  3K = 3 7 = 4.6
R
C C
= 17 dB from equation (1) and for the worst case from equation (2), = 14.47 dB
I I
In reality because of the imperfect site location and the rolling nature of the terrain
configuration, the C/I received is always worse than 17 dB or could be 14 dB and lower.
Such an instance can easily occur in a heavy traffic situation. Therefore the system must
be designed around C/I of worst case. In that case the co channel interference factor of q
= 4.6 is in-sufficient (i.e. reuse factor = K = 7)
Therefore in the omni-directional cell system, K = 9 or K =12 would be a correct
choice. Then the value of q is:

D
q = 3K
R
At K = 9, q = 5.196
At K = 12, q = 6.0

Substituting this value in equation (1) we obtain

C/I = 84.5 = 19.25 dB ----------- for K = 9
C/ I = 179.33 = 22.54 dB -------- for K = 12
Substituting this value in equation (2) we obtain
C/I = 51.67 = 17.133 dB -------- for K = 9
C/ I = 104.167 = 20.177 dB ---- for K = 12
The K = 9 and K = 12 cell pattern are used when the traffic is light. Each cell covers an
adequate area with adequate numbers of channel to handle traffic. These patterns are not
valid for the case when there is a huge traffic.

5.2 Design of a directional antenna system

When the cell traffic begins to increase, we need to use the frequency spectrum
efficiently and avoid increasing the number of cells K in a 7-cell frequency reuse pattern.
When K increases the number of frequency channels assigned in a cell must become
smaller (assuming a total allocated channel divided by K) and the efficiency of applying
the frequency reuse scheme decreases.
Instead of increasing the number K in a set of cells, let us keep K = 7 and introduce a
directional antenna arrangement. The co-channel interference can be reduced by using
directional antennas. This means that each cell is divided into 3 or 6 sectors and uses 3 or
6 directional antennas at a base station. Each sector is assigned a set of frequencies
(channels). The interference between two co-channel cells decreases as shown below:

i) For K=7 (i.e. q = 4.6)

a) Three sector case D+0.7R

4
5 6
3 2 5
1 3  MS
4 7 1
6 4
2 5 6
3 2
D
1

Fig. 3-sector case for K = 7

The three-sector case is shown in fig. To illustrate the worst-case situation, two co-
channel cells are shown in fig.. The mobile unit at position E will experience grater
interference in the lower shaded cell sector site. This is because the mobile receiver
receives the weakest signal from its own cell but fairly strong interference from the
interfering cell. In a three sector case, the interference is effective only in one direction
because the front to back ratio of a cell site directional antenna is at least 10 dB or more
in a mobile radio environment. The worst-case co-channel interference in a directional
antenna sectors in which interference occurs may be calculated. Because of the use of
directional antennas, the number of principal interferers is reduced from 6 to 2. The worst
case of C/I occurs when the mobile unit is at position E, at which point the distance
R
between the mobile unit and the two interfering antennas is roughly D + ; however, C/I
2
can be calculated more precisely as follows. The value of C/I can be obtained by the
following expression (assuming that the worst case is at position E at which the distance
from the two interferers are D + 0.7 and D).

R 4 1
C/I (worst case) = =
( D  0.7 R)  D
 4  4 (q  0.7)  4  q 4

Let, q = 4.6, then

C/I (worst case) = 285 = 24.5 dB ----------------- (1)

The C/I received by a mobile unit from the 120o directional antennas sector system
expressed in equation (1) greatly exceeds 18 dB in a worst case equation (1) shows that
using directional antenna sectors can improve the signal to interference ratio. That is
reusing the co-channel interference. However in reality the C/I could be 6 dB weaker
than in equation (1) in a heavily traffic area as a result of irregular terrain contour and
imperfect site locations. The remaining 18.5 dB is still adequate.

b) Six sector case

We may also divide a cell into 6 sectors by using six 60o beam directional antenna. In
this case only one instance of interference can occur in each sector. Therefore C/I ratio in
this case is

C R 4
 = (q + 0.7)4 ---------------------- (2)
I ( D  0 .7 R ) 4

For q = 4.6, equation (2) can be given as

C/I = 794 = 29 dB
 Which shows a further reduction of co-channel interference. If we use the same
argument as we did for equation (1) and subtract 6 dB from the result of equation (2) the
remaining 23 dB is still more than adequate. When heavy traffic occurs, the 60o sector
configuration can be used to reduce co-channel interference. However as fewer channels
are generally allowed in a 60o sector and the trunking efficiency decreases. In certain
cases more available channel could be assigned in a 60o sector.

ii) K=4 (i.e. q = 3.46)

a) Three sector case

3
4 2
3 1 3
2 4
1 3 1
4 2
3 1 3
2 4
3

Fig. 3-sector case for K = 4

C 1
(worst case) =  97  20dB
I ( q  0 .7 )  4  q  4
But after subtracting 6 dB for the same reason, we get only 14 dB which is within an
unacceptable range.
b) Six sector case

C 1
(worst case) =  359.5  27 dB
I ( q  1)  4
and after subtracting 6 dB, we get 21 dB which is still within the acceptable range.

