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Reviewer in Biology

What is Biology? Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen of Pergamum

- Study of life. - First explorers of the anatomy and physiology of


- Human endeavour (to attempt, understand, living organisms.
explain, integrate).
- Branch of science. Claudius Galen (A.D. 131-200)
- Both an activity and a body of knowledge.
- Geek physician who described the anatomy of
- A way of understanding the natural world.
human body based on dissections of apes and
Major themes of Biology: pigs.
- His description contained many error, however,
- Evolution of natural selection it were unchallenged for 1300 years.
- Inheritance - Vivisectionist (Dissects alive animal).
- Cell
- Biological Classification Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
- Bioenergetics (Transformation of energy)
- Made the first studies on human anatomy by
- Homeostasis (regulating)
dissecting corpses.
- Ecosystem
- “Father of Modern Anatomy”
Why study Biology? - “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” ( on the fabric of
the human body).
- Relevant to everyday life - Using other animals to know the function and
- Medical Advances organization of a particular body part.
- Addressing needs of growing human population.
- Challenges of decreasing rate of biodiversity. William Harvey (1578-1657)
- Biotechnology advances.
- English physician.
How is Biology studied? - Heart pumps the blood and the blood circulates.
- Development of anatomy by providing the
*Scientific Method principle that the structure and function must be
studied together.
- an empirical method of knowledge acquisition. - Gave an accurate amount of the mechanism of
the circulatory system.
Observation -> Questioning -> Hypothesis -> Testing ->
- Died of cerebral hemorrhage.
Explanation -> Theory
- Published “Anatomical Exercises”
Cloning
Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694)
Process of producing similar populations or
- Italian physician and anatomist who was the
genetically identical individuals that occurs in
founder of microscopic anatomy.
nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects,
- Discovered capillaries (1661), red blood cells
plants, or animals reproduce asexually.
(corpuscles).
- Died of stroke.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
- Observed components of liver, brain, kidney,
- Living organisms whose genetic material has spleen, bone and the inner or also known as the
been manipulated. Malphigian layer of the skin.
- Creates combinations of plant, animal, bacteria
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1694)
and various genes that do not occur in nature or
through traditional process.
- Cloth merchant, first to use the microscope with
great observational and descriptive skills.
Contraception
- Most important discoveries were
- “Birth control” microorganisms (bacteria), sperm cell, single
- Prevents pregnancy by interfering with the celled organisms called protozoans.
normal process of ovulation, fertilization and - Died with Leeuwenhoek disease.
implantation.
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
History of Biology
- “Father of Taxonomy”
- From ancient times. - Binomial Nomenclature.
- Impact on human society. - Developed Sciatica in 1773, and the next year
had a stroke which paralyzed him.

History Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

- “Father of Genetics”
- Developed principles of heredity by studying the
Studies of Medicine Theories of Natural History variation and heredity of seven pairs of inherited
characteristics in pea plants.
- Died because of kidney failure.

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2
Reviewer in Biology

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

- Most prominent figure in the history of biology. Basic Biology


- “Origin of species”
- 1869 – Theory of evolution - Basic principles (cells, genetics, evolution,
- His work provided a unifying, organizing animals, plants, and more).
framework for the field of biology.
Applied Biology
- Died because of chagas (heart failure).
- Takes the science of biology nd applies it to real
Filipino Biologist
life needs, creating biological products.
Leon Ma Guerrero (1853-1935)
A
- “Father of Philippine Pharmacopythology
Anatomy - deals with internal structure of an organism as
- Identified hundreds of trees and herbs, and
revealed by dissection.
sought to extract certain substances for
therapeutic properties.
Anthrology – study of joints.
- First to identify and describe plants that poison
fish. Apidhology – study of aphids. (plant lice)

Angel S. Arguelles (1888-1983) Aerobiology – study of flying organisms in relation with


other flying objects.
- Taught Filipino planters and farmers how to use
fertilizers and pesticides. Agronomy – management of farms and the science of crop
- Name is listed among the “American Men of production.
science” (not American)
Anthropology – science of man and mankind including his
Nemesio L. Mendiola (1890-1983) physical and mental constitution, cultural development
and social conditions of present and past.
- Introduced better varieties of fruits, vegetables,
and flowering plants. Anthology – study of flowers.
- Breed a new variety of pineapple that has the
sweetness of the Hawaiian and the high yield of Agrostology – study of grasses.
the native pineapple.
- “Luther Burbank of the Philippines” Acrology - study of ticks and mites.

Felix D. Maramba Sr. (1898-1983) Agriobiology – quantitative science of plant life and plant
nutrition.
- Agriculture and business.
- Contributed a machine that could turn rice hull Agrology – soil science dealing with production of crops.
into fuel for farm engines, a charcoal and a
Andrology – study of male reproductive organs.
coconut-oil fed power generator.
- Biogas Araneology – study of spiders.
- Alchol from cassava, soap fromyle and fertilizer.
- A man of ingenuity in agricultural technology. Arboriculture – cultivation of trees and shrubs.

Juan Salceda (1904-1988) Actinobiology – radiation effect on living organisms.

- Launched the biggest project in the history of Angiology – study of blood vessels.
the Philippine medicine – the inclusion of
enriched rice (enriched rice is fortified with B
Vitamin B1 to cure beri-beri) in the Filipino diet.
- Extensive drive to combat mosquitoes which Bioinformatics – development and application of
carry malaria germs, and the use of vaccine. computing system and technology in order to make novel
- First batch of National Scientist (1980), named observation and biological processes.
by National Academy of Science and Technology
Biotechnology – controlled use of biological organisms or
(NAST).
cellular components for beneficial use.
Fe Del Mundo (1907-2011)
Breeding Biology – art and science of changing and
- Invented incubator and the jaundice-relieving improving the heredity of plants and animals.
device for babies.
Biochemistry – study of chemical aspect of living
- Conducted an experiment on immunization that
organisms.
help designate the best age at which children
should be immunized. Bacteriology – study of bacteria.
- Wrote many books and researches. (Pedriatics)
- Robert Koch – Father of Bacteriology, discovered
Bacterium Bacillus Anthracisin (1876)

Batracgology – study of frogs.

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3
Reviewer in Biology

Botany – study of plants. Heredity – study of inheritance of characters from parent


to offspring.
- Theophrastus – Father of Botany, Greek
Philosopher, Books he published: “On the I
History of Plants” and “On the Causes of Plants”.
Ichthyology – study of fishes.
C
M
Cytology – study of structure and functions of cells.
Molecular Biology – study of living organisms at the
- Robert Hooke – Father of Cytology, discovered molecular level.
compound microscope, Published book:
“Micrographia” (1665) Mammalogy – study of mammals.

