Algebra SG Notes V 3.3 PDF

Abstract Study Group (sG) Notes (August 2017)
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July 31, 2017
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2017/openbook.png 2017/openbook.png
Contents
I. GROUPS 9
1. Groups 10
1.1. Sub-Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2. Cyclic Groups (Self Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. Permutations and Symmetric Groups

2.1.
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Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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22
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2.2. Transpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3. Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3. Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem 27
3.1. Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2. Lagrange's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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4. Normal Subgroups & Quotient Gp. 31
4.1. Normal Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2. Quotient Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5. Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 35
5.1. Ordered pairs and Direct Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2. Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3. Isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
II. RINGS 43
6. Rings 44
6.1. Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2. Integral Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
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Contents Contents
7. Ideals and Ring Homomorphisms 48
7.0.1. Principal ideals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.1. Ideals and Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.2. Ring Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8. Euclidean Rings. 55
8.1. Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9. Division Rings 60
III. FIELDS 62
10. Field Extensions 63
Questions.
11.
11.2. Rings
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11.1. Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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IV. Appendix 71
11.3. Mathematical Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
11.3.1. The if-then statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
11.3.2. If and only if statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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11.4. Methods of Proof: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11.4.1. Direct Proof Walkthrough: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11.4.2. Proof by Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.4.3. Proof by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

Contents Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Many thanks and appreciation go out to my colleagues in developing this project and to those who
have willingly assisted by volunteering their time and expertise. I would like to especially thank the
past facilitators of the Abstract Study Group:
Amaal Ali
Rajesh Lakhan
Diana Munro-Mulchan
Sach Mulchan
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Jagdesh Ramnanan
Chandra Rajaram
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for their continued input in this venture. A special thanks to the students who attended and who will
attend, without whom this project would have not been successful. Sincere thanks to all of them. Also
a very special thanks to those who assisted in the compilation of these notes, for their advice, time and
eorts in ensuring that these notes are accurate and correspond to a basic course in modern algebra.
Ultimately, my greatest appreciation goes out to Jay who facilitated and created the sG sessions,
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which I was a participant o - Thank you.
The mathematical sciences
particularly exhibit order,
symmetry, and limitation; and
these are the greatest forms of beauty.
-Aristotle

INTRODUCTION
In modern algebra we study three basic algebraic structures, namely,
1. groups 2. rings 3. elds.
The study of groups is referred to as group theory.
Why learn group theory?
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In short : group theory is the systematic study of symmetry; when a physical system or mat-
hematical structure possesses some kind of symmetry, its description can often be dramatically
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simplied by considering the consequences of that symmetry. When we are dealing with an
object that appears symmetric, group theory can help with the analysis. We apply the label
symmetric to anything which stays invariant under some transformations.
The purpose of these notes is to provide readers with some basic insight into group theory
as quickly as possible. Simplicity and working knowledge are emphasized over mathematical
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completeness. As a result, proofs are very often sketched or omitted in favor of examples and
discussion. Readers are warned that these notes are not a substitute for a thorough study of
modern algebra. It is assumed that the reader has a working knowledge of basic set theory
notions, that is have completed a course in introductory Set Theory and Number Systems.
We start this study with group theory as it is a basic building block for other algebraic structu-
res. Notes on both Ring theory and Field theory are also provided to be read at the convience of
the student. However it is recommended that these be read before any futher course in Modern
Algebra. Part I of these notes covers basic set theory - a review of what is needed to succeed
in a course of this nature. Part II of these notes deals with the introduction of group theory -
this is an important part in developing knowledge in modern algebra. Part III intoduces the
concepts of ring theory which are used in Part IV to develop the notion of eld theory.
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Contents Contents
Goals of sG:
+ Ignite the ablity of its participants to think in an abstract manner.
+ Expose its participants to Group Theory and what is a Ring.
+ Gain a deep understanding of problem solving / proof construction with respect to Abstract
Algebra.
Note: The list of YouTube Videos to view before each session is n the appendix.
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Start of Facilitating
Start with the proof that:
Question 0.1. Suppose f : A → B , g : B → C , and g ◦ f : A→ C are functions. Prove that:
1. If f and g are injective, then g ◦ f is injective
2. If f and g are surjective, then g ◦ f is surjective.
3.
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If f and g are bijective, then g ◦ f is bijective.
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Proof.
1. Suppose f and g are injective.
Let x, y ∈ A such that (g ◦ f ) (x) = (g ◦ f ) (y),
⇒ g(f (x)) = g(f (y))

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⇒ f (x) = f (y). ∵ ( injectivity of g )
⇒ x = y. ∵ ( injectivity of f )
∴ g◦f is injective.
2. Suppose f and g are surjective.
Let z ∈ C.
By surjectivity of g, there exist y∈B such that g(y) = z.
Again, by surjectivity of f, there exist some x∈A such that f (x) = y.
Thus, (g ◦ f ) (x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) = z.
We have proven that every z∈C has a pre-image in A via (g ◦ f ).
∴ g◦f is surjective.
3. This is a direct consequence of 1. and 2.
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Contents Contents
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Part I.
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GROUPS
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9
1. Groups
Denition 1.1. A non-empty set of elements G is said to form a group if associated with G
there is a binary (closed) operation called product and denoted by · such that
1. Closure: For all a, b ∈ G =⇒ a· b ∈ G
2. Associativity : For all a, b, c ∈ G =⇒ a · (b · c) = (a· b)· c
3. Identity : There exists an element
4. Inverse : For each element
ese∈G such that e·a=a·e=a for all a∈G
a ∈ G there exists an element a−1 such that a·a−1 = a−1 ·a = e.

.
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NOTE:
+ We say that (G, ·) or (G, ?) or (G, ∗) is a group. We generally write G is a group and take
the operation to be ” · ”. Eg. a·b=a+b
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+ Also, the normal rules for an = a + a + a + . . . + a ( n times) if the operation is addition.
+ 1 or e may be used to denote the idenity element of a group.
+ a · a−1 may also be written as aa−1 .
+ Clearly all groups must have at least one element. The group with exactly one element is
called the trivial group.
Denition 1.2. A group G is said to be abelian or commutative i the binary operation · is
commutative. i.e. ab = ba for all a, b ∈ G.
Denition 1.3. The number of elements in G is called the order of the group and is denoted
by |G|.
A group is said to be nite if |G|is nite, and innite if |G| is innite.
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CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Example 1.4. The following are some examples of groups:
1. The set of all integers is an abelian (or commutative) group under the operation of addi-
tion. (Additive notation is of course normally employed for this group.)
2. The set of all rational numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition.
(Additive notation is of course normally employed for this group.)
3. The set of all real numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
notation is of course normally employed for this group.)
4. If G = {1, −1, i, −i} is a set of complex numbers and ∗ denotes usual multiplication then
(G, ∗) is an abelian group. It can be shown that G satises all properties of a group
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(Denition 1.1) and is also commutative under usual multiplication.
four elements, the group formed is said to have order of four ie. |G| = 4.
Since G contains
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5. (e, ∗) is a group, where ∗ is dened by e ∗ e = e.
6. Let G consist of the real numbers 1, −1 under the multiplication of real numbers. G is an
abelian group of order 2.
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7. The set of all 2×2 matrices is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
notation is of course normally employed for this group.)
Lemma 1.5. An element x of a group G has exactly one inverse x−1 .
Proof. We know from the axioms that the group G contains at least one element x−1 which
satises xx−1 = e and x−1 x = e.
If z is any element of G which satises xz = e (right inverse ) then
z = ez = (x−1 x)z = x−1 (xz) = x−1 e = x−1 .
Similarly if w is any element of G which satises wx = e (left inverse ) then w = x−1 .
In particular we conclude that the inverse x−1 of x is uniquely determined, as required.

CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Lemma 1.6. Let x and y be elements of a group G. Then (xy)−1 = y −1 x−1 .
Proof. It follows from the group axioms that
(xy)(y −1 x−1 ) = x(y(y −1 x−1 )) = x((yy −1 )x−1 ) = x(ex−1 ) = xx−1 = e.
Similarly (y −1 x−1 )(xy) = . . . = e, and thus y −1 x−1 is the inverse of xy , as required.
Theorem 1.7. Let G be a group and a, b, c ∈ G. If either ab = ac or ba = ca, then b = c.
Proof. Suppose that ab = ac. Then
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a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac)
=⇒ a−1 a b = a−1 a c

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=⇒ eb = ec
=⇒ b = c.
Remark. This theorem implies that we can cancel elements in a group.

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1.1. SUB-GROUPS CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.1. Sub-Groups
Denition 1.8. Let (G, ·) be a group. Let H⊆G such that (H, ·) is also a group.
Then (H, ·) is called a subgroup of (G, ·) .
Proposition 1.9. H is a subgroup of G only if the following conditions hold:
1. e ∈ H,
2. ab ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H ,
3. a−1 ∈ H for all a ∈ H.
Denition 1.10. A subgroup H of G is said to be proper if H is a proper subset of G.
Example 1.11.
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The following are some examples of subgroups:
1. The group of integers is a subgroup of the groups of rational numbers, real numbers and
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complex numbers under addition.
2. The group of non-zero rational numbers is a subgroup of the groups of non-zero real
numbers and non-zero complex numbers under multiplication.

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3. The group of all 2 × 2 matrices of real numbers with determinant equal to 1 is a subgroup
of the group of all 2×2 matrices of real numbers with non-zero determinant under the
operation of matrix multiplication.
 
cos α − sin α
4. Consider the collection of all 2×2 matrices that are of the form   for
sin α cos α
some real number α. This is a subgroup of the group of all 2×2 matrices with non-zero
determinant under matrix multiplication. Indeed the above matrix is the identity matrix
when α = 0.
    
cos α − sin α cos β − sin β cos(α + β) − sin(α + β)
Also   =  
sin α cos α sin β cos β sin(α + β) cos(α + β)
(as can be seen from the well-known formulae giving sin(α + β) and cos(α + β) in terms
of α and β ), and

 −1  
cos α − sin α cos(−α) − sin(−α)
  = 
sin α cos α sin(−α) cos(−α)
for all real numbers α and β. Thus the denition of a subgroup is satised. The cor-
responding geometrical result states that the set of all rotations of the plane about the
origin is a subgroup of the group of all linear transformations of the plane that send a
point (x, y) to (ax + by, cx + dy) for some real numbers a, b, c and d satisfying ad − bc 6= 0.
Theorem 1.12. Let G be group and H a non-empty subset of G, such that ∀ a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H .
Then H is subgroup of G.
Proof. Identity: Let h ∈ H.
Therefore, the identity belongs to

Then
H.
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hh−1 = e ∈ H (where e is the identity in G).
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Inverse: Let h ∈ H. Since e, h ∈ H, then eh−1 = h−1 ∈ H. Hence every element h∈H has an
inverse h−1 ∈ H.
Closure: Let a, b ∈ H. Then b−1 ∈ H (from above), and a, b−1 ∈ H =⇒ a(b−1 )−1 = ab ∈ H.
Therefore H is closed under the group operation.
Associativity: This follows because H ⊆ G.

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Hence H is a group and is therefore a subgroup of G.
Theorem 1.13. Let G be a group and H a non empty subset of G.
Then H is a subgroup if and only if ∀ a, b ∈ H, ab−1 ∈ H.
Proof. Suppose that the condition holds, then from Theorem 1.12, H is a subgroup of G.
Conversely, if H is a subgroup of G, then ∀ a, b ∈ H, a and b−1 ∈ H. It then follows,
by closure that ab−1 ∈ H.