6. Cell site antenna height

There are several points, which need to be clarified concerning cell site antenna height
effects.

Antenna height unchanged

If the power of the cell site transmitter changes the whole signal strength can be linearly
updated according to the change in power. If the transmitted power increased by 3dB to
each grid in the signal strength map. The relative difference in power among the grids
remains the same.

Antenna height changed

If the antenna height changes, then signal strength map obtained from the old antenna
height cannot be updated. With the simple antenna height antenna formula as

 h '1 
g  20 log 
 h1 

Where h1 is the old actual antenna height and h1' is the new actual antenna height.
However we can we can still use the same terrain contour data along the radio path (from
the cell site antenna to each grid) to figure out the difference in gain resulting from the
different effective antenna heights in each grid
 h'e 
g '  20 log 
 he 

where he is the old effective antenna height and he' is the new effective antenna
height. The additional gain (increase or decrease) will be added to the signal strength grid
based on the old antenna height.
6.1 Visualization of the effective antenna height
The effective antenna height changes when the location of the mobile unit changes.
Therefore we can visualize the effective antenna height as always changing up or down
while the mobile unit is moving. This kind of picture should be kept in mind. In addition
following fact may be helpful
1. The mobile unit is driven up a positive slope (up to a high spot). The effective
antenna height increases if the mobile unit is driving away from the cell site
antenna and it decreases if the mobile unit is approaching the cell site antenna.
2. The mobile unit is driven down the hill. The effective antenna height decreases if
the mobile unit is driving away from the cell site antenna, and it increases if the
mobile unit is approaching the cell site antenna.

6.2 Lowering the antenna height.

Lowering the antenna height doesn't always reduce the co channel interference. In
some circumstances, such as on fairly flat ground or in a valley situation, lowering the
antenna height will be very effective for reducing the co channel and adjacent channel
interference. However there are three cases where the lowering the antenna height may or
may not effectively help to reduce the interference.

1. On a high hill or a high spot

The effective antenna height rather than actual height is always consider in the
system design. Therefore the effective antenna height varies according the
location of the mobile unit. When the antenna height is on a hill, the effective
antenna height is h1+H.If we reduce actual antenna height to 0.5h1+H. The
reduction in gain resulting from the height reduction is

 0.5h1  H 
gain  reduction  G  20 log 
 1 h  H 
 0.5h1 
 20 log1   ----------------------------- (1)
 h1  H 

If h1<<H, then denominator part of (1) is very large and hence eqn (1) can be written as
G  20 log1 = 0 dB

This simply proves that lowering antenna height on hill does not reduce the
received power at either the cell site or mobile unit.
2. In a Valley

The effective antenna height he1 which is less than actual antenna height h1 if
2 1
he1  h1 and the antenna is lowered to h1 then the new effective antenna height will be
3 2
1 2 1
he1  h1  (h1  h1 )  h1
2 3 6
Then the antenna gain is reduced by
1 
 h1 
G  20 log 6 
2 
 h1 
3 
= -12 dB

This simply proves that the lowered antenna height in a valley is very effective in
reducing the radiated power in the distant high elevation area. However, in the area
adjacent to the cell site antenna, the effective antenna height is same as the actual antenna
height. The power reduction caused by decreasing antenna height by half is only

1 
 h1 
20 log 2   6 dB
 h1 
 
 

3. In a forested area
In forested area the antenna should clear the tops of any tree in vicinityH,
especially when they are very close to the antenna. In this case decreasing the
height of the antenna would not be the proper procedure for reducing co channel
interference because excessive attenuation of the desired signal would occur in
the vicinity of the antenna and in its cell boundary if antenna were below the
treetop level.
7. Antenna pattern in free space and in mobile environment
The antenna pattern we normally use is the one we measured from the antenna range
(open, non-urban area) or an antenna dark room. However when the antenna is placed on
the urban or suburban environment and the mobile antenna is lower than the height of the
surroundings, the cell site antennas pattern as a mobile unit received in a circle
equidistant around the cell site is quite different from the free space antenna pattern.
Consider the following facts in the mobile radio environment.
1. The strongest reception still coincides with the strongest signal strength of the
directional antenna.
2. The pattern is distorted in urban and suburban environment'
3. For a 120o directional antenna the back lobe (or front to back ratio) is about 10dB
less than the front lobe, regardless of whether a weak side lobe pattern or a no
side lobe pattern is designed in a free space condition. This condition exists
because the strong signal radiates in front bouncing back from the surrounding so
that the energy can be received from the back of the antenna.
4. A design specification of the front to back ratio of the directional antenna (from
the manufacturers catalogue) is different from the actual front to back ratio in the
mobile radio environment. Therefore the environment and the antenna beam
width determines how the antenna would be used in the mobile radio
environment. For example if a 60o directional antenna is used in the mobile radio
environment, the actual front to back ratio can vary depending on the given
environment. If the close in man made structure in front of an antenna is highly
reflect able to the signal then the front to back ratio of low master directional
antenna can be as low as 6 dB in some circumstances. In this case the directional
antenna beam width pattern has no correlation between it measured in the free
space and it measured in the mobile radio environment. If all the building are far
away from the directional antenna, then front to back ratio measured in the field
will be close to the specified antenna pattern, usually 20 dB.