Cnidology – study of coelenterates or cnidians Micro Biology – study of microscopic organisms.


characteristics.
Myology – study of muscles.
Conchology – study of shells.
Mycology – study of fungi.
Chondrology – study of cartilage.
- Pier Antonio Micheli – Father of Mycology, first
Craniology – study of skull. thoroughly study pores in fungi, detailed
illustration of different fungi species.
Cardiology – study of heart.
N
D
Nephrology – study of kidney.
Dermatology – study of skin.
Neurology – study of nervous system.
E
O
Evolution – study of descent of present day complex living
organism (plants and animals) from the living form of the Ornithology – study of birds.
past.
Opthalmology – study of eyes.
Embryology – study of the stages of organism that occur
Osteology – study of bones.
immediately after fertilization.
P
- Kaspar Friedrich Wolff – Father of Embryology,
opens up the idea that plant and animal cells
Phsyiology – study of functions of various parts of the
that make up the embryo usually start as an
body.
unspecialized but will later develop into specific
cells that eventually form the tissues and organs. Parasitology – study of parasites.

Ecology – study of inter-relationship between living Pathology – nature, symptoms, causes, efforts, prevention
organisms and their environment. and suggestive cure of disease.

- G. Evelyn Hutchinson – Father of Ecology, “N - Rudolf Virchow – Father of Pathology, cells is


Dimensional Hypervolume” – the dimensions are with great importance as he believed that each
the environmental factors that allow a species to element inside it is mutually independent.
survive. (1957)
Phycology – study of algae.
Entomology – study of insects.
Pomology – study of fruits.
G
Pharmacology – study of medicine or drug plants.
Gynecology – study of female reproductive organs.
S
Genetics – study of genes heredity and variations.
Space Biology – study of problem of survival living
Genetic Engineering – study of methods of artificial organisms in outer space.
synthesis of DNA.
T
H
Taxonomy – deals with the principles of identification,
Helminthology – study of parasitic worms. nomenclature, and classification of the animals.

Herpetology - study of reptile. Z

Hepatology – study of liver. Zoology - study of animals.

Hematology – study of blood.

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4
Reviewer in Biology

Laboratory Animals Daphnia

Viruses - Sometimes called “water fleas” because they


jump in water
- Evolved from plasmids; evolved bacteria - High survival rate, small but visible.
- Most common laboratory animal
- Bacteriophage – viruses which attack bacteria. Drosophila
- Cannot “live” or reproduce without getting
inside a living cell. - The common fruit fly that are often used in
- Very small compared to bacteria. genetics and heredity experiments.
- Small breed and are quickly and easy to handle.
Prokaryotes - Need a dissecting microscope to see more
details.
- Single-celled organisms that are the earliest and
most primitive form of life. Frogs
- Bacteria (prokaryotes used in Biology)
- Escherichia Cell (E. Cali) these bacteria lives in - Common grass frog or leopard frog.
our bodies (digestive system). - We usually see preserved frogs and use for
dissection (anatomy purposes).
Helpful things a bacteria do: - Very similar body parts to human body.

- Convert atmospheric nitrogen to forms that Mus Musculus or Common Mouse


plants can use (Nitrifying Bacteria).
- Common bacteria found in yogurt. - Most common type of laboratory animal.
- Treat sewage (waste water). - Commonly used to test medications and are easy
- Provide medical drugs. to handle and reproduce quickly.
- Produe yogurts. - Lab mice are mammals and are very similar to
human.
Harmful things a bacteria do: - Useful in dissection and trials.

- Cause human diseases such as salmonella (food Rattus Norvegicus or Rattus Rattus
poisoning) and tuberculosis (TB).
- Causes animal and plant diseases such as - Common, depend on the color. (Rattus
anthrax (sakit sa balat, lungs and digestive Norvegicus – Brown; Rattus Rattus – Black).
system) and bacterial infection (blights). - These versatile animals are very useful as
research subjects.
Lichen
Common Biology Equipment
- A mutualistic relationship between algae and
fungi. Microscopes

Algae - Dissecting Microscope is used for whole larger


specimens such as flies or plants.
- Plant-like (but not a plant nor animal) - Compound Microscope is the other type of
- “Simple Plants” microscope that is used to magnify small items
- Many are single cells like cells, tissue or bacteria.
- They are photosynthetic and make their own
food. Microscope Slide and Cover Slip
- Example of Algae: Plankton and Kelp (Seaweed)
- A glass or plastic rectangular slide that is used
Fungi for the specimen to be looked at under a
microscope.
- Member of a large group of eukaryotic - Holds specimen in place.
organisms that include microorganisms such as - A cover slip is used to place over the specimen
yeasts and molds as well as mushrooms. on the microscope slide. This holds it in place.
- Favorable in moist.
- The fungus Neurospora Crassa used in genetic Magnifying Glass
studies.
- When specimens do not need to be magnified
- The yeast Saccharomyces Cerevisiae,
very much.
microscopic yeast and is used to make bread,
- Use to see smaller details of the specimens
beer and wine.
without the use of microscope.
Plants
Incubator
- The common Pea Pisum Sativum has been used
- Used to keep specimens in a same temperature.
in studying genetics. (Pioneered by Gregor
- To control the temperature to help specimens
Mendel)
stay alive and grow. (Temperature, Humidity, Air
- Fun to eat.
content).
- Culturing cell (Maintaining Growth)

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5
Reviewer in Biology

Test Tubes pH portable Electronic Probes

- A specimen which may need to stay in an - Looks like a pH meter


incubator are bacteria cultures. - Identifies the changes in pH
- The bacteria are being grown in the test tubes. - Record data, analyse and interpret.

Petri Dish Filtration Set-up

- Storage and culturing; test inhibition - For purifying mixtures.


- These are plastic or glass plates which fit - Solid and liquid can be separated.
together closed. - A filter paper is placed into a funnel and the solid
- Bacteria are being grown in Petri Dish remains in the paper.

Ring Stand Hot Plate

- Also known as Iron Stand and now called Ring - Can be used to heat substance.
Stand because not all stand are made of iron.
- Hold flasks and beakers for heating and Bunsen Burner
observation purposes.
- Can burn gas to heat substances
- Has two rings.
- It has a very hot blue flare
Terrarium
Balance
- Used to grow plants in a controlled environment.
- Used to measure mass (a weighing instrument)
- Vivavium is a terrarium with plants that is also
- Triple Beam Balance is a single pan balance.
used as a controlled habitat for animals.
Measures mass.
Aquarium - Spring Balance used to measure weight.