Theorem 1.14. Let G be a group and H a nite non-empty subset of G such that H · H = H.
Then H is a subgroup of G.
Proof. Left an an exercise
Theorem 1.15. Let G be a group and H a nite non-empty subset of G.
Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if H · H = H.
Proof. Left an an exercise.
Example 1.16. Determine whether
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({1, −1} , ·) is a subgroup of ({1, −1, i, −i} , ·)
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Remark 1.17. Handout from Herstein page 39, example 2.4.7. The solution is in my handwriting.
Below is extra notes for students to go through as they see t.
Lemma 1.18. Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Then H ∩ K is also a subgroup of G.

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Proof. The identity element of G belongs to H ∩ K since it belongs to the subgroups H and K.
If x and y are elements of H ∩K then xy is an element of H (since x and y are elements of
H ), and xy is an element of K, and therefore xy is an element of H ∩ K.
Also the inverse x−1 of an element x of H∩K belongs to H and to K and thus belongs to
H ∩ K, as required.

Theorem 1.19. Subgroups of cyclic groups are cyclic.
Proof. Let G = hgi be a cyclic group, where g∈G .
Let H ⊆ G. If H= {1} , then H is cyclic with generator 1.
So assume H 6= {1} .
Let m be the smallest positive integer such that gm ∈ H .
On the other hand, if H contains a negative power of g − − − say g −k , where k>0
then gk ∈ H , since H is closed under inverses.
Hence, H again contains positive powers of g, so it contains a smallest positive power, by Well
Ordering.
So gm , the smallest positive power of
But by the Division Algorithm, there are unique integers

g
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in H.
q and r such that

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n = mq + r, where 0 ≤ r < m.
It follows that
g n = g mq+r = (g m )q · g r , so h = (g m )q · g r or g r = (g m )−q · h.
Now gm ∈ H , so (g m )−q ∈ H . Hence, (g m )−q · h ∈ H ,
so gr ∈ H . However, gm was the smallest positive power of g lying in H.

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Since gr ∈ H and r < m,this only happens if r = 0.
Therefore, n = qm , and h = g n = (g m )q ∈ hg m i.
This proves that gm generates H, so m is cyclic.

1.2. CYCLIC GROUPS (SELF STUDY) CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
1.2. Cyclic Groups (Self Study)
Denition 1.20. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g ∈G such that G=
{g n : n ∈ Z}, where Z is the set of integers and
 
g·g·g (n times) if n>0
 
n
g = if n = 0  .
 
e
 
g −1 · g −1 · g −1 (|n| times) if n < 0
The element g is called the generator of the cyclic group.
Remark 1.21. If a nite group G can be generated from one of its elements, g together with its
inverse g −1 then it can be generated from g only.
Example 1.22.
1. The group
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The following are some examples of cyclic groups:
of integers under addition is a cyclic group, generated by 1.

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Z
2π
2. The group of all rotations of the plane about the origin through an integer multiple of
n
radians is a cyclic group of order n for all positive integers n.

2π
This group is generated by an anticlockwise rotation through an angle of radians.
n
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Denition 1.23. The order of an element g ∈ G is the smallest positive integer n such that
gn = e (the identity in G), if such n exists. Otherwise, g is said to be of innite order.
Proposition 1.24. Cyclic groups are abelian.
[Exercise: Prove this proposition.]
Lemma 1.25. Let G = hgibe a nite cyclic group, where g has order n. Then the powers
{1, g, . . . , g n−1 } are distinct.
Proof. Since g has order n, g, g 2 , ...g n−1 are all dierent from 1.
Now I'll show that the powers {1, g, . . . , g n−1 }are distinct.
Suppose gi = gj where 0≤ j < i < n .

1.2. CYCLIC GROUPS (SELF STUDY) CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
Then 0<i−j <n and g i−j = 1. This is a contradiction, since the order of g is n.
Therefore, the powers {1, g, . . . , g n−1 } are distinct.
Proposition 1.26. All groups of prime order are cyclic.
Lemma 1.27. Let G = hgi be an innite cyclic group. If m and n are integers and m 6= n ,
then g m 6= g n .
Proof. Suppose without loss of generality that m > n.
We are required to show that g m 6= g n ; suppose this is false, so gm = gn.
Then g m−n = 1 , so g has nite order.
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This contradicts the fact that a generator of an innite cyclic group has innite order.
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Therefore, g m 6= g n .
Problem 1.28. (Finding the order of an element.) Find the order of the element a6 in the cyclic
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group G = {1, a, a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a7 }.
Solution: If n is the order of the group, then n = 8. Since gcd(6, n) = gcd(6, 8) = 2 , a6 has
n 8
order = = 4.
gcd(6, n) 2
Check:
(a6 )1 = a6 , (a6 )2 = a12 = a4 , (a6 )3 = a18 = a2 , (a6 )4 = a24 = 1.
Exercise 1.29. Find the order of the element 18 ∈ Z30 .

2. Permutations and Symmetric Groups
Theorem 2.1. For any non-empty set X , let S (X) denote the set of all bijections on X . Then
(S (X) , ◦) is a group, where ◦ denotes composition of functions.
Proof. Closure: The composition of two bijections on X is also a bijection on X.
Associativity: This follows since composition of functions (in general) is associative.
Identity:
Inverses:
The identity function
All bijections in S (X)

e
es
is a bijection on
have inverses in
X,
S (X).
hence e ∈ S (X).
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Denition 2.2. The group S (X) (sometimes also denoted SX ) is called the symmetric group
on the set X.
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Example 2.3. Let X = {1, 2}. Then S (X) = {e, f }, where e is the identity function (i.e.
e (1) = 1 and e (2) = 2), and f is the function such that f (1) = 2 and f (2) = 1.
Exercise 2.4. Find the symmetric group on the set X = {1, 2, 3}.
When X is a nite non-empty set, the bijections on X are simply permutations (or arrange-
ments) of the elements of X. If X has n elements, then we denote the group of permutations
S (X) by Sn , and we call this group the symmetric group on n elements, or the symmetric
group of degree n.
Note that, for simplicity, we usually take X to be the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. However, the properties
discussed here apply to a set of any n elements.
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CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Remark 2.5. The symmetric groups given in Example 2.3 and Exercise 2.4 are S2 and S3 ,
respectively.
Theorem 2.6. |Sn | = n!
Proof. The order of Sn is the number of bijections on X. The number of bijections is simply the
number of dierent ways there are to permute the n elements of X. Therefore, the number of
elements in Sn is equal to n!.
It is cumbersome to represent the elements of Sn as functions. These elements can be better
represented as permutations.
For example, an element


1 2 ... n

, where
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Φ : {1, 2, . . . , n} → {1, 2, . . . , n}
Φ (k) is the image of

can be represented by
k under the permutation Φ.


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Φ (1) Φ (2) . . . Φ (n)
Denition 2.7. Let Φ1 and Φ2 be two elements of Sn . The product (composition) Φ1 ◦ Φ2

(or simply Φ1 Φ2 ) is the permutation obtained by applying Φ2 rst, then Φ1 (right to left).
   
1 2 3 1 2 3
Example 2.8. Consider S3 . Let Φ1 =  and Φ2 =  .
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
3 1 2 1 3 2
Then Φ1 (1) = 3, Φ1 (2) = 1, Φ1 (3) = 2, and Φ2 (1) = 1, Φ2 (2) = 3, Φ2 (3) = 2.
Therefore,
Φ1 Φ2 (1) = Φ1 (1) = 3,
Φ1 Φ2 (2) = Φ1 (3) = 2,
Φ1 Φ2 (3) = Φ1 (2) = 1.
 
1 2 3
Thus, Φ1 Φ2 =  .
3 2 1
 
1 2 3
Similarly, Φ2 Φ1 =  .
2 1 3

CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Remark 2.9. Note that in this case, Φ1 Φ2 6= Φ2 Φ1 . Therefore, S3 is not abelian (commutative).
In fact, S1 and S2 are the only abelian symmetric groups. All other symmetric groups are
non-abelian.
Exercise 2.10. Using the notation above, list all the elements of S3 .
Exercise 2.11. Consider S4 .

     
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Let Φ1 =  , Φ2 =   and Φ3 =  .
1 2 4 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 4 1
1. Is Φ3 an element of S4 ? Explain.
2. Determine the following: Φ21 , Φ1 Φ2 , Φ2 Φ1 , and Φ21 Φ2 Φ21 .
Denition 2.12. The
Φ.
inverse
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of a permutation
Φ−1
Φ (denoted by Φ−1 ) is one that undoes the
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changes made by We can nd by nding the inverse image of each element, which
can be done by reading the permutation in reverse order (upside down). This is equivalent to
switching the two rows of the permutation and rearranging the columns so that the numbers
in the rst row are in ascending order.
 
1 2 3 4
Example 2.13. Consider S4 . Let Φ= .
sG
2 4 1 3
 
1 2 3 4
Reading the permutation in the reverse order gives Φ−1 =  .
3 1 4 2
 
2 4 1 3
Alternatively, switching the rows gives  ,
1 2 3 4
 
1 2 3 4
and after moving around the columns, we get Φ−1 =  .
3 1 4 2
Exercise 2.14. For the permutations used in Exercise 2.11, nd Φ−1
1
−1 −1 −1 −1
, Φ , Φ Φ , (Φ1 Φ2 ) .
2 2 1
We can represent the elements of Sn even more concisely, as we will see below.

2.1. CYCLES CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
2.1. Cycles
Denition 2.15. Let A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } be a subset of {1, 2, . . . , n} . The permutation Φ
dened by:

+ Φ (a1 ) = a2 , Φ (a2 ) = a3 , . . ., Φ am−1 = am , Φ (am ) = a1 and
+ Φ (x) = x for all x∈

/A
is called a cycle of length m or an m−cycle. It is denoted by (a1 a2 · · · am ).
 
1 2 3
Example 2.16. The permutation   = (132) is a 3-cycle in S3 .
3 1 2
 
1 2 3 4
Example 2.17.
Example 2.18.
The permutation 
es
4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5
 = (1423)

is a 2-cycle in S4 .
not
The permutation   = (132) is a 3-cycle in S5 .
3 1 2 4 5
Note. (132) and (321) represent the same cycle. The starting number in a cycle is not important;
only the order in which the numbers appear is important.
Theorem 2.19. If Φ is an m−cycle in Sn , then Φm = e.

sG
Proof. Let Φ = (a1 a2 · · · am ) .
For each x∈
/ {a1 , a2 , . . . , am }, we have Φ (x) = x, and hence Φm (x) = x.
Now take x ∈ {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } , say x = ak , and let am+1 = a1 , am+2 = a2 , and so on (since
after am the cycle continues with a1 ).
Φ (x) = Φ (ak ) = ak+1 , Φ2 (x) = ak+2 , . . ., Φm (x) = ak+m = ak = x.
Therefore, Φm (x) = x for each x = 1, 2, . . . , n, so Φm = e, the identity permutation.
Note: This is equivalent to saying that the order of a cycle is equal to its length.