Regular check of the cell site antenna

Air pressurized cable is often used in cell antenna to prevent moisture from
entering the cable and causing excessive attenuation. One method to check the cell site
antenna is to measure the power delivered to the antenna terminal; however few systems
have this capability. The other method is to measure the VSWR at the bottom of the
tower In this case the loss or reflected power due to cable under normal conditions should
be considered. For the high tower VSWR may not be accurate.
If each cable connector has 1 dB loss due to energy leakage and two midsection 1 dB loss
connectors are used in the transmitted system the reflected power Pb indicated in the
VSWR would be 4 dB less than the real reflected power.
Choosing the antenna site
When a site is chosen on the map there is 50% chance that the site location cannot
be acquired written rule state that an antenna location can be found within quarter of the
size of cell R/4.If the site is an 8 miles cell, the antenna can be located within a2 miles
radius. The hypothesis is based on the simulation result that the change in site within the
2 miles radius would not at the coverage pattern at the distance 8 miles away. If the site is
2 miles cell the antenna can be located within 0.5 miles radius. The quarter radius rule
can be applied only relatively flat terrain, not in a hilly area. To determine whether this
rule can be applied in a general area one can use the point-to-point prediction method to
plot the coverage at different site locations and compare the differences.

Reduction of co-channel interference by means of Notch in the tilted

antenna pattern

Reduction of co-channel interference in a cellular mobile system is always a challenging

problem. A number of methods can be considered such as
1. Increasing the separation between two co channel cell
2. Using directional antenna in the base station, or
3. Lowering the antenna height at the base station.

Method 1 is not advisable because as the number of frequency-reuse cell increases,

the system efficiency, which is directly proportional to the number of channels per cell,
decreases. Method 3 is not recommended because such an arrangement also weakens the
reception level at the mobile unit. However, method 2 is good approach. Especially when
the number of frequency-reuse cells is fixed. The use of directional antennas in each cell
can serve two purposes:

1. For the further reduction of co channel interference if the interference can

be eliminated by a fixed separation if co channel cells and
2. Increasing the channel capacity when the traffic increases. Here we try to
further reduce the co channel interference by intelligently setting up the
directional antenna

7.1 Theoretical analysis

Under normal circumstances radiation from a co channel-serving site can easily
interfere with another channel cell .Directional antenna can reduce the interference in the
system by eliminating the radiation to the rest of its 240o sector. However, co-channel
interference can exist even when a directional antenna is used, as the serving site can
interfere with the co channel cell that is directly a head. Let us assume that a seven –cell
cellular system (K = 7) is used. The co channel interference reduction factor q becomes

Q = (3N)0.5 = 4.6

And the co channel cell separation D can be found if the cell radius is known
D = qR = 4.6R
With a separation of 4.6R, the area of interference are the interference receiving
cell is illuminated by the central 19o sector of the entire (120o) transmitting antenna
pattern at the serving cell. If three identical directional antenna are implemented in every
cell, with each antenna covering a 120o sector, then every sector receives interference in
the central 19o sector of the entire 120o angle at the interfering cell. Therefore, attempt
should be made to reduce the signal strength of the interference in this 19o sector.
To achieve the significant gain of C/I in the interference- receiving cell, we should
consider using a notch in the central of the antenna pattern at the interfering cell. An
antenna pattern with a notch in the center can be obtained in a number of ways. One
relatively simple way is to tilt the high-gain directional antenna downward.

Cautions in tilting antennas

When a base station antenna is tilted down by 10o, the strength of the received
signal in the horizontal direction is decreased by 4 dB. But the strength of the received
signal 1o below the horizontal is decreased by 3.5 dB only 0.5 dB stronger than in the 0o
case. This is very important observation. For e.g., the elevation angel at the boundary of a
2-miles serving cell with a 100ft antenna mast is about 0.5o.this means that the serving
cell and the interfering cell are separated by only 0.5o at most then by tilting three
antenna down by 10o, the interference by the interfering cell is reduced by an additional
0.25 dB. This is an insignificant improvement the total power received is 4 dB less than
in the no-tilt case. If the tilt is increased to 20o, the received power drops by 16 dB and
the reduction in interference due to tilting the antenna is only 1 dB at the interference
cell. Therefore the antenna vertical pattern and the antenna height play a major role in
justifying antenna tilting. Sometimes, tilting the antenna upward may increase signal
coverage if interference is not a problem