- Is a tank filled with water, fish, and plants. Electronic Balance


- Some are fresh water / sea water (for marine
- Can also use to measure mass.
tanks) is used.
- Analytical balance.
Dissection Tray - It is called a weighing scale outside the
laboratory.
- A dissecting tray - Much accurate than an ordinary balance.
- Hold specimens that are being dissected.
Graduated Cylinders
Dissection Tools
- Used to measure volume. Can be extremely
- Tools needed for dissecting. accurate.
- We do not touch specimens with bare hands. - To read the level of the liquid or the meniscus.

Thermometers Erlenmeyer Flasks

- Measures temperature - Very easy to mix and no spill.


- Temperature is the average kinetic energy of a - Used to transport liquids. Also used to hold
substance. funnel. Measure volume but not accurate.

pH Meter Beakers

- pH measures the amount of hydrogen ions in a - Used to transfer liquid from one place to
solution and is a measure of how acidic a another.
solution is. - Not accurate for measuring volume.
- pH 7 - Neutral
- Below 7 - Acidic Timer (Stopwatch)
- Above 7 - Basic
- Used to help you take readings of appropriate
pH Paper lengths of time.

- it can also measure ph. Test Tube Racks


- the color of the paper shows the pH level.
- Hold test tubes in place.
Litmus Paper - Glass test tubes in a wooden rack with a black
rubber stoppers are useful for holding.
- rbg (base)
- pH can also be shown with litmus paper. Test Tube Brushes
- To take accurate alkaline and acid tests.
- Used to clean test tube.
- Red litmus paper turns blue in bases while blue
turns red in acidic. Does not show exact
Test Tube Holders
measurement of pH.
- Used to handle hot test tubes.

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6
Reviewer in Biology

Outclave - Know the location and use of the fire


extinguisher and fire-safety blankets.
- Is a pressure chamber used to carry out - Use tongs or insulated holders when holding
industrial processes requiring elevated heated objects.
temperature and pressure different from
ambient air pressure. Hygienic Care

Centrifuge - Keep hands away from your face and mouth


while working in the lab.
- A machine with a rapidly rotating container that - Wash your hands before leaving the lab.
applies centrifugal force to its contents, typically - Use proper technique when handling bacteria or
to separate fluids of different densities (e.g other microorganisms. These are pathogens.
cream from milk) or liquids from solids. Keep petri dishes sealed. Dispose of petri dishes
as instructed by teacher for proper disposal.
General Guidelines for Lab Safety
- Wash hands after touching any culture dish spill
of caustic material on clothing.
- Only perform experiments specifically assigned
- Get to safety shower. ASAP. Remove all clothing
by your teacher.
and rinse 15 minutes. Have partner inform your
- Understand safety rules before entering the
teacher. Permanent skin damage can occur from
laboratory.
chemical spills.
- Tie your hair, roll up sleeves, put on and leave
on, any required safety protective equipment for
Glassware Safety
each lab.
- Know the location of all safety and emergency - Inspect glassware for chips or cracks before
equipment used inside the laboratory. using.
- Immediately report an accident, incident or - Notify teacher immediately if glassware breaks.
hazard no matter how trivial to your teacher. Do not attempt to pick it up with hands.
- In case of fire, alert your teacher and leave the - Dispose of broken glassware in specified
lab following given procedure. container. This container is a labelled bucket
- Do not eat or drink inside the laboratory. near the prep from the door.
- Do not fool around or horseplay in the
laboratory. Clean up and Proper Waste Disposal
- Do not apply cosmetics in the laboratory.
- Keep your work area neat and unclutter. - Clean and sanitize all work surfaces and safety
- Clean your work area at the end of each lab attire after each lab period.
period. - Dispose of all sharp objects and contaminated
- Remain with your lab group. No table hopping. materials as directed by your teacher.

Eye Safety Live Animals

- Wear safety goggles as directed. - Always designate a safe zone for animals prior to
- Do not touch your eyes or face during lab and working with them or removing them from their
always wash your hands after performing a lab habitat.
activity. - Notify the teacher immediately if scratched,
bitten or injured by a live animal.
Safety with Gases or Inhalants - Examine the animals in their natural habitat first
prior to working with them outside of their
- Use extreme care when handling a sharp and habitat.
pointed instrument, such as scalpels, sharp - Always wash your hands after working with live
probes and knives. animals.
- Do not cut objects while holding them in your - Treat animals with care and respect at all times.
hands. - Remain calm and plan all procedures ahead prior
- Cut objects on a suitable surface. Always cut in a to exposing animals to procedures.
direction away from your body.
Chemical Safety
Heating Safety
- Always wear safety goggles, and a lab apron or
- Hot plate looks the same, hot or cool. Never coat when working with any chemicals.
touch a hot plate to determine its temperature. - Do not touch, taste, or smell any chemicals
Always assume hot plates are hot and treat them unless instructed by your teacher.
as such. - Do not pour water into a strong acid or base.
- Always inspect the electrical cord and outlet of a Pour acid into water.
hot plate prior to plugging it in. Do not leave hot
plates unattended.
- Be aware of flames, sparks or heat before
working with flammable materials.
- When heating chemicals or solutions in attest
tube, do not point the test tube towards anyone.
- Avoid using open flames.

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7
Reviewer in Biology

The Cell Theory Discovery of Cells

3 part theory about cells 1665 - English Scientist, Robert Hooke


- Discovered cells while looking at a thin slice of
- all living things are made of cells cork
- Cellulae - “small rooms”.
- the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
- He describe the cells as a tiny boxes or a
honeycomb.
- all cells comes from pre-existing cells
- He thought that cells only existed in plants in
fungi.

Who came up with this theory? 1673 - Anton Van Leuwenhoek


- Used a handmade microscope to observe a pond
1. Matthias Jakob Scheiden - He discovered single celled organism.
- He called them “animalcules”
- All plants are made of cells. - He also observed blood cells from fish, birds,
- Used a cross sectional of an onion skin. frogs, dogs, and humans
- Therefore, it was known that cells are found in
2. Theodor Schwan
animals and in plants.
- All animals are made of cells
*He doesn’t have money to buy microscope that’s why he
- Object of study: human red blood cells
invented his own.
3. Rudolf Virchow

- All cells comes from pre-existing cells.


150-200 year gap

- Between the Hooke/Leeuwenhoek discoveries and


Classical Interpretation the mid-19th century very little cell advancement were
made.
1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells

2. Cells are the basic unit of life

3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells (omni celulae e


cellula) - This is probably due to the widely accepted,
traditional belief in spontaneous generation.
4. The cell is the unit in structure, physiology, and
organization in living things

5. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and


a building block in the classification of organisms.