Theorem 2.20. Every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles.
The algorithm proving this theorem is best illustrated by the following example:
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 2.21. Consider the permutation Φ=  in S8 .
6 7 8 4 5 2 1 3
We start by writing '(1 '.
Since Φ (1) = 6, we write '(16 '.
Since Φ (6) = 2, we write '(162 '.
Since Φ (2) = 7, we write '(1627 '.
Since Φ (7) = 1, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
Therefore, one cycle of Φ is (1627).
es
Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in the cycle above.
not
In this case, the number we are looking for is 3 (since both 1 and 2 appear in the cycle above).
Since Φ (3) = 8, we write '(38 '.
Since Φ (8) = 3, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
Therefore, another cycle of Φ is (38).

sG
Next, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in either cycle above.
In this case, the number we are looking for is 4.
Since Φ (4) = 4, 4 is xed, so we can ignore it in the cycle decomposition of Φ.
Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not already encountered. In this case, the
number we are looking for is 5.
Since Φ (5) = 5, 5 is also xed, so we can ignore it in the cycle decomposition.
Since all the remaining elements of X (i.e. 6, 7, 8) have already been met, we stop.
Therefore, the cycle decomposition is given by Φ = (1627) (38) .

Remark 2.22. Disjoint cycles are in fact commutative. Since elements of any particular cycle do
not appear in any other cycle, the order in which the cycles are considered does not matter.
Thus, in the example above, it would have also been correct to write Φ = (38) (1627) .
Remark 2.23. Not all elements of X have to appear in the cycle decomposition of Φ.
The elements that do not appear are xed, i.e. they are not aected by Φ.
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Exercise 2.24. Give the cycle decomposition of Φ=  in S9 .
1 4 8 5 2 3 9 6 7
Exercise 2.25. Write γ = (124) (425) (64) as a product of disjoint cycles.
Exercise 2.26. Write β = (124) (425)−1 (64) as a product of disjoint cycles in S8 .
Exercise 2.27. Write
es
α = (1236)−1 (435) (14) as a product of disjoint cycles.
not
Theorem 2.28. The order of a permutation is the least common multiple (LCM) of the length
of its disjoint cycles.
Proof. Let the cycle decomposition of an arbitrary permutation be Φ = Φ1 Φ2 · · · Φr , where Φ1 ,

Φ2 , . . ., Φr are disjoint cycles. The order of Φ is the smallest positive integer m such that
e = Φm = (Φ1 Φ2 · · · Φr )m = Φm Φm · · · Φm . But the smallest m satisfying this is the LCM of

sG
1 2 r
the orders of the Φi 's.
Exercise 2.29. Find the orders of the permutations given in Example 2.21 and Exercises 2.24
- 2.27.

2.2. TRANSPOSITIONS CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
2.2. Transpositions
A transposition is a 2-cycle, i.e. a cycle of length 2.
Theorem 2.30. Every permutation can be written as a product of transpositions.
Proof. First, note that the identity permutation e can be written as the product of any trans-
position with itself. For example, e = (12) (12) or e = (35) (35) .
Now, Theorem 2.20 states that every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles.
We are left to show that every cycle can be written as a product of transpositions.
Let α = (a1 a2 · · · am ) be an arbitrary m−cycle. Then we can write α as a product of transpo-
sitions by pairing up the rst term a1 with each of the other terms in reverse order, as follows:
es

α = (a1 am ) a1 am−1 · · · (a1 a3 ) (a1 a2 ) .
(Verify for yourself that this is in fact true.)

not
Example 2.31. (1324) = (14) (12) (13)
Exercise 2.32. Express the permutations given in Example 2.21 and Exercises 2.24 - 2.27 as
products of transpositions.
sG
Corollary 2.33. An m−cycle can be written as the product of m − 1 transpositions.
Denition 2.34. A permutation is even if it can be written as the product of an even number
of transpositions. Similarly, a permutation is odd if it can be written as the product of an
odd number of transpositions.
Theorem 2.35. An m−cycle is even if m is odd, and odd if m is even.
Proof. By Corollary 2.33, we can write any m−cycle as a product of m−1 transpositions.
If m is odd then m−1 is even, so the m−cycle is even by denition.
On the other hand, if m is even then m−1 is odd, so the m−cycle is odd.

2.3. SYMMETRY CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Example 2.36. (1324) = (14) (12) (13) is an odd permutation in S4 .
Exercise 2.37. Find the parities of the permutations given in Example 2.21 and Exercises 2.24
- 2.27.
Theorem 2.38. The set of all even permutations An forms a subgroup of Sn . It is called the
alternating group on n elements.
Exercise 2.39. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 + x3 x4 , where
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ R.
Exercise 2.40. Find their orders and parities.
Exercise 2.41. Do they form a subgroup of
es S4 ?
not
2.3. Symmetry
A symmetry of a geometrical gure is a rearrangement of the gure that preserves the ar-
rangement of its vertices and sides as well as its distances and angles. Each symmetry is a
sG
bijection, or permutation of the vertices.
Example 2.42. A scalene triangle has a unique symmetry - the identity mapping.
Example 2.43. An isosceles triangle has two symmetries.
Example 2.44. An equilateral triangle has six symmetries.
Example 2.45. A rectangle (with unequal sides) has four symmetries. These form a group
called the Klein 4-group.

3. Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem
3.1. Cosets
Denition 3.1. Let (G, ·) be a group with subgroup (H, ·). For a, b ∈ G,we say that a is
congruent to b modulo H and write a ≡ b (mod H), if and only if ab−1 ∈ H.
es
Theorem 3.2. The relation ≡ (mod H) is an equivalence relation on G
not
Proof. For all a ∈ G ,aa−1 = e ∈ H. ⇒ the relation is reexive.
If a ≡ b (mod H) then ab−1 ∈ H . Since H is a subgroup then (ab−1 )−1 ∈ H.
ie. ba−1 ∈ H or b ≡ a (mod H). The relation is therefore symmetric.
If a ≡ b (mod H) and b≡c then ab−1 and bc−1 belong to H.
This implies that ab−1 bc−1 = ac−1 ∈ H.

sG
Therefore a ≡ c (mod H). The relation is therefore transitive.
Hence ≡ (mod H) is an equivalence relation on G.
Denition 3.3. The equivalence class containing a is Ha = {ha : h ∈ H} is called a right coset
of H in G. A left coset is analogously dened.
Theorem 3.4. If a ∈ H then aH = Ha = H
Proof. Let h ∈ H.
Then h = (ha−1 )a = h1 a ∈ Ha, where h1 = ha−1 .
27
3.1. COSETS CHAPTER 3. COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
⇒ H ⊆ Ha.
Conversely, let ha ∈ Ha.
Since a ∈ H, ha ∈ H.
Therefore Ha ⊆ H.
Hence Ha = H.
Similarly aH = H. Hence the results follows.
Lemma 3.5. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the left cosets of H in G have the
following properties:
(i) x ∈ xH for all x ∈ G;
es
(ii) if x and y are elements of G, and if y = xa for some a ∈ H , then xH = yH ;
not
(iii) if x and y are elements of G, and if xH ∪ yH is non-empty then xH = yH .
Proof. Let x ∈ G. Then x = xe, where e is the identity element of G.
But e ∈ H. It follows that x ∈ xH . This proves (i).

sG
Let x and y be elements of G, where y = xa for some a ∈ H.
Then yh = x(ah) and xh = y(a−1 h) for allh ∈ H. Moreover ah ∈ H and a−1 h ∈ H for all
h ∈ H,
since H is a subgroup of G. It follows that yH ⊂xH and xH ⊂ yH , and hence xH = yH.
This proves (ii). Finally suppose that xH ∩ yH is non-empty for some elements x and y of G.
Let z be an element of xH ∩ yH .
Then z = xa for some a ∈ H, and z = yb for some b ∈ H.
It follows from (ii) that zH = xH and zH = yH .
Therefore xH = yH .
This proves (iii).

3.2. LAGRANGE'S THEOREM CHAPTER 3. COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
Lemma 3.6. Let H be a nite subgroup of a group G. Then each left coset of H in G has the
same number of elements as H .
Proof. Let H = {h1 , h2 , ..., hm }, where h1 , h2 , ...,hm are distinct, and let x be an element of G.
Then the left coset xH consists of the elements xhj for j = 1, 2, ..., m.
Suppose that j and k are integers between 1 and m for which xhj = xhk .
Then hj = x−1 (xhj ) = x−1 (xhk ) = hk , and thus j = k, since h1 , h2 , ..., hm are distinct.
It follows that the elements xh1 , xh2 , ..., xhm are distinct.
We conclude that the subgroup H and the left coset xH both have m elements, as required.
es
not
3.2. Lagrange's Theorem
Theorem 3.7. (Lagrange's Theorem) If H is a subgroup of the nite group G, then the order
of H is a divisor of the order of G.
Proof. The right cosets of H in G, form a partition of G.

sG
Hence we can write G = Ha1 ∪ Ha2 ∪ ... ∪ Ham , where m is the number of distinct right cosets
of H in G. Since the cosets are disjoint,
|G| = |Ha1 | + ... + |Ham | = m |H| .
The order of H therefore divides the order of G.
Denition 3.8. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. If the number of left cosets of H in G is
nite then the number of such cosets is referred to as the index of H in G, denoted by [G : H].

3.2. LAGRANGE'S THEOREM CHAPTER 3. COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
Corollary 3.9. Let G be a nite group of order n.
(a) For any a ∈ G, ◦(a) is a divisor of n.
(b) For any a ∈ G,an = e.
Proof. ( Left as exercise)
Theorem 3.10. Every group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof. Let G be a group of prime order, and let x be some element of G that is not the identity
element.
Then the order of
But then the order of

x
es
is greater than one and divides the order of
must be equal to the order of G,

G.
since the latter is a prime number.

not
Thus G is a cyclic group generated by x, as required.
sG

4. Normal Subgroups & Quotient Gp.
4.1. Normal Subgroups
Denition 4.1. If H is a subgroup of a group G with operation ∗ and a ∈ G then the left coset
a∗H of G is the subset a∗H of G, where a ∗ H = {a ∗ h : h ∈ H}.
Denition 4.2.
or normal divisor ) of
A subgroup
G if
H of a group
es
G is called a normal subgroup (or invariant subgroup
not
gH = Hg, ∀g ∈ G.
If H is normal in G then we write H C G.
The following theorem is useful for proving that a subgroup H of a group G is a normal subgroup
sG
of G.
Theorem 4.3. If H is a subgroup of a group G, then H is normal in G if and ony if g −1 hg ∈

H, ∀g ∈ G and ∀h ∈ H .
Proof. Suppose that H is normal in G. Then, by denition, gH = Hg , ∀g ∈ G.
Let h ∈ H. Then hg ∈ Hg .
Now, since
gH = Hg , ∀ g ∈ G =⇒ hg = gh0 for some h0 ∈ H
=⇒ g −1 hg = h0 , g −1 hg ∈ H.
Conversely, suppose that g −1 hg ∈ H, ∀g ∈ G and ∀h ∈ H . .
31
4.1. NORMAL SUBGROUPS CHAPTER 4. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Let hg ∈ Hg . Now
hg = gg −1 hg = gh ∈ gH
since g −1 hg ∈ H, ∀g ∈ G and ∀h ∈ H .
=⇒ Hg = gH .
Thus H C G.
Theorem 4.4. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Proof. Proof. Let
Let gh ∈ gH .
H
es
be a subgroup of an abelian group G.
not
Then, since G is abelian, gh = hg ∈ Hg : =⇒ gH = Hg =⇒ H CG.
Example 4.5. Example. {e} and G are normal subgroups of G.

sG
Example 4.6. Let G be the group of all integers under addition and H be the set of all integers
divisible by 5, then H is a subgroup of G under addition, further, H C G and the decomposition

of G into distinct right cosets yields the following equivalence classes:
H,
H1 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 1)} ,
H2 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 2)} ,
H3 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 3)} ,
H4 = {x ∈ G : 5 | (x − 4)} .
Fact 4.7. A relation is well-dened if every object has a unique image. i.e. f is well-dened
a = b =⇒ f (a) = f (b).