Umbrella pattern effect

Umbrella pattern can be achieved by the discone antenna .the umbrella pattern
can be applied to reduce co channel interference just as the downward tilted directional
antenna pattern is .the umbrella pattern can be used for an omni directional pattern for a
directional antenna pattern. The tilted directional pattern can create notch after tilting 20o
more in front of the beam, but the umbrella pattern cannot. There fore the umbrella
pattern might be recommended for every cell site where the interference prevails. The
umbrella pattern, in which energy is confined to the immediate area of the antenna, is
effective in reducing both co-channel and long distance interference. Also in a hilly
terrain areas there are many holes (weak signal spots). With a normal antenna pattern, we
cannot raise the antenna high enough to cover these holes and decrease co channel
interference at the same time. However the advantage of the umbrella pattern is that we
can increase the antenna height and still decrease co-channel interference.

Antenna height decreases

When antenna height decreased, the reception power is also decreased. However
the formula is based in the difference between the old and new effective height and not
on the antenna actual height. Therefore the effective antenna height is the same as the
actual antenna height only when the mobile unit is traveling in flat ground. it is easy to
decrease antenna height to control coverage in the flat terrain area. For decreasing
antenna height in a hilly area, it is difficult task. Therefore a decrease in antenna height
would affect the coverage, thus antenna height become very difficult to control in an
overall plan. Some area within the cell may have a high attenuation while another may
not

7.2 Antenna pattern

The design of different antenna pattern should be according to the terrain contour,
the population and other condition within the given area. Of course this is the difficult
task For instance implementation of antenna tilting or use of an antenna pattern might be
necessary in certain area in order to reduce interference.
Side lobe control (i.e. control of secondary lobe formation in an antenna radiation
pattern) is also very critical in the implementation of a directional antenna. Coverage can
be control by means of following method
1. When the entire antenna is facing outward the resultant pattern is very
difficult to control because ripples and deep nulls frequently form.
2. With skewed direction antenna the resultant pattern becomes smoother.
Therefore, this configuration is more attractive.
8. Performance of mobile communication system
8.1 Scheme for significant improvement of mobile in quality aspect
Sectorization
The total number of available channels can be divided into sets (subgroups)
depending on the sectorization of the cell configuration: the 1200-sector system, the 600-
sector system, and the 450-sector system. A seven-cell system usually uses three 1200
sectors per cell, with the total number of channel sets being 21. In certain locations and
special situations, the sector angle can be reduced (narrowed) in order to assign more
channels in one sector without increasing neighboring-channel interference.
Sectorization serves the same purpose as the channel-borrowing scheme in delaying cell
splitting. In addition, channel co-ordination to avoid co-channel interference is much
easier in sectorization than in cell splitting. Given the same number of channels, trucking
efficiency decreases in sectorization.

Comparison of omni cells (non sectorized cells) and sectorized cells

Omni cells. If a K + 7 frequency-reuse pattern is used, the frequency sets assigned
in each cell can be followed by the frequency-management. However, terrain is seldom
flat; therefore, K= 12 is sometimes needed for reducing co channel interference. For
K=12, the channel-reuse distance is D = 6R, or the co channel reduction factor q=6.

Sectorized cells.
There are three basic types:
1. The 1200-sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving sectorization.
Each sector has an assigned a number of frequencies. Changing sectors during
a call requires handoffs.
2. The 600-sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving sectorization.
Changing sectors during a call requires handoffs. More handoffs are expected
for a 60 sector than a 120 sector in areas close to cell sites (close-in areas).
3. The 120o or 60o sector cell is used for receiving sectorization only. In this
case, the transmitting antenna is omni directional. The number of channels in
this cell is not subdivided for each sect. Therefore, no handoffs are required
when changing sectors. This receiving sectorization-only configuration does
not decrease interference or increase the D/R ratio; it only allows for a more
accurate decision regarding handing off the calls to neighboring cells.
8.2 Scheme for significant improvement of mobile in reliability aspect
Range Extension by the use of Repeater
We use the repeater in cellular mobile communication system for extending the
range of the reception of the receiver. Especially we use the repeater when it is hard for
the transmitted signal to reach up to the receiver set. Repeaters are bidirectional in nature
and simultaneously send signals to and receive signals from a serving base station. Upon
receiving signals from a base stations in forward link, the repeater amplifies and
reradiates the base station signals to the specific coverage region. Repeaters are being
widely used to provide coverage into and around buildings, where coverage has been
traditionally weak.

8.3 Scheme for significant improvement of mobile in quantity aspect

Cell Splitting:

Why splitting?
The motivation behind implementing a cellular mobile system is to improve the
utilization of spectrum efficiency. The frequency reuse scheme is one concept, and cell
splitting is another concept. When traffic density starts to build up and the frequency
channels in each cell cannot provide enough mobile calls, the original cell can be split
into smaller cells. Usually the new radius is one-half the original radius cell site is not
use.