Modern Interpretation
-- Spontaneous Generation is the belief that living
1. The cells is the fundamental unit of structure and things come from non-living things.
function in living organisms.
How big are cells?
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells by division
- Microscopic (mostly)
3. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs - Measured in microns.
within the cells. - Micrometers
- a µm is one millionth of a meter
-6
4. Cells contains hereditary information (DNA) which is - 10 m = one thousadnth of 1 mm
pass from cell to cell during cell division.
Mycoplasma Genitalium
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
in organism of similar species. - Smallest free living cell
- Gen- commonly the cause of STD
6. All known living things are made up of one or more cells - A pathogenic bacterium
- Unicellular bacteria
7. Some organisms are made up of only one cells and are - Size : 0.2 to 0.3 µm
known as unicellular organisms.
Bacteria (eg. Escherichia Coli)
8. Others are multicellular, composed of a number of cells
- Size: 1µm to 3 µm
9. The activity of an organisms depends on the total
activity of independent cells Human Red Blood Cells

- Size: 8 µm in diameter (one of the biggest)

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Reviewer in Biology

Ovum/ Ova - Single, circular chromosome. (Does not have


distinct nucleus; only nucleoid).
- Largest cell on human body - Has nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA.
- Size: 1000 µm in diameter (1 mm) - Surrounded by cell membrane and cell
- You need a microscope to see it. (peptidoglycan – Collection of protein and
carbohydrate)
Chaos Chaos
- Contains ribosomes (no membrane) in their
cytoplasms to make proteins
- Common name: Giant Amoeba
- Largest cell with a metabolism.
Eukaryotes (Plant and Cell – Main type)
- Size: 1-5 mm in length.
- Contaminates food and water. - Cells that contain a nucleus and membrane-
- Chaos Diffluens, is an amoeba closely related to bound organelles
the giant amoeba. - Animal, Plants, Fungi, and Protist
- More complex type of Cells
Yolk of an Ostrich - Includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals
- Contain 3 basic cells structure:
- Largest cell
 Nucleus
Sperm Cell  Cell membrane
 Cytoplasm with organelles
- Smallest cell in the human body. - Two main types of eukaryotic cells
- Sperm = “Sperma”  Plant cell
- 10 – 30 um  Animal cells
- ANIMALS: Do not contain chloroplasts; not
100 - Human Egg surrounded by cells walls
- PLANTS: Vacuole in plants are much larger than
10 - 30 - Sperm those of animals

0.1 - Hydrogen Atom Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

2 - DNA Nucleus No yes

3 cm - Chicken egg yolk Membrane Bound


No Yes
organelles
How can we study?
Size 1-10 µm 10-50 µm
- Use a microscope.
- The average human being is composed of
When did they 3.5 billion years 1.5 billion years
around 100 trillion individual cells.
evolved? ago ago
- 50 cells are needed to cover the area of the dot
in letter I Cytoplasm yes yes

Longest Cells Cell membrane yes yes

- Giraffe (2 m) Cell wall Some do plants

Biggest cells Ribosomes yes Yes

- Ostrich egg yolk Circular free Chromosomes in


- 6 inches long, 5 inches wide, 3 pounds DNA
floating nucleus

Cell
Plants, animals,
Examples bacteria fungi, protist, and
- Differ widely in shape.
humans
- Most cells are roughly cuboidal or spherical.

Cell Diversity - Internal Organization

- Nucleus: Contains DNA which directs the activity


of the cell
- Organelles: A cell component that performs
specific functions in the cell
- Eukaryotes: Cells that contain a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles (bigger)
- Prokaryotes: Cells that lack nuclei and
membrane- bound organelles (smaller)

Prokaryotes

- The first/primitive cells.


- Includes bacteria.
- Simplest type of cells.

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Reviewer in Biology

Structure and Functions of Organelles: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Involved in the


synthesis of lipids and breakdown of toxic
Cell Membrane substances)

- Phospholid bilayer with proteins that function as Golgi Apparatus


channels, markers, and receptors.
- Also contains cholesterol which provides rigidity. - Stacked flat sacs.
- Receives proteins from the Rough ER and
 PHOSPO- Phosphorus
distributes them to other organelles or out of the
 LIPID – Fats
cell (Receiving, processing, packaging and shipping)
- Selectively permeable boundary between cell and - From rough ER to Golgi to cell membrane VESICLES.
the external environment.
- Composed of double layer of phospholipids and Mitochondria
proteins surrounds outside of all cells.
- Controls what enters or leaves the cells. - Folded membrane within an outer membrane (The
- Living Layer. folds of the inner membrane are called cristae).
- Converts energy stored in food into usable energy
Nucleus for work (Cellular Respiration).

- Contains DNA which directs the activity of the cell Lysosome


- Dense, ball shaped structure, contains DNA.
- Manages cell functions. - Spherical organelles that contain hydrolytic
- A sphere that contains another sphere called a enzymes within single membranes
nucleolus. - Breaks down food particles, involving objects or
worn out cell parts
Chromatin - Cells take in food by PHAGOCYTOSIS.
 Lysosomes digest the food and get rid of
- DNA is spread out and appears as CHROMATIN in wastes.
non-dividing cells - Apoptosis (breaks down)
- DNA is condensed and wrapped around proteins  Process of digesting wastes
forming as chromosomes in dividing cells.
 Process of eliminating DNA damaged or
Nucleolus unwanted cells.

- Most cells have 2 or more; Direct synthesis of RNA Peroxisomes


- Forms ribosome: PARTS (Pore, Envelope,
Nucleolus, Chromatin). - Spherical organelles that contain enzymes within
single membranes
Cell Walls - Degrade hydrogen peroxide, a toxin compound that
can be produced during metabolism
- Rigid wall made up of cellulose, proteins and
carbohydrates. Cilia and Flagella
- Boundary around the plant cell outside of the cell
membrane that provides structure and support. - Hair- like organelles that extend from the surface of
cells.
Cytoplasm - When they are present in large numbers on a cell
they are called cilia.
- Gelatine-like fluid that lies inside the cell - When they are less numerous and longer they are
membrane. called flagella.
- Contains salts, minerals and organic molecules. - Both organelles are composed of nine pairs of
- Surrounds the organelles. microtubules arranged around a central pair.
- Cell Motility
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
- Acts as a support system for organelles
- A network of thin, fibrous elements made up of - Composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules
microtubules (TUBULIN) and microfilaments arranged in a ring (Exist in pairs).
(ACTIN) - Play a major role in cell division (Mitosis).
- Made of proteins. - Used with the spindle apparatus during mitosis.
- Helps maintain cell shape, and move organelles
around. Vacuoles

Ribosome - A sac of fluid surround by a membrane (Very large


in plants)
- Location of protein synthesis - Used for temporary storage of wastes, nutrients,
- Consist of two subunits made of protein and RNA and water.
Endoplasmic Reticulum Plastids

- A system of membranous tubules and sacs - Types of Plastid:


- Intercellular highway (a path along which molecules  Chloroplasts
move from one part of the cell to another)  Chromoplast (synthesize and store
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Prominent in cells pigments).
that make large amounts of proteins to be exported  Leucoplasts (store food such as starches,
from the cell or inserted into the cell membrane) proteins, and lipids).