4.1. NORMAL SUBGROUPS CHAPTER 4. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Theorem 4.8. If G . N then the set of cosets G/N = {gN : g ∈ G} is a group under the
operation ∗ dened by N g1 ∗ N g2 = N g1 g2 .
Proof. We rst show that the operation ∗ is well-dened on the set G/N .
Suppose
N g1 = N h1 and N g2 = N h2 .
Then by denition of ∗,
N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 .
Nowg1 ∈ N g1 = N h1 .
∴ g1 = n1 h1 for some n1 ∈ N
Similarly,
es
g2 = n2 h2 for some n2 ∈ N.
not
∴ g1 g2 = n1 h1 n2 h2
Now,
g1 g2 (h1 h2 )−1 = n1 h1 n2 h2 h−1 −1

2 h1
sG
= n1 h1 n2 h−1
1
= n ∈ N, since N /G
∴ g1 g2 (h1 h2 )−1 ∈ N
=⇒ N g1 g 2 (h1 h2 )−1 = N
=⇒ N g1 g2 = N h1 h2

4.2. QUOTIENT GROUP CHAPTER 4. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Closure:
Let N g1 · N g2 ∈ G/N .
Then N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 = N g ∈ G/N.
Assosciativity follows from the associtivity of the operation on G: If N g1 , N g2 , N g3 ∈ G/N
Then N g1 (N g2 N g3 ) = N g1 N g2 g3 = N g1 g2 g3 = (N g1 g2 )N g3 = (N g1 N g2 )N g3 .
It is clear that N is the identity element of G/N .
Inverses: N gN g −1 = N gg −1 = N = N g −1 g .
es
not
4.2. Quotient Group
Denition 4.9. The group G/N is called the quotient group or factor group of G by N.
Exercise 4.10. Prove that if H and K are two normal subgroups of a group G, then the group
sG
H ∩K is normal in G.
Exercise 4.11. Prove that two right cosets, Ha and Hb of a group G are identical i ab−1 ∈ G:

5. Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms
5.1. Ordered pairs and Direct Product.
Denition 5.1. Let H and K be groups. The direct product of H and K denoted by H × K,
is the group with elements all ordered pairs (h, k) where h∈H and k∈K with operation
es
(h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 ) = (h1 h2 , k1 k2 )
not
Exercise 5.2. Prove that H ×K is abelian if and only if both H and K are abelian.
Denition 5.3. If X is a subset of a group G, then the smallest subgroup of G containing X,

denoted by hXi is called the group generated by X.
sG
Example 5.4. The set of all non-identity elements of a group is a generating set for the group.
5.2. Homomorphism
Denition 5.5. Let (G, ∗) and (H, •) be two groups. A function ϕ: G→H is a homomorphism
from G to H if for all x, y ∈ G,
ϕ(x ∗ y) = ϕ(x) • ϕ(y).
35
5.2. HOMOMORPHISM CHAPTER 5. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
Example 5.6. Let f : G → H be dened by f (x) = eH , ∀x ∈ G, where eH is an identity
element in the group H.
Then, for any a, b∈ G,f (ab) = eH = eH eH = f (a)f (b) and hence f is a homomorphism.
Remark 5.7. This is called the trivial homomorphism or zero homomorphism.
Example 5.8. Let R+ be the set of positive real numbers.
Consider ψ : R+ → R dened by ψ(x) = log x, ∀x ∈ R+ .
Then ψ(ab) = log(ab)
= log a + log b
= ψ(a) + ψ(b)
Hence
Example 5.9.
ψ is a homomorphism.
es
not
Let n be a xed positive integer. Let φ : (Z, +) → (C\ {0} , ·) such that φ(k) =
2ikπ
e n . Then φ is a homomorphism.
Consider φ(k1 + k2 )

2i(k1 +k2 )π
=e n
2ik1 π 2ik π
= e( n
+ n2 )
sG
2ik1 π
= e( n ) · e( 2ikn2 π )
= φ(k1 ) · φ(k2 ).
Example 5.10. Dene a map φ:G→H where G=Z and H = Z2 = Z/2Z is the standard
group of order two, by the rule

0,

if x is even
f (x) = .

1, if x is odd
We check that φ is a homomorphism.
Proof. Suppose that x and y are two integers.
There are four cases:

x and y are even;
x and y are both odd;
x is even, y is odd;
x is odd, y is even.
Now if x and y are both even or both odd, then x+y is even. In this case φ(x + y) = 0.
In the rst case φ(x) + φ(y) = 0 + 0 = 0 and in the second case φ(x) + φ(y) = 1 + 1 = 0.
Otherwise one is even and the other is odd and x+y is odd.
In this case φ(x + y) = 1 and φ(x) + φ(y) = 1 + 0 = 1.
Thus we get a homomorphism.
es
Proposition 5.11. (Properties of homomorphism) If ϕ : G → H is a homomorphism of groups
not
and eH , eG are the identity elements in H and G respectively. Then for all x, y ∈ G, ϕ(xy) =
ϕ(x)ϕ(y) the following hold:
(i) ϕ(eH ) = ϕ(eG )
(ii) ϕ(x−1 ) = ϕ(x)−1

sG
(iii) ϕ(xy −1 ) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y −1 )
(iv) ϕ(x) = ϕ(y) ⇔ ϕ(xy −1 ) = eH .
Proof. (i) Consider ϕ(eG ) ϕ(eG ) = ϕ(eG · eG ) = ϕ(eG ) = eH · ϕ(eG )
By cancellation Law we have : ϕ(eH ) = ϕ(eG )
Hence ϕ(eG ) is an identity on H.
−1
(ii)ϕ(x)ϕ(x ) = ϕ(xx−1 ) = ϕ(eH ) = ϕ(eG ) ( from (i)).
Hence ϕ(x−1 ) = ϕ(x)−1 .
(iii) and (iv) are straightforward.

Note 5.12. Since a homomorphism preserves the operations, it preserves the identity and inverse.
Denition 5.13. Let ϕ be a homomorphism of G into H the kernal of ϕ , denoted ker ϕ, is
dened by
ker ϕ = {x ∈ G | ϕ(x) = eH }, where eH is the identity of H.
Theorem 5.14. ker ϕ is a normal subgroup of G
Proof. We have to show that the kernel is non-empty and closed under multiplication and
contains inverses for every element in ker ϕ.
Note that ker ϕ is certainly non-empty, since it contains the identity.
Now suppose that
Thus xy ∈ ker ϕ
x, y ∈ ker ϕ, so that
es
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y) = e
and so the kernel is closed under multiplication.

and so ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y)= ee = e.
not
Finally suppose that x∈ kerϕ , ϕ(x) = e.
Then ϕ(x−1 ) = ϕ(x)−1 = e.
Thus x−1 ∈ ker ϕ and the kernel is a subgroup.
Now to prove normality.

sG
Suppose that k ∈ ker ϕ. We need to prove that gkg −1 ∈ ker ϕ.
For any g ∈ G, k ∈ K, gkg −1 ∈ K
Consider ϕ(gkg −1 )
= ϕ(g)ϕ(k)ϕ(g −1 )
= ϕ(g)ϕ(g −1 ) = e
Lemma 5.15. Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism. Then f is injective i ker ϕ = {e} .
Proof. If f is injective, then at most one element can be sent to the identitye ∈ H.
Since ϕ(e) = e, it follows that ker ϕ = {e}.

5.3. ISOMORPHISM CHAPTER 5. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
Conversely, suppose that ker ϕ = {e} and that ϕ(x) = ϕ(y).
Let g = x−1 y.
Then ϕ(g) = ϕ(x−1 y)= ϕ(x)−1 ϕ(y) = e.
Thus g is in the kernel of ϕ and so g = e. But then x−1 y = e and so x = y.
Then ϕ is injective.
Theorem 5.16. (Euler-Fermat Theorem). Let G be the multiplicative group of congruence

classes modulo n.
es
Proof. ( Left as exercise)
not
5.3. Isomorphism
Denition 5.17. Let a function f : G → H be a homomorphism. If f is also a one-one

sG
correspondence, then f is called an isomorphism. Two groups G and H are called isomorphic,
denoted by G∼
= H, if there exists an isomorphism between them.
(a) How to show that two groups are isomorphic?
If G and H are the groups in question, you need to construct an isomorphismf : G → H.
This is usually done as follows:
+ Dene a function f : G → H, which you think will be an isomorphism.
+ Prove that f is a one-to-one function.
+ Prove that f is onto.
Prove that f is a homomorphism.

(b) How to show that two groups are not isomorphic?
Note 5.18. If two groups are isomorphic, all their structural properties are the same.
Thus, if one of the groups has some structural property, while the other does not, then these
groups are not isomorphic. Let us give a couple of examples of this situation.
Example 5.19.
1. The group U3 is not isomorphic to U4 , because U3 has 3 elements, and U4 has 4 elements.
2. The group R∗ under multiplication and the group C ∗ under multiplication are not isomorphic.
The equation x2 = a has solution x ∈ C∗ for any a ∈ C ∗, but the same equation does not have
a solution in R∗ for some a ∈ R∗ (namely, for negative a).
3. The group R
x2 = 1 R∗
es
under addition is not isomorphic to the group
−1),
R∗ under multiplication.
not
The equation in has two solutions (1 and and the corresponding equation
x+x=0 in R has only one solution 0.
Example 5.20. Consider the mapping ϕ : (R, +) → (0, +∞, ·) be dened by ϕ(x) = ex , ∀x ∈ R.
Then ϕ is a bijection and ϕ(x + y) = ex+y = ex · ey = ϕ(x) · ϕ(y)

sG
Therefore the groups are isomorphic.
Theorem 5.21. (a)First Isomorphism Theorem
Let f :G→H be a homomorphism between groups, with kernal, K. Then K P G and G ∼

= H.
K
Proof. (To be discussed in class)
+ Construct a mapping,φ.
+ Show mapping φ is 1-1, well-dened and onto
+ Show that φ is a homomorphism
+ Show normality

(b)Second Isomorphism Theorem:
Let G be a group, let N and T be a subgroups of G, with N being normal.
Then N ∩T PT and T /(N ∩ T ) ∼

= N T /N .
Proof. (To be discussed in class)
+ Show HT is a subgroup of G.
+ Show NT B T
+ Show that φ is a homomorphism, 1-1. onto,well dened
+ Show Kernal φ=H ∩K
es
Now that all these remarks have been done, it is not dicult to see that the 2nd
Isomorphism Theorem follows from the 1st Isomorphism Theorem, as does the 3rd
not
Isomorphism Theorem.
(c)Third Isomorphism Theorem

Let K, H be normal subgroups of a group G and suppose that K ⊆ H.
Then H/K P G/K and (G/K)/(H/K) ∼

= G/H.
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Proof: (To be discussed in class)
+ Show H/K is a subgroup of G/K .
+ Show G/K B H/K
+ Show that φ is a homomorphism, 1-1. onto,well dened
+ Show Kernal φ = H/K
Theorem 5.22. Correspondence Theorem:
Let G be a group with K P G, and let ν : G → G/K be the natural map.
Then S → ν(S) = S/K is a bijection from the family of all these subgroups S of G which
contain K to the family of all the subgroups of G/K . Moreover , if one denotes S/K by S ∗ ,
then

(i) T ≤S i T ∗ ≤ S∗ and [S : T ] = [S ∗ : T ∗ ] and
(ii) T ES i T ∗ E S∗ and then S/T ∼

= S ∗ /T ∗ .
Proof. Discussed in Class
es
not
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Part II.
es RINGS
not
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43
6. Rings
Denition 6.1. A ring R is a set with two binary operations,+ and ·, satisfying:
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group,
(2) R is closed under multiplication, and (ab)c = a(bc) f or all a, b, c ∈ R,
(3) a(b + c) = ab + ac and (a + b)c = ac + bc for all a, b, c ∈ R.
Example 6.2.
es
The following are some examples of rings:
not
1.Z, Q, R, C .
2. 2Z even numbers.Note that 1∈

/ 2Z .
3. M atn (R) = {n × n − matrices with real entries} In general AB 6= BA.