New cell radius = old cell radius/2

New cell area = old cell area/4

Let each new cell carry the same maximum traffic load of the old cell; then, in theory,
New traffic load / unit area = 4 Х traffic load/ Unit area

How splitting?
There are two kinds of cell-splitting techniques:
1. Permanent splitting. The installation of every new split cell has to be planned
ahead of time; the number of channels, the transmitted power, the assigned
frequencies, the choosing of the cell-site selection and the traffic load
consideration should all be considered. When ready, the actual service cut-
over should be set at the lowest traffic point, usually at midnight on a weaken.
Hopefully, only a few calls will be dropped because of this cut-over,
assuming that the downtime of the system is within 2 h
 2. Dynamic splitting. This scheme is based on utilizing the allocated spectrum
efficiency in real time. The algorithm for dynamically splitting cell sites is a
tedious job since we cannot afford to have

Effect of splitting:
When the cell splitting is occurring, in order to maintain the frequency-reuse distance
ratio q in a system, there are two considerations.
1. Cells splitting affects the neighboring cells, splitting cells causes an
unbalanced situation in power and frequency-reuse distance and makes it
necessary to split small cells in the neighboring cells. This phenomenon is the
same as a ripple effect.
2. Certain channels should be used as barriers. To the same extent, large and
small cells can be isolated by selecting a group of frequencies, which will be
used only in the cells located between the large cells on one side and the small
cells on the other side, in order to eliminate the interference being transmitted
from the large cells to the small cells.
3. Small Cells (Micro cells)

8.4 Scheme for significant improvement in quality as well as quantity

aspects of mobile
Micro-cell Zone Concept

Microwave or fiber-optic link

Zone Selector

Tx/Rx Tx/Rx Base Station

Tx/Rx

Fig. Microcell Zone concept for 3-microcell

By the use of sectorization technique, we can increase the system performance (i.e,
quality of the signal) but side by side, there will be a large increment of handoffs which
results the increment of load on the switching and control link elements of the mobile
system. So there must be some technique for the solution of this problem. So a microcell
zone concept is introduced which decreases the co-channel interference (i.e improves the
signal quality) and also leads to an increased capacity without the degradation in trunking
efficiency caused by sectoring.
In this scheme, each of the three or more zones (represented as Tx/Rx) in above
figure are connected to a single base station and share the same radio equipment (same
frequency). Generally, the zones are connected by coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or
microwave link to the base station. All those multiple zones (3 zones considered here)
and a single base station make up a cell. As a mobile travels within a cell, it served by
the zone with the strongest signal. This approach (i.e micro-cell zone concept) is superior
to sectoring since antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell, and any base station
channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station.
As the mobile travels from one zone to another within the cell, it retains the same
channel. Thus, unlike in sectoring, a handoff is not required at the MSC when the mobile
travels between zones within the cell since all the three zones have the same frequency.
The base station simply switches the channel to a different zones site. In this way, a given
channel is active only in the particular zone in which the mobile is traveling, and hence
the base station radiation is localized and interference is reduced.

9. Some Calculations
9.1 Capacity of a system
Let the total number of channel be S, K be the channel allocated for each cell, N be the
number of cell in a cluster, then the total number of channel S is given by
S = KN
And if C is the capacity of the system, then
C = MS = MKN
where M is the number of times the cluster is replicated

Hence, we see that the capacity of the system increases as the number of cell decreases.
9.2 Channel in a cell
Suppose,
total Bandwidth = 33 MHz
channel Bandwidth = 50 KHz
 total available channel = 33000/50
= 660 channels
Now, for N = 4, channel/cell = 660/4 = 165 channels
for N = 7, channel/cell = 660/7 = 94.286  94 channels
for N = 12, channel/cell = 660/12 = 55 channels

Hence, from above, we see that the number of channel per cell (capacity) increases as N
decreases and vice versa.

Also ,we have

D
Q= = 3N
R
where
Q is the co-channel reuse ratio or co-channel reuse factor
D is the co-channel distance or frequency reuse distance
R is the radius of the cell
N is the number of cell in a cluster

Hence, as we go on decreasing Q by decreasing N, the capacity of the system increases.

But we can’t decrease factor N to a larger extent due to the system performance
(transmission quality). As we go on decreasing N, obviously the capacity increases but
the cost for that is the degradation of transmission quality due to the co-channel
interference. So there must be a trade-off between system performance and the system
capacity. In other words, we must decrease the number of cell (N) up to that limit where
the ratio S/I is with in an acceptable range.