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Reviewer in Biology

Chloroplasts - Phloem transports carbohydrates and nutrients


produced by photosynthesis.
- Stacked sacs (thylakoids) that contain chlorophyll - Transpiration (water evaporate from leaves).
surrounded by a double membrane.
- Photosynthesis (conversion of light energy to Leaves
chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose).
- They have a covering called the “cuticle”.
- It is a waxy covering that prevents water loss.
- It is located on both sides of the leaf.
- The epidermis is the layer under the cuticle.
- Epidermis is the other name for skin ->
integumentary system.
- Photosynthesis takes place primarily in the
mesophyll (it is directly under the epidermis).
- Under the epidermis the cell has its own
transport system of xylem (water) and phloem
(nutrients).
- Plants also breathe and go to the bathroom. The
place where this occurs is called the stoma or
stomata. They are the little openings on the
underside of the leaves.
- When photosynthesis occurs, Co is used oxygen
Levels of organizations leaves through the stomata. The stomata, opens
and closes.
Atom -> Molecule -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> - The cells that close the stomata are called the
Organ System -> Organism guard cells.

Specialized cells Specialized in Animal Cell

- All cells are not alike. Blood


- 50-75 trillion cells in your body.
- 220 specialized cells. - Red Blood Cells carry oxygen to all parts of the
- *heart, nerve, blood, sperm, and etc. body.
- They also carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
Why different? - The blood does not have nucleus.
- Do not have many mitochondria.
- Because they have different functions.
- They do not need very much energy (ATP) to
- A cell that has a particular structure and
carry out their function.
performs a specific function.
 Hemoglobin – protein
- Each type has unique shape, size, and features
 Created in the bone marrow.
allowing it to do its job accurately.
- The cells in animals are not all identical,
Muscle
- They perform specific functions such as
delivering oxygen and fighting disease, moving - Skeletal muscles are for movement.
the skeleton and storing.  They are usually attached to the
- Plant cell also have a variety of specialized cells. bones.
Cell in leaf of a tree and cell in a trunk have  Skeletal muscles are voluntary that
different structure and function. means we are in control of moving
them.
Specialized Plant Cell
 They als use a lot of ATP or energy.
Roots  There are a lot of mitochondria here.
- Smooth Muscles cells are involuntary.
- Cell divide at the root tip or root cap.  We do not control them.
- These cells are called “Apical Meristem” -> site  Stomach, blood vessels and intestines
of mitosis (cell division). contain it.
- These cells are not completely specialized just  These cells also have a lot of
yet. Mitochondria. They need a lot of ATP
- But this is where the plants grow from. as well.
- The meristem tissue is the only place mitosis - Cardiac Cells are found only in the heart.
takes place in plants.  The heart is a muscle. It never stops .
 Apical – Produces cell (upper portion). We are in control of it. That makes it
 Lateral – (Lower portion) involuntary.
 It has a lot of Mitochondria as well and
Stems it need a lot of ATP.

- Plants have xylem and phloem. Epithelium or Epithelial Cells


- Xylem and phloem are the transport system of
the plant. - Epithelial cells cover the glands and tissues that
- Xylem transports water upward from the roots. cover the interior and exterior body surfaces.

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- This is also called the epidermis or skin. Eukaryotes


- The epithelial cells protect the body.
- They don’t require a lot of energy. 2. Mitosis – Cell or organism growth; replacement
- They do not have large amounts of or repair of damaged cells.
Mitochondria. 3. Meiosis – formation of sex cells or gametes.
- Don’t need much ATP as skeletal and
Why do cells divide?
smoothemuscle cells do.
1. To avoid DNA overload
Nerve Cells (Neurone)
- If cells grow without limit, an “information crisis”
- They are long. would develop.
- They have connections at each end. - DNA cannot serve the needs of the increasing
- Can carry electrical signals (impulse). size of cell.
- Their job is to carry nerve impulse to different 2. Exchange of Materials
parts of the body. - Food and oxygen have to cross membrane
quickly.
Sperm Cell - Waste must get out.
- If cell is too large, this occurs too slowly and cell
- Comes from the word “sperma” meaning seed. will die.
- Is a small and has a long tail that provides
movement so it can swim and find an egg cell. Prokaryotic Cell Division
- The head contains enzymes which allows it to
digest into an egg cell and join with it. Binary Fission
- Found in the testes.
- 3 Main Steps:
- Designed to fertilise egg.
 DNA Replication – DNA is copied,
Egg (Ovum) Cell resulting in 2 identical chromosomes.
 Chromosome Segregation – 2
- Designed to be fertilized. chromosomes separate, move towards
- Found in the ovaries. ends (poles) of cell.
- An egg cell is large and bulky.  Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides,
- Contains yolk which provides a large food store forming 2 cells.
for the new cell being formed.
*Each new daughter cell is genetically identical to parent
Ciliated Cell cell.

- Designed to stop long damage. Eukaryotic Cell Cycle


- They line all the air passages in the lungs.
- They have tiny hairs called cilia. Like prokaryotic cell cycle, in that…
- Hairs sweep mucus with trapped dust and
bacteria back up the throat. - Cell grows
- DNA is replicated.
Stem Cells - Mitotic cell division produces daughter cell
identical to the parent.
- Unspecialized cells that divide quickly and don’t
have a particular function yet. Different in prokaryotic cell, in that…
- It can be anyone of the 200 cells.
- Thus nowadays, it is developed and improved in - Eukaryotic cells have more DNA on many linear
order to cure many types of diseases. chromosomes.
- Only stem cells can differentiate into many - The timing of replication and cell division is
types of cell. highly regulated.

Ear Cells 2 Major Phases:

- Have a cilia – tiny hairs on inner cells that pick- 1. Interphase (3 Stages) – DNA condensed.
up vibrations in the air and send signals to - Non-dividing state.
brain. - G1 (GAP 1)
 Cell grows in size.
Cell Reproduction  Organelles replicated.
- S (Synthesis)
- Process by which a cell divides to form two new  Replication of DNA.
cells (daughter cells).  Synthesis of proteins associated with
DNA.
3 Types of Cell Division
- G2 (GAP 2)
Prokaryotes (Bacteria)  Synthesis of proteins associated with
mitosis.
1. Binary Fission – divides forming two new
identical cells.

