Aggregates occupy at least three quarters of volume of concrete.

Therefore its quality is especially

important. Aggregate is cheaper than the cement, and it is economical to put into the mix as much as
possible. Economy is not only reason for using aggregates: but it has a higher volume stability and better
durability than the cement paste alone.

General Classification of Aggregates

a) According to Production Methods:

1) Natural Aggregates:
These are taken from native deposits without any change in their natural states during production except for
crushing, grading or washing.
Example: sand, gravel, crushed stone, lime rock.

2) By-Product Aggregates:
Comprise blast-furnace slags and cinders, fly ash, etc. Cinders are residue of coal or wood after burning.

3) Processed Aggregates:
These are heat treated, expanded materials with lightweight characteristics.
Example: Perlite, burnt clays, shales, processed fly ash.

4) Colored Aggregates:
Glass, ceramics, manufactured marble for decorative and architectural purposes.

b) According to Petrological Characteristics:

1) Igneous Rocks:
Solidification of molten lava forms igneous rocks. If cooling is slow crystalline structure, if cooling is rapid
amorphous structure forms.
Example: Quartz, granite, basalt, obsidian, pumice, tuff.

2) Sedimentary Rocks:
Obtained by the deposition of weathered and transported pre-existing rocks.
Example: Sandstone, limestone, shale.
If these are hard and dense, OK. If not, high absorption capacity gives unsatisfactory results.

3) Metamorphic Rocks:
Formed at a depth under high heat and pressure by the alterations of either igneous rocks or sedimentary
rocks.
Example: Marble, slate, schist.
If hard and dense, OK.
If laminated, undesirable.

c) According to Particle Size

In producing good quality concrete, the aggregates should be grouped at least in two groups. Therefore,
according to the size of aggregate particles, it (generally) can be classified as:
1) Fine Aggregate (sand):
Fine aggregate includes the particles that all passes through 4.75 mm sieve and retain on 0.075 mm sieve.

2) Coarse Aggregate (gravel):

Coarse aggregate includes the particles that retain on 4.75 mm sieve. Aggregate particles with sizes 0.002-
0.075 mm is called as silt and particles smaller than that known as clay.

d) According to Their Unit Weights:

1) Normal Weight Aggregates:
Sand, gravel, crushed stone is called as normal weight aggregates. Concrete produced by these aggregates
3
weighs from 2160 to 2560 kg/m .

2) Light Weight Aggregates:

Lightweight aggregates are slag, slate and other light stones that the concrete produced by them weighs
3
from 240 to 1440 kg/m . This concrete is normally used for insulation purposes.

3) Heavy Weight Aggregates:

Hemotile, barite magnetite, steel and iron punchings are used to make heavy weight
3
concrete that weighs from 2800 to 6400 kg/m .
Particles Shape and Texture:
The shape and texture of the surface of aggregate particles influence the properties of fresh concrete, more
than those of hardened concrete. Sharp, angular and rough aggregate particles require more paste to make
good concrete, than the rounded ones.

Mechanical Properties of Aggregates

Bond of Aggregate
Bond between aggregate and cement paste is an important factor in the strength of concrete, especially the
flexural strength (bending strength) is very related. Bond is due, in part, to the interlocking of the aggregate
and the paste owing to the roughness of the surface of the former. A rough surface, such as that of crushed
particles, results in a better bond; better bond is also usually obtained with softer, porous and
mineralogically heterogeneous particles.

Strength of Aggregate
It is obvious that the compressive strength of concrete cannot significantly exceed the compressive strength
of aggregate contained, although it is not easy to state what is the strength of the individual particles.
Indeed, the crushing strength of aggregate cannot be tested with any direct test. There are some indirect
tests to inform us about the crushing strength of aggregate.
One of the indirect test to have information about the crushing strength of aggregate is "crushing value
test". There is no explicit relation between this crushing value and the compressive strength, but the results
of the two tests are in agreement.
Other Mechanical Properties of Aggregates:
a) Impact value: Impact value of aggregates measures the toughness of particles by impact.
b) Abrasion: Abrasion of aggregates measures the resistance of aggregates against wearing.
It is an important property of concrete in roads and in floor surfaces subjected to heavy traffic.

Physical Properties
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of an aggregate is a characteristic of the material, which needs to be determined in
making calculations of mix design of concrete. There are several types of specific gravities:
Bulk Density
Absolute density (or specific weight) refers to the volume of the individual particles only and of course it is
not physically possible to pack these particles so that there are no voids between them. When aggregate is
to be actually batched by volume it is necessary to know the weight of aggregate that would fill a container
of unit volume. This is known as the bulk density of aggregate and this density is used to convert quantities
by weight to quantities by volume.
The bulk density depends on how dense the aggregate is packed. For a coarse aggregate of given specific
gravity, a higher bulk density means there are fewer voids to be filled by sand, and cement and the bulk
density test has at one time been used as a basis of proportioning of mixes.
Bulk density is determined in two ways as, compacted or uncompacted. Therefore the test to which basis is
applied should be given.
Empty space between the aggregate particles are termed VOIDS. It is the difference
between the gross volume of aggregate mass and volume occupied by the particles
alone.

