Nuclear burning in late hydrostatic phases and in different explosive scenarios proceeds at high

temperatures and densities. This leads to equilibrium between forward and reverse reactions, e.g.,
capture and photodisintegration. It gives rise to equilibrium abundances depending only on the supply
of free neutrons and protons and on certain nuclear properties. High temperatures favor the creation of
light nuclei because photodisintegration processes dominate. High densities lead to heavy nuclei, and
intermediate conditions yield the highest abundances for nuclei with high binding energies. Such an
equilibrium can be established within a group of nuclear species where individual reactions link different
groups. This is called quasi-statistical equilibrium (QSE). The full nuclear statistical equilibrium (NSE) is
reached when all nuclei are equilibrated.

In the following, the different burning stages will be described one by one, starting with hydrogen
burning, being the first burning stage of every star.

In hydrogen burning, occurring in the cores of main-sequence stars like our Sun, ordinary hydrogen
nuclei (i.e., protons) are burnt through a chain or cycle of nuclear reactions into 4He nuclei. In this stellar
plasma there are two processes burning hydrogen: the proton–proton chain (pp-chain) (>Fig. 12.10) and
the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen (CNO)-cycle

12.4.2

Partículas alfa (núcleos de He totalmente ionizados) con bajo poder de penetración y alto poder de
ionización. Dado que las partículas alfa son muy másicas viajan a una velocidad menos que las
radiaciones beta o gamma, por lo tanto su capacidad de penetración en la materia es muy baja,
presentando una elevada pérdida de energía por unidad de longitud recorrida. No pueden recorrer más
de un par de centímetros en el aire, además no pueden penetrar el papel.

Alpha particles: these particles have a low penetration power and high ionization power. The alpha
particles are very massive, they travel at a speed less than the beta and gamma radiations, therefore
their penetration capacity in matter is very low, presenting a high energy loss per unit of length traveled.
They can´t travel more than a few centimeters in the air and they can´t penetrate the paper.

Partículas beta, son electrones de carga negativa lanzados a altas velocidades desde un núcleo
inestable, debido a su menor masa en comparación con las partículas alfa producen menor energía y por
lo tanto menor poder de ionización que las alfa pero con un mayor poder de penetración, esto se debe a
que viajan a una velocidad cercana a la de la luz, esta condición les permite atravesar la malla de núcleos
y electrones de algunas clases de materia. Se detiene en algunos metros de aire y puede ser frenada por
una lamina de aluminio.

Beta particles: these particles are negative charged electrons released at high speeds from an unstable
nucleus, due to their lower mass compared to alpha particles, these particles have lower ionization
power tan alpha, but with a greater penetration power. These particles have a high penetration because
they travel with the close speed of light, this conditions allows them to penetrate in matter. Beta
particles stops in a few maters of air and they can´t penetrate the aluminum sheet.
Radiación gamma son fotones con alta energía de origen nuclear, presenta un poder de ionización
relativamente bajo y una capacidad de penetración alta. Para detenerla se hace preciso utilizar barreras
de materiales densos como el plomo y el hormigón.

Gamma radiation are photons with high energy of nuclear origin, these particles have low ionization
power and high penetration capacity. Gamma radiation stops with barriers of dense materials such as
lead and concrete.