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2.3 Anaphase
- Sister chromatids separate.
- Spindle fibers attached to kinetochores shorten
and pull downward towards the pole.
- Free spindle fibers lengthen and push poles of
cell apart.
2.4 Telophase
- Spindle fibers disintegrate.
- Nuclear envelopes form around both groups of
chromosomes.
- Chromosomes revert to their extended state.
- Cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each daughter
nucleus into a separate cell.

Cytokinesis – Plant vs. Animal Cell


2. Mitosis (4 stages + Cytokinesis)
- Division of somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) - Plant cells – undergo cytokinesis by forming a
in eukaryotic organisms. cell plate between the two daughter nuclei.
- A single cell divides into new identical daughter - Animal cells – undergo cytokinesis through the
cells. formation of a cleavage furrow. A ring of
- Daughter cells have some number of microtubules contract, pinching the cell in half.
chromosomes as parent cell does.
Sexually reproducing euaryotes have 2 types of body
cells:

1. Somatic Cells
2. Sex Cells (a.k.a Gametes)

Ploidy

- Refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in


cells mitosis.

Haploid

- Designated as “n”, the number of chromosomes


in one “set”.
- One copy of each chromosome.
- Gametes

Diploid

When cell is not dividing… - Two sets of chromosomes.


- Two of each chromosome.
- DNA molecules in extended, uncondensed form, - Designated as “2n”.
chromatin. - Somatic Cells
- Cell can only replicate and transcribe DNA when - Organisms receive one of each type of
in extended state. chromosomes from female parent (maternal
chromosome) and one of each type of
When cell is preparing for division… chromosome from male parent (paternal
chromosome).
- DNA molecules condense to form chromosomes
prior to division. Homologues
- Each chromosome is a single molecule of DNA.
- Chromosomes exist in homologous pairs in
P,M,A,T diploid (2n) cells.
- Exception: Sex chromosomes (x, y) other
2.1 Prophase
chromosomes, known as autosomes, they
- 3 Major Events:
have homologues.
 Chromosomes condense.
 Spindle Fibers form (spindle fibers are What is the cell division of gametes called?
specialized microtubules radiating out
from centrioles). Meiosis
 Chromosomes are captured by spindle.
2.2 Metaphase - A single sperm cell divides into four unique
- Middle daughter cells.
- Chromosomes align along the equator of the - Daughter cells have half the number of
cell, with one kinetochore facing each pole. chromosomes as parent cell, so they are
considered haploid.

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- In meiosis I, there are 2 divisions of the Genetic Variation in Diploid organisms


nucleus: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
- Fusion of sperm and egg results in unique
Sexual reproduction in humans… offspring.
- But not only because the young are a
- At fertilization, 23 chromosomes are product of two individuals with different
donated by each parent (total = 46 or 23 genetic makeup.
pairs). - Meiosis “shuffles” the genes so that an
- Gametes (sperm/ova) individual’s gametes are genetically
 Contain 22 autosomes and 1 sex different from one another.
chromosome.
 Are haploid (haploid number “n” Mitosis Vs Meiosis
= 23 in humans).
 Fertilization results in diploid Mitosis:
zygote. – Diploid cell: 2n = 46
- 2n
(n=23 in humans).
- Clone
 Only gametes are produced
- Same genetic information in parent cell and
through meiosis.
daughter cell.
- Give me another one just like another one!
Genetic Shuffling of Meiosis I:

Meiosis:
1. Crossingover in Prophase I
- Homoluges break at identical locations,
- 1n
then rejoins opposite partmers.
- Daughter cells different from parent cell
- Occurs randomly several times on every
and from each other.
chromosome.
- Daughter cells have ½ the number of
- Results in mixing of the genes you inherited
chromosomes as somatic cell.
from your parents.
- Shuffling the genes.
2. Independent Assortment in Metaphase I
- When two different alleles are linked on the
same chromosome they are not
independently assorted during Meiosis I. In
this case, only two types of gametes (YG
and yg) were produced instead of the
expected four types of gametes that are
produced.

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Cell Transport Types of Osmosis

About Cell Membrane Hypertonic Solution

1. All cells have a cell membrane. - The solution has a lower concentration of
2. Functions: solute and higher concentration of water
a. Controls what enters and exits the cell inside the cell (low solute; high water).
to maintain an internal balance called - Result: Water moves from the solution to
homeostasis. inside the cell: Cell swells and burst
b. Provide protection and support for the (cytolysis).
cell. - Red blood cells (diabetic)
3. Structure of the Membrane:
Lipid Bilayer – 2 layers of phospholipids. Water
a. Phosphate head is polar (water
*Cells become larger
loving).
b. Fatty Acid Tail s non-polar(water
fearing).
c. Proteins embedded in membrane. Hypertonic Solution
- Hydrophilic head attracts water.
- Hydrophobic tail repels water. - The solution has a higher concentration of
4. Cell membranes have pores (holes) in i. solutes and a lower concentration of water
a. Selectively permeable: allows some than inside the cell (high solute; low water).
molecule in and keeps other molecules - Result: Water moves from inside the cell
out. into the solution: Cell shrinks (Plasmolysis).
b. The structure helps it be selective. Water

Types of Cellular Transport E.g Picles, Prunes

Passive Transport

- Cell doesn’t use energy. Isotonic Solution


- Molecules move randomly.
- Molecules spread out from an area of high - The concentration of solutes in the solution
concentration to an area of low is equal to the concentration of solutes
concentration. inside the cell.
- High -> Low - Result: Water moves equally in both
directions and the cell remains same size
Three Types of Passive Diffusion (Dynamic Equilibrium).