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Denition 6.3. A ring R is called commutative if ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R.
6.1. Subrings
Denition 6.4. A subring of a ring R is a subset which is a ring under the same subring addition
and
multiplication.
Example 6.5. The following are some examples of subrings:
1.Z is a subring of Q.
2.Q is a subring of C.
44
6.1. SUBRINGS CHAPTER 6. RINGS
3. {0}and R are subrings of R.
Denition 6.6. Let R be a ring. A subring S of R is called a proper subring i S is proper
subset of R.
Proposition 6.7. Let S be a non-empty subset of a ring R. Then S is a subring of R if and

only if,
for any a, b ∈ S we have a + b ∈ S , ab ∈ S and −a ∈ S.
Proof. A subring has these properties.
Conversely, if S is closed under addition and taking the relevant inverse,
then (S, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) (from group theory).
S is closed under multiplication.
es
Associativity and distributivity hold for S because they hold for R
not
√ √
Denition 6.8. . Let d be an integer which is not a square. Dene Z[ m] = {a + b Z[m | a, b ∈ Z}.
√ √
Call Z[ − 1] = a + b − 1, a, b ∈ Z . Gaussian integers the ring of Gaussian integers
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Proposition 6.9. For any two elements r, s of a ring, we have
(1) r0 = 0r = 0,
(2) (−r)s = r(−s) = −(rs).
Proof. (1) r0 = r(0 + 0) = r0 + r0.
Adding −(r0) to both sides,
we get: 0 = r0 − (r0) = r0 + r0 − r0 = r0.
(2) 0 = 0s by (1) and 0 = 0s = (−r + r)s = (−r)s + rs.
Add −(rs) to both sides
to get −(rs) = (−r)s.

6.2. INTEGRAL DOMAIN CHAPTER 6. RINGS
Similarly,r(−s) = −(rs).
Denition 6.10. An element a 6= 0 of a ring R is called a zero divisor if there exists b 6= 0 ∈ R

such that ab = 0
6.2. Integral Domain
Denition 6.11. A ring R is called an integral domain if
(1) R is commutative, i.e. ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R,
(2)
(3)
R
R
es
has an identity under multiplication (written as 1),
has no zero divisors,

not
(4) 0 6= 1.
Note 6.12. If 0 = 1, then x·1=x and so x= x · 1 = x · 0 = 0. Hence if 0=1 then R = {0}.
Proposition 6.13. If R is an integral domain, then so is R[x].

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Proof. The only non-obvious thing to check is that there are no zero divisors.
For contradiction, assume that f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + am xm , g(x) = b0 + ... + bn xn are elements
of R[x] such that f (x)g(x) is the zero polynomial.
Without loss of generality assume that am 6= 0, bn 6= 0
(i.e. m = deg f (x), n = deg g(x)).
Then f (x)g(x) = a0 b0 + ... + am bn xm+n .
Since R is an integral domain am bn 6= 0.
Therefore we get a contradiction, hence f (x)g(x) can't be the zero polynomial.

6.2. INTEGRAL DOMAIN CHAPTER 6. RINGS
Proposition 6.14. Every integral domain R satises the cancellation property if ax = ay and
a 6= 0
then x = y for all x, y, a ∈ R.
Proof. (Left as exercise)
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7. Ideals and Ring Homomorphisms
Denition 7.1. . A subring I of a ring R is an ideal if whenever r∈R and a ∈ I, then ra ∈ I

and ar ∈ I .
Note 7.2. R is commutative, we only need to worry about multiplication on one side. More
generally,
es
one can speak of left ideals and right ideals and two-sided ideals.
Theorem 7.3. A nonempty subset I in a ring R is an ideal i it satises

not
(1) if a, b ∈ I , then a − b ∈ I ;
(2) if r ∈ R, a ∈ I , then ra ∈ I and ar ∈ I .
Proof. (Left as exercise)

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Example 7.4. The following are examples :
1. nZ = {kn|k ∈ Z} for anyn ∈Z is an ideal in Z. If n=0 we get the zero ideal, an ideal
of any ring R. If n = ±1 we get Z, the whole ring.Again, for any ring ,R the whole ring
is an ideal of R.
2. . In Z6 , the set I = {[2k] ∈ Z6 |k ∈ Z} is an ideal.
3. p(x)R[x] = {p(x)f (x)|f (x) ∈ R[x]}is an ideal of R[x] for any commutative ring R with 1.
4. . In Z[x], the set I = {f (x) ∈ Z[x] | f (0) ≡ 0 (modn)} is an ideal for any n≥2 in Z.
48
CHAPTER 7. IDEALS AND RING HOMOMORPHISMS
7.0.1. Principal ideals.
Let R be a ring. Every (left)(right) ideal I is generated by a subset of R, namely I itself,
however it is useful to ask if we can nd a smaller generating set. A (left)(right) ideal I is
called nitely generated if it is generated as a (left)(right) ideal by a set X with |X| < ∞.
A (left)(right) ideal I is called principal if it is generated as a (left)(right) ideal by a single
element.
Note 7.5. for principal ideals generated by a single element x we have:
(x)L = {rx|r ∈ R}
(x)R = {xr|r ∈ R}and
(x) = {sxr|s, r ∈ R}.
(0)
es
(1) = R
not
The zero ideal and the whole ring are always examples of principal ideals in any
ring R.
Theorem 7.6. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Let c ∈ R. The set I = rc | r ∈ R is
an ideal of R.
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Proof. Given two elements r1 c and r2 c in I, we have r1 c − r2 c = (r1 − r2 )c ∈ I .
For any a ∈ R, a(r1 c) = (ar1 )c ∈ I .
Therefore I is an ideal.
(We have implicitly used the fact that R is commutative so that multiplication on the right
also works.)
Example 7.7. LetR = Z. If n is an integer, let nZ be the set of all multiples of Z .That is,
nZ = {na : a ∈ Z} .
To see that this set is an ideal, rst consider addition. if x, y ∈ nZ , then there integers a and b
with x = na and y = nb.

7.1. IDEALS AND QUOTIENT RINGS
CHAPTER 7. IDEALS AND RING HOMOMORPHISMS
Then x + y = na + nb = n(a + b).
Therefore, x + y ∈ nZ.
Second, for multiplication, let x = na ∈ nZ and let r ∈ Z.
Then rx = xr = r(na) = n(ra), a multiple of n.
Therefore, rx ∈ nZ .
This proves that nZ is an ideal.
Theorem 7.8. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Letc1 , c2 , ..., cn ∈ R.
Then the set I = r1 c1 + · · · + rn cn | r1 , ..., rn ∈ R is an ideal of R.
Proof. (Left as exercise) Similar to proof of Theorem 6.5
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not
7.1. Ideals and Quotient Rings
Theorem 7.9. Let I be an ideal in a ring R. If a + I = b + I and c + I = d + I in R/I ,
then (a + c) + I = (b + d) + I and ac + I = bd + I .
sG
Proof. (Disscussion)
Therefore we can dene addition in the set R/I by (a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I
and multiplication by (a + I)(b + I) = ab + I. So just as Zn and F [x]/(p(x)) were rings,
so is R/I . It is called the quotient ring or factor ring of R by I .It is easy to see that if R is
commutative, then so is R/I and if R has an identity, then so does R/I .
Theorem 7.10. Let R be a ring and let I be an ideal of R.
I is prime if whenever ab ∈ I then either a ∈ I orb ∈ I .
Then R/I is a domain if and only if I is prime.

7.2. RING HOMOMORPHISM CHAPTER 7. IDEALS AND RING HOMOMORPHISMS
Proof. Suppose that I is prime. Let x and y be two elements of R/I .
Then there are elements a and b of R such that x=a+I and y = b + I.
Suppose that xy = 0, but that x = 0, that is, suppose that a∈

/ I.
xy = (a + I)(b + I) = ab + I = 0. But then ab ∈ I and as I is prime, b ∈ I.
But then y = b + I = I = 0. Thus R/I is an domain.
Now suppose that R/I is a domain.
Let a and b be two elements of R such that ab ∈ I and
suppose that a∈
/ I. Let x = a + I, y = b + I . Then xy = ab + I = 0.
As x = 0, and R/I is an domain, y = 0.
But then b∈I and so I is prime.
es
not
Example 7.11. Let R = Z. Then every ideal in R has the form (n) = nZ .
It is not hard to see that I is prime i n is prime.
Denition 7.12. Let R be an integral domain and let a be a non-zero element of R.

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We say that a is prime, if
(a) is a prime ideal, not equal to the whole of R.
Note 7.13. the condition that (a) is not the whole of R is equivalent to requiring that a is not
a unit.
7.2. Ring Homomorphism
Denition 7.14. Let R be a ring. Then there is a unique ring homomorphismϕ : Z → R.
We say that the characteristic of R is n if the order of the image of ϕ is nite, equal to n;
otherwise the characteristic is 0.

Theorem 7.15. Let R be a domain of nite characteristic. Then the characteristic is prime.
Proof. Let ϕ: Z→R be a ring homomorphism.
Then ϕ(1) = 1. Note that Z is a cyclic group under addition.
Thus there is a unique map that sends 1 to 1 and is a group homomorphism.
Thus ϕ is certainly unique and it is not hard to check that in fact ϕ is a ring homomorphism.
Now suppose that R is an integral domain. Then the image of ϕ is an integral domain.
In particular the kernel I of ϕ is a prime ideal. Suppose that I = (p).
Then the image of ϕ is isomorphic to R/I and so the characteristic is equal to p.
Another, obviously equivalent, way to dene the characteristic n is to take the
minimum non-zero positive integer such that
es n1 = 0.
not
Example 7.16. The characteristic of Q is zero. Indeed the natural map Z → Q is an inclusion.
Thus every eld that contains Q has characteristic zero.
On the other hand Zp is a eld of characteristic p.

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Denition 7.17. Let I be an ideal. We say that I is maximal if for every ideal J,
such that I ⊂ J, either J =I or J = R.
Theorem 7.18. Let M be an ideal in R. M is a maximal ideal i R/M is a eld.
Proof. .(⇒)Assume M is maximal.
Then R/M is a commutative ring with identity . We have R/M 6= 0 sinceM 6= R.
Therefore0 6= 1 inR/M .
Finally we check for inverses. Leta +M be a nonzero element of R/M .
Thena ∈
/M and we build a bigger ideal I = ra + m|r ∈ R, m ∈ M .
(Check that this is an ideal.) Since a∈I and M is maximal, we must have I = R.