9.3 Loss between Tx and Rx in mobile communication

In every communication system, the loss do occur and so cellular mobile
communication system also incur the loss which is given by the formula
L p  10 log 10 G t  10 log 10 G r  20 log 10 ( f )  20 log 10 ( d )  147.6 dB
where
Lp is the path (communication path) loss
Gt is the gain of transmitting antenna
Gr is the gain of receiving antenna
 f is the frequency of signal in MHz
d is the distance between transmitting and receiving antenna

9.4 Friis transmission formula

Pr (dBW) = Pt (dBW) + Gt (dBW) + Gr (dBW) – FSL (dB)
where FSL is the free space loss and is given by the formula
FSL = 20 log10 ( 4d )

Here, d is the distance between the transmitting and receiving antenna

9.5 Received Power versus different parameters

i) Received power Vs distance between Tx and Rx
We have, received power is given by
P G G 2
Pr  t t r2
4d

1
Pr α
d2
Received power is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver.
From the above equation, we can see that when the distance is doubled then received
power decreases by 6 dB and when the distance between Tx and Rx is 10 times greater
than the original distance, then the received power decreases by 20 dB. In conclusion, the
received power decreases with the distance at the rate of 6 dB/octave and 20 dB/decade.

ii) Received power Vs height of the Base Station (BS)

Received power is proportional to the square of the height of the BS antenna. So doubling
the height of the BS antenna corresponds to the reduction of path loss by 6 dB. It means
that increment of the BS height will increases the gain of antenna. Thus the received
power increases as the BS antenna height increases.
2
h 
G  10 log 10  b 2 
 hb1 
where hb1 = old height of BS
hb 2 = new height of BS
iii) Received power Vs height of the Mobile Station (MS)
Received power is proportional to the height (not square of the height) of MS antenna.
The increment of the height of MS increases gain and thus power received also increases.
h 
G  10 log 10  m 2 
 hm1 
where hm1 = old height of MS
hm 2 = new height of MS

10. Simulation using Matlab

10.1 Omindirectional pattern
10.2 Directional Pattern

10.3 Directional pattern for dipole antenna

 11. Analysis of received power intensity of mobile station

electromagnetic wave Induced A.C. voltage

Tx Rx Full Wave Rectifier



Base Station Antenna Mobile Station Antenna  D.C. digital voltage

ADC
D.C. analog voltage


output BCD to 7-Segment

7-Segment Display decoder

Fig. Block Diagram of Analysis of Received power intensity of mobile station

Principle:
When the receiving antenna of mobile station receives the signal from the
transmitting antenna of Base Station, then the A.C. voltage induced can be extracted as
an output of receiver antenna. That induced A.C. voltage can be converted into D.C.
voltage by the use of Full wave Rectifier. The obtained voltage is in analog form which
can be converted into digital form by using the electronic chip called Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC). The o/p voltage in analog form is not user friendly (can’t read the
reading easily). So we have to make that reading very easily readable for all the user. So,
to do that, we introduce ADC for converting analog into digital form. The output of the
ADC is fed into the BCD to Seven Segment Decoder and then into Seven Segment
Display. The output of the seven segment display is now readable for all the user.
We, now can place the mobile station in various places within the range of
transmitted power of the transmitting antenna and locate the area where the mobile
station antenna receives the signal with greatest received power (intensity). So, by the
analysis of this experiment, we can find the region where the receiver can detect the
signal and also the extreme power detectable region of the receiver.
12. Antenna Layout
An antenna works best when its physical size corresponds to a quantity known as
the antenna’s electrical size. The electrical size of an antenna depends on the wavelength
of the radio waves being sent or received. An antenna radiates energy most efficiently
when its length is a particular fraction of the intended wavelength. When the length of an
1
antenna is a major fraction of the corresponding wavelength (a quarter-wavelength (  )
4
1
or half-wavelength (  )is often used), the radio waves oscillating back and forth along
2
the antenna will encounter each other in such a way that the wave crests do not interfere
with one another. The waves will resonate, or be in harmony, and will then radiate from
the antenna with the greatest efficiency.
If an antenna is not long enough or is too long for the intended radio frequency, the
wave crests will encounter and interfere with one another as they travel back and forth
along the antenna, thus reducing the efficiency. The antenna then acts like a capacitor or
an inductor (depending on the shape of the antenna) and stores, rather than radiates,
energy. The electrical length of an antenna can be altered by adding a metal loop of wire
known as a loading coil to one end of the antenna, thus increasing the amount of wire in
the antenna. Loading coils are used when the practical length of an antenna would be too
long. Adding a coil to a short antenna increases the antenna’s electrical length, improves
its resonance at the desired frequency, and increases the antenna’s efficiency.
The radio waves used by AM radio have wavelengths of about 300 m (about 1,000
ft). Most AM transmitter antennas are built to a height of about 75 m (about 250 ft),
which, in this case, is the length of a quarter-wavelength. With a tower of this height, an
AM radio antenna will radiate radio waves most efficiently. Since an antenna that is 75
meters tall would be impractical for a portable AM radio receiver, AM radios use a
special coil of wire inside the radio for an antenna. The coil of wire is wrapped around an
iron-like magnetic material called a ferrite. When radio waves come into contact with the
coil of wire, they induce an electric charge within the coil. The magnetic ferrite helps
confine and concentrate the electrical energy in the coil and aids in reception.
Television and FM radio use tall broadcast towers as well but use much shorter
wavelengths, corresponding to much higher frequencies, than AM radio. Therefore,
television and FM radio waves have wavelengths of only about 3 m (about 10 ft). As a
result, the corresponding antennas are much shorter. Buildings and other obstructions
close to the ground can block these high-frequency radio waves. Thus the towers are used
to raise the antennas above these obstructions in order to provide a greater broadcasting
range. Receiving antennas for television sets and FM radios are small enough to be
installed on these devices themselves, but the antennas are often mounted high on
rooftops for better reception.
Example:
If we want to prepare the antenna for GSM mobile communication, then we must
consider the frequency of mobile communication system for GSM.
We have,
Frequency for GSM ( f ) = 900 MHz
C 3  10 8
Wavelength ,    m = 333.333 mm = 33.333 cm
f 900  10 6
Theoretically,
length l of the antenna is related with the wavelength as
 