1. Diffusion (Lipid Bilayer) Water


- Random movement of particles from an
area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration (high to low).
- Diffusion continues until all molecules are *Dynamic Equilibrium
evenly spaced (equilibrium is reached).
- In some cases, particles or water are constantly
- Note: Molecules will still move around but
moving with no change and maintaining equilibrium.
stay spread out.
- Since there is no canal the lipid bilayer How organism deal with Osmotic Pressure
serve as its passage way.
2. Facilitated Diffusion (Channel Protein) - Bacteria and plants have cell walls that
-Diffusion of specific particles through transport prevent them from over-expanding. In
proteins found in the membrane. plants the pressure exerted on the cell wall
a. Transport proteins are specific – is call turgor pressure.
they “select” only certain molecules - A protest like paramecium has contractile
to cross the membrane. vacuoles that collect water flowing in and
b. Transports longer or charged pump it out to prevent them from over-
molecules. expanding.
3. Osmosis - Salt water fish pump salt out of their
- Diffusion of water through a selectively specialized gills so they do not dehydrate.
permeable membrane. - Animal cells are bathed in blood. Kidneys
- Water move from high to low keep the blood isotonic by removing excess
concentration. salt and water.
- Water moves freely through pores.
- Aquaporins – channel

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Active Transport Biomolecules

- Cells use energy (in the form of ATP). - Sugar is the name given to all carbohydrates.
- Actively moves molecules to where they are
needed. Carbohydrates
- Movement from an area of low
- Hydrate of carbon.
concentration to an area of high
- Cn(H2O)m
concentration.
- Examples:
- Low -> High
 Glucose (blood sugar): C6H12O6 -
Three Types of Active Transport: C6(H2O)6
 Sucrose (table sugar): C12H22O11 -
1. Protein Pumps C12(H2O)11
- Transport proteins that require energy to
do work. * At the molecular level, most carbohydrates are
- Example: Sodium/ Potassium pumps are polyhydroxyaldehyde, polyhydroxyketones or compounds
important in nerve responses. that yield them after hydrolysis (removal of water
- Protein change shape to move molecules: molecules).
this requires energy!
2. Endocytosis * The simpler members of the carbohydrate family are
- Taking bulky material into a cell. often referred to as saccharides because of their sweet
- Uses energy. taste.
- Cell membrane in folds around food
Functions of Carbohydrates
particle.
- “Cell eating” - Act as storehouses of chemical energy.
- Forms food vacuole and digest food. - Potatoes have a lot of starch, a polysaccharide.
- This is how white blood cells eat bacteria. - “Go” energy.
- Three Types: - Components of supportive structures in plants:
 Phagocytosis  Cellulose, a polysaccharide, is used for
 “Cell eating” support by plants.
 Pinocytosis - Insects and crustaceans, such as crabs and lobsters,
 “Cell drinking” rely on hard shells made of the polysaccharide chitin
 The cell engulfs drops of fluid for structure.
by pinching in and forming - Present in connective tissues in animals (joint,
vesicles. tendons, ligaments where carbohydrate are main
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis composition).
 Occurs when an integral - Essential component of nucleic acid (found in ribose)
membrane protein displays in DNA/RNA.
receptors.
 Extremely selective process of Good Carbohydrates
importing materials into the
cell. - Good carbohydrate food are those that are still in
 The cell will only take in an their natural state, or they are still similar to their
extracellular molecule if it binds natural state.
to its specific receptor protein - Food that have not been processed or altered by
on the cell’s surface. people/ machines.
 Requires macromolecules - Generally high in fiber -> faster metabolism.
(reunion/synapses). - Foods high in fiber will give you energy over longer
periods of time.
3. Exocytosis - Will give you low glycemic index -> sugar level.
- Forces material out of the cell in bulk. - Nutritious
- Membrane surrounding the material fuses - Examples:
with cell membrane.  Fruits, Vegetables, Beans, Legume, Nuts,
- A cell changes shape-requires energy. Seeds, Whole grain breads, Whole grain
- Example: Hormones or waste released from cereals
cell.
Bad Carbohydrates

- Bad Carbohydrates are those that have been refined


and processed.
- These foods are not in their natural state.
- Most bad carbohydrate food are usually very tasteful
and are packaged for easy handling.
- Bad carbohydrate foods include candy, baked goods
with refined white flour, white pastas, and soda.
- If you eat too many bad carb you will most probably
gain weight.
- Give you calories.
- Cause of obesity and tumor.

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Sugar Substitute

- Is a food additive that duplicates the effect of


sugar in taste,, usually with less food energy.

CLASSIFICATION

NAME TYPE SWEETNESS

Lactose Disaccharide 0.16

Glucose Monosaccharide 0.75

Sucrose Disaccharide 1.00 Dissacharide

1. Maltose
Fructose Monosaccharide 1.75
- Malt sugar (germinated grain).
Aspartame Synthetic 180 - Formed from two units of glucose.
- Maltose is an important component in the
Acesulfame Synthetic 200 process of creating fermented barley that in turn
Pottasium can be used to brew beer.
- Is digested without difficulty and is fermented
Saccharin Synthetic 350 readily.
2. Cellobiose
Sucrose Semisynthetic 600 - Obtained from the hydrolysis of cellobiose, also
contains 2 glucose subunits.
Alitame Semisynthetic 800
- Differs from maltose in that the 2 glucose are
hooked together by a Beta linkage.
3. Sucrose
TYPES - Table sugar.
- Most abundant pure organic chemical in the
Monosaccharides world.
- Consistsof 1 glucose and 1 fructose unit.
- Cannot be broken down into simpler - White, odourless, crystalline powder has a
compounds. pleasing, sweet taste.
- Simple carbohydrate. - Sources of sucrose: Sugar cane, sugar beets
- Have the general formula CnH2nOn, with one of - Forms of sucrose: Sugar cube, crystalline sugar,
the carbon being the carbonyl group of either an powdered sugar.
aldehyde or ketone. - Most common pure organic material.

Monosaccharide

Aldose Ketose
Aldo - Aldehyde Keto - Ketone
Ose - Carbohydrates Ose - Carbohydrates

4. Lactose
Complex
- Milk sugar.
Carbohydrate
- Consists of Galactose and Glucose fragments.
Lactose makes up around 2-8% of milk (by
weight) although the amount varies among

Dissacharide Polysaccharide species and individuals.


- Several thousand sugar - Sources:
- 2 sugar molecules linked
molecules linked - Human milk has the highest lactose percentage
together
together. of around 9%.
- Unprocessed cow milk has 4.7% lactose.
- Unprocessed milk from other bovids contains
similar lactose percentage (goat milk 4.7%,
buffalo 4.86%, yak 4.93%, sheep milk 4.6%).

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Polysaccharide

1. Cellulose
- Consists of a linear chain of several hundred to
over 10,000 Beta linked units.
- Structural component of the primary cell wall of
green plants; to impart strength and rigidity.
2. Starch
- Consisting of a linear chain of several hundreds
to over ten thousand of linked and unlinked
glucose units.
- Produced by all green plants as storage of
energy.
- The most important carbohydrate in the human
diet is contained in such staple food as potatoes,
wheat, maize (corn), rice and cassava.
Fatty Acids
Glycogen
- Organic acid (chain of carbon with hydrogen
- Serves as the same-energy storage function in
attached) that has an acid group at one end and
animals, as starch in plants.
a methyl group at the other end.
- Glycogen is the analogue of starch, a less
- Deydration synthesis: Glycerol + 3 fatty acids -->
branched glucose polymer in plants and is
triglyceride + H2O
commonly referred to as animal starch having
similar structure to amylopectin. Carbon chains vary in:
- Dietary carbohydrate not needed for immediate
energy is covered to glycogen for long-term 1. Length - affects absorption
storage. 2. Saturation – Chemical structure; affects cooking
and storage properties and health.