But then 1 ∈ I , so 1 = ra + m for somer ∈ R and m ∈ M .This means 1 + M = (r + M )(a + M ).
SinceR/M is commutative, this gives an inverse for a+M and so R/M is a eld.
(⇐)Now assume that R/M is a eld. Since 1 6= 0 in R/M , we have M 6= R.
Assume there is an ideal I such that M ⊆ I ⊆ R.
If I 6= M , let a ∈ I, a ∈
/ M.
Then a+M has an inverse u+M in R/M , so au + M = 1 + M .
In particular, au = 1 + m for some m∈

/ M.
Since m ∈ M ⊆ I, we have 1 = au − m ∈ I and so I = R.
Therefore M is maximal
es
Proposition 7.19. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R is a eld i the only ideals are {0}
not
and R.
Proof. We have already seen that if R is a eld, then R contains no non-trivial ideals.
Now suppose that R contains no non-trivial ideals and let a ∈ R.
Suppose that a = 0 and let I = (a). Then I = {0}. Thus I = R. But then 1∈I and so 1 = ba.
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Thus a is a unit and as a was arbitrary, R is a eld.
Theorem 7.20. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R/M is a eld i M is a maximal ideal.
Proof. Note that there is an obvious correspondence between the ideals of R/M and ideals of
that contain M. The result therefore follows immediately from (6.18).
Corollary 7.21. . Let R be a commutative ring. Then every maximal ideal is prime.

Proof. Clear as every eld is an integral domain.
Example. Let R=Z and let p be a prime. Then I = (p) is not only prime, but it is in fact
maximal.
Indeed the quotient is Zp
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8. Euclidean Rings.
Denition 8.1. An integral domain R is said to be a Euclidean ring if for everyx 6= 0 in R there
is dened a nonnegative integer d(x) such that:
(i) For all x and y in R, both nonzero, d(x) < d(xy).
(ii) For any x and y in R, both nonzero, there exist z and w in R such that x = zy + w
where either
Example 8.2. Z
w=0 or d(w) < d(y).
es
not
is clearly a Euclidean Ring with||n|| dened to be absolute value.
Denition 8.3. An integral domain R with unit element is a principal ideal ring if every ideal
in R
is a principal ideal;
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i.e., if every ideal A is of the form A = (x) for some x in R.
Note 8.4. If R is a commutative ring, a principal ideal is one of the form dR for some d ∈ R.
A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal.
Theorem 8.5. A Euclidean domain is a principal ideal domain.
Proof. (Class Discussion)
Note 8.6. Converse is not true.
Example 8.7. R- the set of real numbers
55
8.1. DIVISION ALGORITHM CHAPTER 8. EUCLIDEAN RINGS.
8.1. Division Algorithm
Theorem 8.8. 2 (Division Algorithm): If m, n are integers and n 6= 0
then there exists an integer q such that |m − nq| < |n|.
Proof. Case I: n > 0.
Let S= m − nq|q ∈ Z and let r be the least non-negative integer in S.
If r≥n then 0 < m − n(q + 1) = r − n < r, a contradiction.
Hencer < n.
Case II: n < 0. Then by case I,
there exists q∈Z such that |m − n(−q)| = |m − (−n)q| < |n|.
es
not
Example 8.9. : If m = −37 andn =6 we may write −37 = 6 ∗ (−6) − 1 in which case q = −6
and r = −1.
Alternatively −37 = 6 − (−7) + 5 in which case q = −7 and r=5
Denition 8.10. Let R be a commutative ring. The element 0 6= a ∈ R is said ti divide b ∈ R,

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written as a/b,
if there exist c such that b = ac.
Example 8.11. The following are examples:
1. If R = Z, this is the usual concept of divisibility.
2. If R = Z[i], then (2 + i)|(1 + 3i). Divide 1 +3i2 + i = (1 + 3i)(2 − i)(2 + i)(2 − i) =

2 + 3 + 6i − i5 = 1 + i ∈ Z[i].
3. . If R is a eld, e.g. R=Q or R, then for any a, b ∈ R,a 6= 0, we can write b = ac for
some c∈R by
taking c = a −1 b, so that a|b.

4. . If F is a eld, and R is a ring of polynomials R = F [x], then f (x)|g(x) if g(x) = f (x)h(x)
for some h ∈ F [x].
This is the usual notion of divisibility of polynomials.
Denition 8.12. Element u∈R is a unit (or an invertible element) if uv = 1 for unit some
v ∈ R,
i.e. there exists u−1 ∈ R.
Example 8.13. The following are examples of units
1. Z∗ = {±1}.
F ∗ = F − 0.
es
2. . Clearly, an integral domain F is a eld i
3. . Z[i]∗ = 1, −1, i, −i :Suppose that a + bi ∈ Z[i]∗ is a unit, so(a + bi)(c + di) =1 for some
not
c, d ∈ Z .
Then also (a − bi)(c − di) = 1.,so clearly a + bi ∈ 1, −1, i, −i.
Denition 8.14. An element r of an integral domain R is called irreducible if
(1)r ∈
/ R∗,
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(2) if r = ab, then a or b is a unit.
Note 8.15. An element r∈R is reducible if r = st for some s, t ∈ R where neither s nor t is a
unit.
Therefore r∈R is irreducible if it is not reducible and is not a unit.
Example. The irreducible elements in Z are ±p, where p is a prime number
Example. In R[x] the polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible. But in C[x], x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x − i), and
x + i, x − i are not units, hence x2 + 1 is reducible in C[x].
An irreducible element of a polynomial ring F [x], where F is a eld, is the same as the irreducible
polynomial.

Proposition 8.16. Elements a and b are associates in an integral domain R i (the following
are equivalent)
(1) a = bu for some u ∈ R∗ ,
(2) b = av for some v ∈ R∗ ,
(3) a|b and b|a,
(4) aR = bR.
Proof. (1) is the denition. Since a = bu implies b = au−1 with u−1 ∈ R∗,
(1) implies (2) and (3).
For (3) implies (1), consider b = sa for some s∈R and a = tb for some t ∈ R.
Then by the cancellation property, if
If a=0 then b=0 and clearly a and b
es
a 6= 0 we have that
are associates.
ts = 1.
not
Otherwise t, s are units, hence again a and b are associates.
Denition 8.17. An integral domain R is called a unique factorization domain (UFD) if the
following hold:
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(1) Every non-zero element of R is either unit or a product of nitely many irreducibles.
(2) If a1 · · · am = b 1 · · · b n , where the ai , bj are irreducibles, then n=m and after reordering of
factors,
ai and bi are associates for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Proposition 8.18. Let R be a UFD. If p is irreducible and p|ab thenp|a or p|b.
Theorem 8.19. Element α ∈ F is a root of f (x) ∈ F [x] if and only if (x − α) divides f (x).

Proof. If (x − α) divides f (x), then f (x) = (x − α)b(x), hence f (α) = (α − α)b(α) = 0.
Conversely, suppose f (α) = 0 and write f (x) = q(x)(x − α) + r(x).
Clearly degr(x) < deg(x − α) = 1 and hence degr(x) = 0,
i.e. r(x) = r ∈ F . This implies 0 = f (α) = q(α) · 0 + r, that isr = 0.
Theorem 8.20. Let ,f (x) ∈ F [x] where F is a eld and degf (x) = n ≥ 1.
Then f (x) has at most n roots in F .
Proof. By induction on n If n = 1, then f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0,
hence f (x) has only one root, namely
es
−b
a
Now suppose that the statement is true for all degrees up to

.
n − 1.
not
If f (x) has no roots in F, we are done.
Otherwise,f (x) has at least one root, say α. Writef (x) = (x − α)g(x) by the induction assump-
tion,
g(x)has at most n−1 roots.
Finally, if β is a root of f (x), i.e.f (β) = 0, then0 = f (β) = (β − α)g(β).

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If β − α 6= 0, theng(β) =0 since F has no zero divisors.
Thus f (x) has at most 1 + (n − 1) = n roots.
Example. . The polynomial x6 − 1 ∈ Q[x] has only two roots in Q, namely 1 and −1.
2. The polynomial x6 − 1 ∈ C[x] has 6 roots in C.

9. Division Rings
Denition 9.1. Suppose F ⊂K are elds. An element α ∈K is called algebraic over F if
there exists a non-zero polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] such that f (α) = 0.
√ √
Example 9.2. Numbers » 2, 33, − 1 ∈ C are algebraic over Q with corresponding polyno-
mials
x2 − 2, x3 − 3, x2 + 1.
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Proposition 9.3. Suppose F ⊂ K are elds, α ∈ K is algebraic over F . Then
(1) there exists an irreducible polynomial p(x) ∈ F [x] such that p(α) = 0,
(2) if f (x) ∈ F [x], f (α) = 0, then p(x)|f (x).
Proof. Take p(x) to be a polynomial of the least degree such that p(α) = 0.
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Suppose then p(x) = a(x)b(x) where a(x), b(x) are not units,
i.e. dega(x) ≥ 1, degb(x) ≥ 1.
Now 0 = a(α)b(α) and hence α is a root of polynomial of degree less than degp(x), a contra-
diction.
So p(x) is irreducible.
(2) Write f(x) = q(x)p(x) + r(x), where p(x) is from part (1).
If r(x) is the zero polynomial, we are done.
Otherwise, degr(x) < degp(x). But 0 = f (α) = q(α)p(α) + r(α) implies r(α) = 0.
This contradicts the minimality of degp(x). Hencef (x) = q(x)p(x).
60
CHAPTER 9. DIVISION RINGS
Corollary 9.4. If F ⊂ K are elds, α ∈ K algebraic over F , then there exists a unique
irreducible monic polynomial p(x) ∈ F [x] such that p(α) = 0.
Proof. Consider p(x) dened as in Proposition 8.3 and divide it by its highest degree coecient.
Then p(x) is irreducible, monic and p(α) = 0.
If p1 (x) is another monic, irreducible polynomial with p1 (α) = 0, then degp(x) = degp1 (x).
Then either p and p1 coincide, or p(x) − p1 (x) is a nonzero polynomial.
If p(x) − p1 (x) is a non-zero polynomial, it vanishes at α and deg(p(x) − p1 (x)) < degp(x), a
contradiction.
Theorem 9.5.
at least 1.
es
(Gauss's Lemma). Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coecients of degree
not
If f (x) is irreducible in Z[x], then f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].

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Theorem 9.6. (Eisenstein's irreducibility cirterion). Let f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 , ai ∈ Z

for all i ∈ 0, 1, ..., n.
If a prime p does not divide an , but p divides an−1 , ..., a1 , a0 and p2 does not divide a0 ,
then f (x) is irreducible over Q.
Example 9.7. Polynomial x7 − 2 is irreducible in Q (choose p=2 in the criterion) and the
polynomial
x7 − 3x4 + 12 is also irreducible in Q (choose p = 3).