l  for monopole antenna and l  for dipole antenna
4 2

 333.333  10 3
l = = 83.33 mm = 8.333 cm for dipole antenna
4 4

 333.333  10 3
l = = 41.66 mm = 4.166 cm for monopole antenna
2 2
13. Informations obtained from NTCabout CMC system of
Nepal

Transmitted power of BS = 40 W
“ “ “ µBTS = 4 W
“ “ “ MS = 0.02 W
Receiver power of MS = -62 dBm to -100 dBm
“ “ “ BS = …..
Receiver sensitivity of MS = -102 dBm
“ “ “ BS = ….

i) Omni-directional ----------35 km
ii) Directional (sectorized) ----- 8-12 km

BS antenna height = 35 m
BS antenna height in new road = 8 m
BS antenna height in outside valley = 70 m
Avg. MS antenna height = 5 m
Antenna gain = 18 dB
Life of antenna = 15 years
14. Calculations with the use of C-Programming language
i) Calculation of Antenna Gain

#include<conio.h>
#include<iostream.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
float diameter,frequency,gain_ln,gain_log;
cout<<"\t\tCalculation of Antenna Gain.\n";
cout<<"\t\t----------------------------\n\n";
for(int i=0;i<4;i++)
{
cout<<"Enter the antenna diameter(m): ";
cin>>diameter;
cout<<"Enter the frequency(MHz): ";
cin>>frequency;
gain_ln=20*log(diameter)+20*log(frequency)-42.3;
gain_log=gain_ln/2.30258;
cout<<"The Antenna Gain(dB) = "<<gain_log<<"\n\n";
}
getch();
}

ii) Calculation of channel per cell

#include<conio.h>
#include<iostream.h>
#define total_BW 33000
#define channel_BW 50
void main()
{
clrscr();
int total_channel,no_of_cell,channel_per_cell;
cout<<"\t\tTotal Bandwidth = 33000 KHz\n";
cout<<"\t\tChannel Bandwidth = 50 KHz\n\n";
cout<<"Calculate the no. of available channel/cell and see the effect of changing the
no. of cell\n\n";
for(int i=0;i<3;i++)
{

total_channel=total_BW/channel_BW;
cout<<"Enter the no. of cell:";
cin>>no_of_cell;
channel_per_cell=total_channel/no_of_cell;
cout<<"The no.of available channel/cell is:"<<channel_per_cell<<"\n\n";
 }
cout<<"Hence from the above calculations, we see that the no. of available channel/cell
increases as the no .of cell decreases.";
getch();
}

iii) Friis Transmission Formula

a) Analysing received power Vs distance between Tx and Rx

#include<conio.h>
#include<iostream.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
float power_tr,power_rc,gain_tr,gain_rc,FSL_ln,FSL_log;
float distance,frequency;
cout<<"\t\tFriis Transmission Formula.\n";
cout<<"\t\t---------------------------\n\n";
cout<<"Analysing received power Vs distance between Tx and Rx.\n";
cout<<"*******************************************************\n\n";
for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
cout<<"Enter the transmitted power(dBW):";
cin>>power_tr;
cout<<"Enter the transmitting antenna gain(dB): ";
cin>>gain_tr;
cout<<"Enter the receiving antenna gain(dB): ";
cin>>gain_rc;
cout<<"Enter the distance(km) between Tx and Rx:";
cin>>distance;
cout<<"Enter the operating(carrier) frequency(MHz):";
cin>>frequency;
FSL_ln=20*log(distance)+20*log(frequency)-42.3;
FSL_log=FSL_ln/2.30258;
power_rc=power_tr+gain_tr+gain_rc-FSL_log;
cout<<"\tReceived power(dBW) = "<<power_rc<<"\n\n";
}
cout<<"Hence from the above calculation it is seen that the received power is
decreasing at the rate of 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade.";
getch();
}
iv) Friis Transmission Formula.
b) Analysing transmitted power Vs distance between Tx and Rx