• Fatty acids: Omega number - refers to the position of


Lipid Characteristics the double bond nearest the methyl (CH3) end of the
carbon chain.
- Lipid is a compound that is insoluble in water,
but soluble in an organic solvent (e.g ether, - Omega-3 Fatty acid
benzene, acetone, chloroform). - Omega-6 Fatty acid
- Synonymous with "fat" but also includes - Double bond of carbon
phospholipids, sterols, etc. - Common source of OILS (Plants)
- Chemical structure: Glycerol + Fatty acids
Hydrogenated - Addition of hydrogen to unsaturated fat.
Functions of Lipid
1. Makes it more solid or firm.
Storage 2. Effects stability and protects against oxidation,
more "shelf stable".
- An imporant use for lipids, especially in
3. Widely used by food industry in margarine,
mammals is the storage of energy.
shortening and others.
- Energy stored in the form of fats has much
greater importance to us. Hydrogenation

Membrane Component Cis VS Trans-fatty acids

- Our body needs insoluble compounds for the - In nature, most double bonds are Cis meaning
membranes that separate compartment that the hydrogen next to the double bonds are
containing aqueous solution from each other, on the same side of the carbon chain.
where they are cells or organelles within the - When a fat is partially hydrogenated, some of
cells. the double bonds change from cis to trans.
- Cis - Less stable (needed); lower cholesterol in
Messenger
the blood.
- Primary messengers such as steroid hormones, - Trans - opposite side (stable); raise cholesterol in
deliver signals from one part of the body to the blood.
another part.

Types of Lipids
Saturated VS Unsaturated
1. Triglycerides (Fatty Acids)
Saturated
- Fats and oil.
- Predominate form of fat in foods and major - Alkane (single bond).
storage form of fat in the body. - Saturated fats are fats with a single bond
- Structure: Composed of 3 fatty acids + glycerol between the carbon atoms of the fatty acids.
(cotains alcohol).

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- Derived: Mostly from animal products - Similar to triglycerides in structure except only 2
- Form: Solid at room temperature; FATS. fatty acids + choline.
- Shelf Life: These are long lasting and do not get - Phospholipids in foods: Lecithin, egg yolks,
spoiled soybeans, wheat germ, peanuts.
- Much stable. - Functions:
- Recommended consumption: Not more than  Part of cell membranes and acts as an
10% of total calories per day (consumption). emulsifier (help keep fats in solution).
- Excessive consumption is not good because of  Not a dietary essential; made by the
their association with artherosclerosis and heart liver.
disease.
- Cholesterol level: Saturated fats increase LDL
(Low Density Liphoproteins or Bad cholesterol)
and decrease the HDL.

3. Steroids and Sterols


- Steroid molecules contain asteroid nucleus with:
Unsaturated  3 cyclohexane
 1 cyclopentane
- Alkene (double bond).
 No fatty acids
- Unsaturated are fats with one or more double
 A total of four rings A,B,C,B.
bonds between the fatty acids
- The steroid nucleus is numbered from the
- Derived: Plants
carbon atoms in ring A to two methyl group at
- Form: Liquid at room temperature; OIL .
18 and 19.
- Shelf Life: Get spoiled quickly.
-
- Recommended consumption: Not more than
30% of total calories per day (consumption) Sterols
- Health: Considered good to eat if you are
watching your cholesterol Important part of:
- Cholesterol level: Increase HDL (good
cholesterol) and decrease LDL. 1. Sex Hormones – Testosterone
2. Vitamin D
3. Bile (Acids fat digestion in gallbladders)
4. Adrenal hormones – cortisol
5. Cholesterol – In foods and made by the liver,
dietary sources include egg yolks, liver, meats
dairy products.

Types of Steroids

Sex Hormones

1. Testosterone
- Development of male organs; male sexual
characteristics including muscles and facial hair;
2. Phospholipids
sperm formation.

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- Produced in testes. - Not a dietary substance.


2. Estrogen (Estradiol)
- Development of Female sexual characteristics; Waxes
ovulation.
- Esters of saturated fatty acids and long-chain
- Produced in ovaries.
alcohols each containing 14 to 30 carbon atoms.
3. Progesterone
- Coatings that prevent loss of water from leaves
- Produced in ovaries.
of plants.
- Prepares uterus for fertilized egg.
- Example:
4. Norethindrone
 Bees wax (Honey Comb)
- Synthetic progestin.
- Contraceptive (birth control pill).  Carnauba Wax (Brazilian Palm Tree) –
waxes for furniture, cars, floors, shoes.
Vitamin D  Jojoba Wax (Jojoba Bush) – candles,
soaps, cosmetics.
- Not soluble in water.
- Sunlight activated / sunshine vitamin.
- Calcium metabolism.
- Cheese, margarine, butter, healthy cereals,
fortified milk.

Bile Salt

- Chemical Name: Glycocholate


- Is a yellowish- brown or green liver secretion
that is stored and concentrated in the
gallbladder, it is important in lipid digestion.
- Act as emulsifying agents to digest fats.
- Method for excreting cholesterol bile is emulsion
of cholesterol and bile salts.
- Gall stones form when choleesterol gets to
concentrated

Andrenal Corticosteroids Hormones (Cotisol)

- Steroid hormones produced by the adrenal


glands located on the top of each kidney and
include:
- Aldosterone, which regulates electrolytes and
water balance by kidneys.
- Cortisol, released under stress to increase blood
sugar and regulate carbohydrate, fat, protein,
metabolism and etc.
- Prednisone, synthetic corticosteroids, derived
from cortisone, used for reducing inflammation
treating asthma and rheumatoid arthritis.

Cholesterol

- Found in diets (animal fats)


- Endogenous synthesized in liver.
- Essential component of cell membranes.
- Used as raw material for sex hormones and
adrenocorticoid hormones.
- Used to make bile salts.
- High blood levels also associated with heart
disease, atherosclerosis (plaques builds up inside
your artery), arterial plaques.
- HDL: Good cholesterol, scavenge LDL and helps
to recycle them in the liver thus reducing the
level of cholesterol in the blood.
- LDL: causes formation of thick and hard clots;
Causes strokes.
- Lowers cholesterol: Salmon, tuna, olive, oil,
berries, avocado, dark chocolate, spinach, red
wine, beans, citrus fruits, vegetables.

Glycerol

- Functions part of cell membranes and acts as an


emulsifier (Breaking down of fats).

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PHOSPHOLIPIDS

WAXES

STEROIDS

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