Part III.
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FIELDS
not
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62
10. Field Extensions
Denition 10.1. If F ⊂K are elds, then K is an extension of F.
√
Example 10.2. Fields R and Q( 2) are extensions of Q.
Proposition 10.3. If K is an extension of a eld F, then K is a vector space over F .
es
Proof. Recall that a vector space is an abelian group under addition where we can multiply
not
elements by the
elements of F.
The axioms of a vector eld are: for all λ, µ ∈ F , v1 , v2 ∈ K ,
(1) λ(v1 + v2 ) = λv1 + λv2 ,
(2) (λ + µ)v1 = λv1 + µv1 ,

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(3) λµv1 = λ(µv1 ),
(4) 1v1 = v1 .
All of these clearly hold.
Denition 10.4. Let K be an extension of F. The degree of K over F is dimF (K)degree.
Denote this by[K : F ]. If [K : F ] is nite, we call K a nite extension over F.
Example 10.5. Let F = R, K = C = x + iy|x, y ∈ R, so dimR(C) = 2 and 1, i is a basis of C.
So [C : R] = 2.
63
CHAPTER 10. FIELD EXTENSIONS
√
Example 10.6. Find [Q( 3 2) : Q].
√
3
√
3
2 √
We claim that 1, 2, 2 is a basis of Q( 3 2).
√
Indeed, since otherwise these three elements are linearly dependent (they clearly span Q( 3 2)),
√ √
i.e. we can nd b0 , b1 , b2 ∈ Q not all zero, such that b0 + b1 3 2 + b2 ( 3 2)2 = 0.
√
But the minimal polynomial of
3
2 is x3 − 2 because it is irreducible over Q (by the Eisenstein
Criterion).
√
Therefore [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
Theorem 10.7. Let F ⊂ K be a eld extension, α ∈ K . The minimal polynomial of α has

degree n
i [F (α) : F ] = n.
Proof. ⇒Suppose
es
the degree of minimal polynomial of α is n. We know that
not
F(α) = a0 + a1 α + · · · + an−1 αn−1 |ai ∈ F
. Hence 1, α, ..., αn−1 span F (α).
Let us show that 1, α, ..., αn−1 are linearly independent:
If not, there are b0 , ..., bn−1 ∈ F such that b1 + b1 α + · · · + bn−1 αn−1 = 0 and not all bi = 0
sG
. But then α is a root of the non-zero polynomial b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn−1 xn−1 ;
this contradicts our assumption.
⇐ Suppose [F (α) : F ] = n.
The elements 1, α, α2 , ..., αn−1 , αn ∈ F (α) are n+1 vectors in a vector space of dimension n.
Hence there exist ai ∈ F, i = 0, ..., n (not all ai = 0), such that a0 + a1 α + · · · + an αn = 0.
Therefore α is algebraic over F. Thus α has a minimal polynomial, say of degree m.
By the proof of ⇒, m = [F (α) : F ], so m = n.
Example 10.8. See the following :

1. x2 + 1is the minimal polynomial of i over R and [C : R] = 2.
√ √
2. . x2 − 2 is the minimal polynomial of 2 over Q and [Q( 2) : Q] = 2.
√ √
3. . x3 − 2 is the minimal polynomial of
3
2 over Q and [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
4. . x2 + x + 1 is the minimal polynomial of ω over Z/2 and [Z/2(ω) : Z/2] = 2.
√ √ √ √
Example 10.9. Let Q( 2, 3) be the smallest subeld of R containingQ, 2 and 3.
√ √ √ √
We have (Q( 2))( 3) = Q( 2, 3):
√ √ √ √
By previous results (Q( 2))( 3) = nα + β 3|α, β ∈ Q( 2) because
√ √
x2 − 3 is the minimal polynomial of 3 over Q( 2).
Also
√ √ √ √ √
es
(Q( 2))( 3) = na + b 2 + c 3 + d 6|a, b, c, d ∈ Q
not
Theorem 10.10. Let F ⊂ K ⊂ E be elds. Then [E : F ] = [E : K][K : F ].
Corollary 10.11. If F ⊂ K ⊂ E are elds and [E : F ] < ∞, then [K : F ] divides [E : F ] and

sG
[E : K] divides [E : F ].
Denition 10.12. The smallest positive integer n such that
1 + 1 + · · · + 1|{z} = 0
( n times ) is called the characteristic of the eld F. If there is no such n, then F has
characteristic 0.
Denote the characteristic of F by charF .
Note 10.13. For a∈F and n ∈ N, we denote by (n × a) the sum (n × a) = a + a + · · · + a|{z}

(n times) .

Proposition 10.14. Let F be a eld. Then (with p a prime number)
(1) char(F ) = 0 or char(F ) = p,
(2) if char(F ) = 0, then if x ∈ F ,x 6= 0, then(k × x) f or k ∈ N {0} is never zero,
(3) if char(F ) = p, then (p × x) = 0 for any x ∈ F .
Proof. (1) Let ,n > 0, n ∈ Z be the characteristic of F. Then (n × 1) = 0.
If n is not prime, then n = ab for a, b ∈ Z, 0 < a, b < n, and
so 0 = (a × 1)(b × 1). But then (a × 1) = 0 or (b × 1) = 0.
This is a contradiction since a, b < n.
(2) If char(F ) = 0 and (n × x) = x(n × 1) = 0
then x = 0or(n × 1) = 0, so x = 0.
es
not
(3) If char(F ) = p, p prime, then for any x ∈ F, (p × x) = (p × 1)x = 0x = 0.
sG

11. Questions.
11.1. Groups
1. Let M be a subset of H. Given that (M, +) is a group, write the element(s) of M.
2. a) State a necessary and sucient condition for a subset H to be a subgroup of a group
(G, ·)
b) Let
under the same operation
H = {kn : n ∈ Z},
es · .
where k is xed. Prove that (H, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +).

not
3. Let (G, ·) be a group and H = {g −1 : g ∈ G}. Prove that
a) H is a subgroup of G.
b) H is a normal subgroup of G.
8,
sG
c) Find all subgroups of the dihedral group of order and calculate also all left and
right cosets of those subgroups. Which subgroups are normal subgroups?
4. Let G be a set with a binary operation ∗, associating to each pair of elements x and
y of G a third element x ∗ y of G. Suppose that the following properties are satised:
(x ∗ y) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z) for all elements x, y , and z of G (the Associative Law); there
exists an element e of G such that e∗x = x for all elements x of G; for each element
x of G there exists an element x0 of G satisfying x0 ∗ x = e. Prove thatG is a group with
respect to this binary operation. [Thus you must show that x∗e = x and x ∗ x0 = e for
all x ∈ G.]
5. Prove that a non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if xy −1 ∈ H

for all x∈H and y ∈ H.
67
11.1. GROUPS CHAPTER 11. QUESTIONS.
6. Let G be a group. Prove that any subgroup N of index 2 in G is a normal subgroup of
G.
7. Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Show that the function mapping G onto
itself that sends g∈G to g −1 induces a bijection from the set of left cosets of H in G to
the set of right cosets of H in G. Hence show that the number of left cosets of H is equal
to number of right cosets of H, if either of these numbers is nite.
8. Show that Inn(G) ∼

= G/Z(G), where Z(G) denotes the center of G. (Hint: Use the First
Isomorphism Theorem.)
9. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 +x3 x4 , where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ∈
R.
es
not
sG

11.2. RINGS CHAPTER 11. QUESTIONS.
11.2. Rings
1. Find the GCD of the following
a) (51, 192)
b) (20, 500)
c) (x6 + 7x5 + 3x3 + 21x2 + 7x + 49, x3 + 3x2 − 27x + 7)
d) 26 − 13i and 17 + 7i
2. Give an example of each of the following.
(a) An irreducible polynomial of degree 3 in Z3 [x].

(b) A polynomial in Z[x] that is not irreducible in Z[x] but is irreducible in Q[x].
(d) A ring with exactly 6
es
(c) A non-commutative ring of characteristicp, p a prime.
invertible elements.
not
(e) An innite non-commutative ring with only nitely many ideals.
3. Show that a non-zero ring R in which x2 = x for all x∈R is of characteristic 2 and is
commutative.
4. Determine for which integers n the ring Z/nZ is a direct sum of elds. Prove your answer.
sG
5. Let R be a nite commutative ring with more than one element and no zero-divisors.
Show that R is a eld.
6. Show that if p is a prime such that p ≡ 1(mod4), then x2 + 1 is not irreducible in Zp [x].
7. Let R be a non-zero commutative ring with 1. Show that an ideal M of R is maximal if
and only if R/M is a eld.**
8. Let R be a non-zero ring with identity. Show that every proper ideal of R is contained in
a maximal ideal.

11.2. RINGS CHAPTER 11. QUESTIONS.
9. Is x2 + 1 irreducible over Q?
10. Is x2 − 1 irreducible over Q?
es
not
sG

Part IV.
es
Appendix
not
sG
71
FREQUENTLY USED NOTATION
Set theory notation:
Z the set of all integers.
N the set of natural numbers.
R the set of rational numbers.
R2 the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers, e.g. (−4, 7)
R3 the set of all ordered triplets of real numbers, e.g. (1, 2, 3)
Rn the set of all ordered n-tuplets of real numbers. (n1 , n2 , . . . nn )
x∈S x is an element of the set S .
Formal logic notation:
es
not
∀ for all
∃ there exists
: or | such that
=⇒ implies
sG
⇐⇒ is logically equivalent to
∝ is proportional to
∼
= is isomorphic to

YouTube Videos:
For First Session:
+ Binary Operations by Christina Carter. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OJPC9AVYJEg
+ Denition of a Group (Abstract Algebra 1) from learnifyable.
+ Abstract Algebra: The Denition of a Group from Socratica.
For Second Session:
+ Symmetric Groups (Abstract Algebra) from Socratica.
+ Symmetric groups by CBlissMath.
+ Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra) Made Easy - Part 6 - Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem by
es
scalenescott.
For Third Session:

not
+ Group Theory 40, Normal Subgroups and Factor groups, examples by LadislauFernandes.
+ Group Theory 41 Normal Subgroups (again) by LadislauFernandes.
+ Homomorphisms (Abstract Algebra) by Socratica.
+ Isomorphisms (Abstract Algebra) by Socratica.
For Fourth Session:

sG
+ Abstract Algebra: The denition of a Ring by Socratica.

11.3. MATHEMATICAL PROOFS
We will assume the following information below is known -
Translation please go through and familiarise yourself with it.
11.3. Mathematical Proofs
What is a proof ?
A proof is just a logical explanation of a theorem. A formal proof of a statement is a
logical argument that establishes the truth of the statement based upon other already proven
statements or axioms.
If P and Q are statements, then we have.
Statement Notation
not
es
or
P
Q
¬P
W
P Q
V
not
P and Q P Q
If P then Q P =⇒ Q
P if and only if Q P ⇐⇒ Q
The statement P ∩ Q is true if and only if both P and Q are true. The statement P ∪ Q is
true if and only if at least one of the statements P, Q is true. This is what we call the inclusive
sG
or as opposed to the exclusive or that we use in everyday's life.
For example, the statement: 'We will have class in the morning or in the afternoon' means
in real life that only one of the alternatives will take places (exclusive or). In mathematics
however, this includes the possibility that we will have class in the morning as well as in the
afternoon (inclusive or).
P ⇒Q is considered to be false only in the case that P is true and Q is false. Otherwise it is
true. This is also in contrast to the plain English. For example, a statement like: 'If it rains
now then 2 is a prime number' is mathematically true, despite the fact that there is no relation
between the two parts of the statement, and regardless of whether the rst part is true or not.
The statement P ⇐⇒ Q is true if and only if P and Q have the same truth values. We also
say that P and Q are equivalent.
Finally, ¬P is true if and only if P is false.