#include<conio.h>
#include<iostream.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
float power_tr,power_rc,gain_tr,gain_rc,FSL_ln,FSL_log;
float distance,frequency;
cout<<"\t\tFriis Transmission Formula.\n";
cout<<"\t\t---------------------------\n\n";
cout<<"Analysing transmitted power Vs distance between Tx and Rx.\n";
cout<<"**********************************************************\n\n";
for(int i=0;i<2;i++)
{
cout<<"Enter the Received power(dBW):";
cin>>power_tr;
cout<<"Enter the transmitting antenna gain(dB): ";
cin>>gain_tr;
cout<<"Enter the receiving antenna gain(dB): ";
cin>>gain_rc;
cout<<"Enter the distance(km) between Tx and Rx:";
cin>>distance;
cout<<"Enter the operating(carrier) frequency(MHz):";
cin>>frequency;
FSL_ln=20*log(distance)+20*log(frequency)-42.3;
FSL_log=FSL_ln/2.30258;
power_tr=power_rc-gain_tr-gain_rc+FSL_log;
cout<<"\tTransmitted power(dBW) = "<<power_tr<<"\n\n";
}
cout<<"Hence from the above calculation it is seen that the transmitted power is increasing at
the rate of 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade.";
getch();
}

v) Calculation of SIGNAL-TO-INTERFERENCE(S/I) ratio

#include<conio.h>
#include<iostream.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
float SIR,SIR_dB_ln,SIR_dB_log;
int cell_radius,cochannel_dist,no_of_cell;
float reuse_factor;
cout<<"\tCalculation of SIGNAL-TO-INTERFERENCE ratio\n";
cout<<"\t--------------------------------------------\n";
cout<<"\nThe acceptable standard SIR(dB) with base 10 = 18 dB\n\n";
for(int i=0;i<3;i++)
{
cout<<"Enter the no.of cell:";
cin>>no_of_cell;
reuse_factor=(float)pow(double(3*no_of_cell),0.5);
//reuse_factor=cochannel_dist/cell_radius;
SIR=(float)pow(double(reuse_factor-1),4.0)/6;
cout<<"The SIR is:"<<SIR<<"\n";
SIR_dB_ln=10*log(SIR);
cout<<"The SIR(dB) in base e = "<<SIR_dB_ln<<"\n";
SIR_dB_log=SIR_dB_ln/2.30258;
cout<<"The equivalent SIR(dB) with base 10 = "<<SIR_dB_log<<"\n\n";
}
cout<<" Hence from the above calculations, it is seen that for the worst case, it is better to
select the no.of cell to be either 9 or 12 but not 7 or less than 7.";
getch();
}

vi) Calculation of total channel and the system capacity

#include<conio.h>
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int system_capacity,totalchannel_no;
int cell_no,cluster_no,cell_channel;
cout<<"Enter the no. of cell:";
cin>>cell_no;
cout<<"Enter the no. of channel allocated per cell:";
cin>>cell_channel;
cout<<"Enter the no. of times the cluster is replicated:";
cin>>cluster_no;
totalchannel_no=cell_channel*cell_no;
system_capacity=cluster_no*totalchannel_no;
cout<<"The total no. of channel is:"<<totalchannel_no<<"\n";
cout<<"The overall system capacity is:"<<system_capacity;
getch();
}
15. Gantt Chart
Time schedule

Group division and project

selection
Collection of books and
materials related to antenna
system for mobile commn
Introductory presentation
Visit to NTC and prepare a
note about general layout of
antenna system of mobile
communication in Nepal
Visit to UTL and studied
about wireless system with
CDMA technology
Thorough study of the
project consulting various
books and websites in net
Work on softwares for
various calculations
Analysis of antenna layout
using lab equipment
Attempts on simulation of
radiation pattern of antenna
using MATLAB
Preparation for project report
and project presentation
2 4 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

Week
16. Conclusion
The research study in general system in cellular mobile communication was done.
Various patterns of antenna radiation were obtained. Also different calculations regarding
the channel capacity, antenna gain, transmitted power Vs distance were calculated using
the C-programming language. The presuming analysis about the different schemes such
as improving signal quality and quantity aspects and also the reliability of the mobile
system were done.
References:
 Rajeswori Chatterjee “Antenna Theory and Practice” 2nd Edition, New Age
International (p) Limited
 William C.Y. Lee “Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems” Mc Graw Hill
Book Company
 Theodore S Rappaport “Wireless Communications” 2nd Edition, Pearson
Education
 Constantine A. Balanis “Antenna Theory” 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 “Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003” Microsoft Corporation Private Ltd.