We use these logic statements when constructing a proof.
es
not
sG

11.3.1. The if-then statement
Consider an if-then statement:
If (we assume that) A is true, then B follows.
For example: If an integer n is divisible by 6, then n must be even.
You may nd it useful at rst to separate such a statement into background assumptions, the
'if ' assumptions, and the 'then' conclusions.
Specically:
+ Background assumptions: n is an integer.
n 6
es
+ If: is divisible by
+ Then: n is even.
not
Note 11.1. The background assumptions are just as important as the 'if ' assumptions.
+ Carefully write out all assumptions (the 'if ' part) at the beginning of the proof. Usually
this involves expanding what's written in the assumptions using the denitions of the
terms that appear there.

sG
+ Write out the conclusion of the theorem (the 'then') at the end of the proof, and expand
it using denitions as well. This is what we want to show follows from our assumptions.
+ The point of the proof is now to show that, given the assumptions, logical deduction leads
to the conclusion.
+ One of the best ways to do this is to work forward logically from the assumptions (think:
what follows from the 'if ' ?) and backwards from the conclusion (think: what would imply
the 'then' ?) until you meet in the middle.

Example 11.2. The assumptions of the theorem are: n is an integer divisible by 6. By the
denition of divisibility of integers, this means that n = 6d for some integer d.
The conclusion of the theorem says: n is even. By the denition of even, that is the same
as saying that n is divisible by 2. By the denition of divisibility, this means that we want to
show thatn = 2r for some integer r.
So now, we want to assume that n = 6d for some integer d, and then somehow deduce that
n = 2r for some integer r. However, if we know that n = 6d, then after a while, we might see
that n = 2(3d), which means that n = 2r holds for r = 3d. We therefore obtain the following
proof:
Proof. Assume that n = 6d.

Therefore, n = 2(3d).
So, if we let
we see that
r = 3d,
n = 2r for an integer r,
es
not
which means that n is even.
11.3.2. If and only if statements
A if and only if B
sG
Note: This statement may also be written in dierent forms (See Notes on Logics).
Proof Structure:
Proof: Assume A
.
.
.
Hence B
Conversely, Assume B
.
.
.
Hence A

11.4. METHODS OF PROOF:
11.4. Methods of Proof:
In a direct proof , the rst thing that you do is explicitly assume that the hypothesis is true for
your selected variable, then use this assumption with denitions and previously proven results
to show that the conclusion must be true.
11.4.1. Direct Proof Walkthrough:
Theorem 11.3. If x, y are integers and x and y are both odd, then x + y is even.
Proof. Since x and y are both odd,
we have that x = 2a + 1 and y = 2b + 1 for some integers a, b.
es
Consider
x + y = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) = 2a + 2b + 2 = 2(a + b + 1) = 2k
k a + b + 1.
not
where is the integer
By denition we have that x+y is even.
Theorem 11.4. Let A and B be two sets. If A ∪ B = A ∩ B then A ⊆ B .

sG
T
Proof. Assume that A∪B =A B.
We shall prove that x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B, which by denition is equivalent to the consequence of
the theorem.
Assume that x ∈ A. Since A ⊆ A ∪ B, then x ∈ A ∪ B.
We assumed that A ∪ B = A ∩ B, so x ∈ A ∩ B.
Finally, A ∩ B ⊆ B, so consequently, x ∈ B.
Notice this is a formal proof and not a proof using set theory and that we did not end
the proof with the consequence of the theorem, but rather with a statement that suces to imply
the theorem by our earlier understanding. Here also we used implicitly some denitions from
set theory, like (x ∈ D) (D ⊆ C) ⇒ (x ∈ C).
V

11.4.2. Proof by Contrapositive
In a proof by contrapositive , you explicitly assume that the conclusion is false for your variable,
then use this assumption, plus denitions and proven results, to show that the hypothesis must
be false for your chosen variable.
Remember that the contrapositive of an implication is logically equivalent to the original im-
plication, so this is an indirect method for showing that the original implication is true. This
method should be used when the negative of a denition in your implication is easier to work
with than what is given.
A good example is linear dependence, which only means that a set is not linearly independent.
If you use the contrapositive, you are working with linear independence, which is a set denition
with many theorems tied to it, making it much easier to work with.
Proof by Contrapositive Walkthrough:
es
not
Restate the original statement to be as follows:
If x+y is odd, then x and y are not both odd:
Consider x + y = 2n + 1 by denition of odd for some integer n.
Then we have that x = (2n + 1) − y .

sG
We will now consider the possible cases for y.
Case 1. If y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of two odd numbers
is (2n + 1) − (2m + 1) = 2(n + m) which makes x even.
Case 2. If y is even then y = 2a for some integer a and the dierence x = (2n + 1) − 2a =
2(n + a) + 1 is odd.
Therefore we have proved the contrapositive statement is valid and so the original statement is
also true.

11.4.3. Proof by contradiction

In a proof by contradiction , the rst thing that you do is explicitly assume that the implication
is false; that is, you assume that the hypothesis is true but the conclusion is false for your
selected variable.
Then use both of these assumptions to arrive at a contradiction of some other proven result.
Because you know the other proven result must be true, you must conclude that your original
assumption that the conclusion was false was incorrect; in other words, you are indirectly
proving that the original implication is true by showing that it cannot possibly be false. Proofs
by contradiction are useful for showing that something is impossible and for proving the converse
of already proven results. Proofs by contradiction can be somewhat more complicated than
es
direct proofs, because the contradiction you will use to prove the result is not always apparent
from the proof statement itself.

not
Proof by Contradiction Walkthrough:
Restate the original to be that x and y are odd integers and x+y is also odd.
We have that x + y = 2n + 1 by denition of odd for some integer n.
Then we have that x = (2n + 1) − y .

sG
Given that y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of the two odd
numbers is (2n + 1) − (2m + 1) = 2(n + m) which makes x even.
But this contradicts that both x and y are odd.
Therefore the original statement must be true, and if x, y are integers and x and y are both
odd, then x+y is even.
Things to remember when writing a proof:
1. A proof must always begin with an initial statement of what it is you intend to
prove. It should be self-contained, in that it denes all variables that appear in it. After
you have written what it is you are proving, you should begin the proof itself with the
notation Proof: or Pf:.

2. Always introduce your variables. The rst time a variable appears, whether in the
initial statement of what you are proving or in the body of the proof, you must state what
kind of variable it is (for example, a scalar, an integer, a vector, a matrix), and whether
it is universally or existentially quantied. For example, "there exists some k∈Z such
that . . . " or "for any a∈A . Note that if you write "let a∈A ," you are implying that
what follows is true for anya ∈ A.
3. If asked to disprove a statement, then the method of counterexample may be used. Ho-
wever, please note that if asked to prove a statement involving for all integers, then the
counterexample method is not suitable, in general a counterexample would only apply to
a single integer n.
4. Your proof should follow logically.
es
5. Now that you have your universally quantied implication, there are three common stra-
tegies for proving the implication is true and only one for proving it is false; these are
not
outlined here. Note that direct proofs are preferred whenever possible, and that direct
proofs and proofs by contrapositive are far more common than proofs by contradiction.
6. At the end of your proof, one of the following must be placed to indicate the end of the
00
proof: 00 , or Q.E.D..
Exercise 11.5.
sG
1. Prove that if a is an integer, then a is not evenly divisible by 3 if, and only if, a2 − 1 is
evenly divisble by 3.
2. Prove if x and y are two integers for which x+y is even, then x and y have the same parity.
3. If a divides b and b divides c then a divides c.
4. The sum of any even integer and any odd integer is odd.
5. If a, b are integers, The product is odd if and only if a and b are both odd.

End of sG notes 2017. Thank you for participating. All the best in your exams and academic career.
Regards,
The sG Team.
es
not
sG

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Abstract Study Group (sG) Notes (August 2017)

1.2. Cyclic Groups (Self Study) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2. Permutations and Symmetric Groups

3. Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem 27

3.2. Lagrange's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4. Normal Subgroups & Quotient Gp. 31

4.1. Normal Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.2. Quotient Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5. Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 35

5.1. Ordered pairs and Direct Product. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

6.2. Integral Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7. Ideals and Ring Homomorphisms 48

7.0.1. Principal ideals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

7.1. Ideals and Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

7.2. Ring Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

8.1. Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

11.3.1. The if-then statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

11.3.2. If and only if statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

11.4. Methods of Proof: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

11.4.1. Direct Proof Walkthrough: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

11.4.2. Proof by Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

11.4.3. Proof by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

past facilitators of the Abstract Study Group:

which I was a participant o - Thank you.

The mathematical sciences

particularly exhibit order,

symmetry, and limitation; and

these are the greatest forms of beauty.

4 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

In modern algebra we study three basic algebraic structures, namely,

1. groups 2. rings 3. elds.

The study of groups is referred to as group theory.

Why learn group theory?

symmetric to anything which stays invariant under some transformations.

+ Ignite the ablity of its participants to think in an abstract manner.

+ Expose its participants to Group Theory and what is a Ring.

6 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

Start with the proof that:

Question 0.1. Suppose f : A → B , g : B → C , and g ◦ f : A→ C are functions. Prove that:

1. If f and g are injective, then g ◦ f is injective

2. If f and g are surjective, then g ◦ f is surjective.

1. Suppose f and g are injective.

Let x, y ∈ A such that (g ◦ f ) (x) = (g ◦ f ) (y),

⇒ g(f (x)) = g(f (y))

⇒ f (x) = f (y). ∵ ( injectivity of g )

2. Suppose f and g are surjective.

By surjectivity of g, there exist y∈B such that g(y) = z.

Again, by surjectivity of f, there exist some x∈A such that f (x) = y.

Thus, (g ◦ f ) (x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) = z.

We have proven that every z∈C has a pre-image in A via (g ◦ f ).

3. This is a direct consequence of 1. and 2.

8 (2017) Abstract Study Group (sG)

1. Closure: For all a, b ∈ G =⇒ a· b ∈ G

2. Associativity : For all a, b, c ∈ G =⇒ a · (b · c) = (a· b)· c

3. Identity : There exists an element

4. Inverse : For each element

ese∈G such that e·a=a·e=a for all a∈G

a ∈ G there exists an element a−1 such that a·a−1 = a−1 ·a = e.

+ Also, the normal rules for an = a + a + a + . . . + a ( n times) if the operation is addition.

+ 1 or e may be used to denote the idenity element of a group.

+ a · a−1 may also be written as aa−1 .

called the trivial group.

which I was a participant o - Thank you.

The mathematical sciences

these are the greatest forms of beauty.

1. groups 2. rings 3. elds.

+ Expose its participants to Group Theory and what is a Ring.

Denition 1.2. A group G is said to be abelian or commutative i the binary operation · is

A group is said to be nite if |G|is nite, and innite if |G| is innite.

satises xx−1 = e and x−1 x = e.

If z is any element of G which satises xz = e (right inverse ) then

Similarly if w is any element of G which satises wx = e (left inverse ) then w = x−1 .

Denition 1.10. A subgroup H of G is said to be proper if H is a proper subset of G.

Theorem 1.15. Let G be a group and H a nite non-empty subset of G.

Below is extra notes for students to go through as they see t.