Voids ratio indicates the volume of mortar required to fill the space between the
coarse aggregate particles
Porosity and Absorption of Aggregates
The porosity of aggregate, its permeability, and absorption influence the bonding between aggregate and
cement paste, the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing and resistance to abrasion.
When all the pores in the aggregate are full it is said to be saturated. If just the surface of aggregate is dry
then it is said saturated-surface-dry. If the aggregate in saturated surface dry condition allowed to stand free
in dry air, some water from pores will evaporate and it is said to be air dry condition. The water absorption
of aggregate is determined by measuring the increase in weight of an oven-dried sample when immersed in
water, for 24 hours. (The surface water being removed). The ratio of the increase in weight to the weight of
dry sample, expressed as a percentage is termed absorption.
Although there is no clear-cut relation between the strength of concrete and the water absorption of
aggregate used, the pores at the surface of the particle affect the bond between the aggregate and the
cement paste, and thus may exert some influence on the strength of concrete.
Normally, it is assumed that at the time of setting of concrete the aggregate is in a saturated-surface-dry
condition. If the aggregate is batched in a dry condition it is assumed that sufficient water will be absorbed
from the mix to bring the aggregate to a saturated-surface-dry condition, and this absorbed water is not
included in the net mixing water. It is possible, however, that, when dry aggregate is used the particles
become quickly coated with cement paste which prevents further ingress of water necessary for saturation.

Moisture Content of Aggregate

Objective

For determination of the moisture content of soil by oven drying method.

Equipment’s & Accessories

Oven (1050C to 1100C min.)

Metal container

Balance (0.01 g accuracy)

Procedure

The number of the container is recorded, cleaned, dried and weighed.(W1)

About 15-30 g of soil is placed in the container and the weight of soil with the sample is
recorded.(W2)

The can with the soil is placed in oven for 24hours maintained at a temperature 1050 to 1100C.

After drying the container is removed from the oven and allowed to cool at room temperature.
After cooling the soil with container is weighed.(W3)

Calculation

4.5.5 Deleterious Substances in Aggregates

a) Organic Impurities:
The organic matter found in aggregate consists of products of decay of vegetable matter. The organic
impurities may interfere with the process of hydration of cement. This affects the rate of gaining strength.
b) Clay and Other Fine Materials:
Clay may be present in aggregate in the form of surface coatings which interfere with the bond between
aggregate and the cement paste. This is an important problem and affects the strength and durability of
concrete.
Other types of fine material that can present in aggregate are silt and crusher dust. Silt and crusher dust also
adversely affect the bond between cement paste and aggregates. BS 882: 1973 limits the content of all three
materials not more than the follows 15% by weight in crushed sand
3% by weight in natural or crushed gravel
1% by weight in coarse aggregate.
c) Salt Contamination:
Aggregates obtained from the seashore contain salt and have to be washed with fresh water. The aggregate
washed even with the sea water do not contain harmful quantities of salts.
If salt is not removed, it will absorb moisture from the air and cause efflorescence unsightly white deposits
on the surface of the concrete. A slight corrosion of reinforcement may also result, but this is not believed
to progress to a dangerous degree, especially when the concrete is of good quality and adequate cover to
reinforcement is provided.
d) Alkalinity of Aggregates:
Some reactive forms of silica such as opal may occur in some types of rocks, like siliceous limestone. The
reaction takes place between the siliceous minerals in the aggregate and the alkaline hydroxides derived
from the alkalis (Na O, K O) in the cement. The resulting gel tends to increase in volume in a humid
2 2
medium and causes cracking of concrete. In this case, it is recommended to control the limit of alkalis in
the cement.

SILT TEST
Objective
To determine quantity of silt in fine aggregates in the field
Theory
There are two types of harmful substances preset in fine aggregates i.e. organic matter produced by
decay of vegetable matter and/or clay and silt, which form coating thus preventing a good bond
between cement and the aggregates. If present in large quantities, result in the increase water-cement
ratio and finally affecting the strength of concrete.
Field test is generally conducted in order to determine the volumetric percentage of silt in natural sand
for percentage up to 6%, otherwise more detailed test as prescribed by standard code are required to
be conducted.
Apparatus
Measuring cylinder of 250 ml capacity.
Procedure
Fill 1% solution of common salt and water in the measuring cylinder up to 50 ml mark.
Now add sand to be tested to this solution till the level of the salt solution shows 100 ml mark.
Top up the level of salt solution up to 150 ml mark.
Shake the mixture of sand and salt solution well and keep it undisturbed for about 3 hours.
The silt being of finer particles than sand, will settle above the sand in a form of layer.
Measure the thickness of this silt layer.

SILT CONTENT = [ V1 / V2 ]*100 v1-silt level, v2-sand level.

If the average value of silt content exceeds 6% by volume, the aggregate requires washing before
use.

4.5.6 Soundness of Aggregate

This is the name given to the ability of aggregate to resist excessive changes in volume as a result of
changes of physical conditions.
Aggregate is said to be unsound when volume changes, induced by the freezing and thawing result in
deterioration of the concrete.

4.5.7 Sieve Analysis

Sieve analysis is the name of the operation of dividing a sample of aggregate into
fractions, each consisting of particles of the same size. In practice each fraction
contains particles between specific limits, these being the openings of standard test
sieves.

Table 4.3 Sieve American standards Nominal openings

designations British (inches) Sieves are used to be
standards described by the size of
(millimeters) opening for larger
75 3 in 3 openings and by the
37.5 1½ 1.5 number of openings for
20 ¾ 0.75 smaller sizes.
12.5 ½ 0.5 All sieves are mounted in
6.3 ¼ 0.25 frames, which can rest. It is
4.75 No 4 0.187 thus possible to place the
2.36 No 8 0.0937 sieves one above the other
1.18 No 16 0.0469 in order the size with the
0.600 No 30 0.0234 largest sieve at the top, and
0.300 No 50 0.0117 the material retained on
0.150 No 100 0.0059 each sieve after shaking
0.075 No 200 0.0029 represents the fraction of
aggregate coarser than the sieve in question but finer than the sieve above.
Before the sieve analysis is performed the aggregate sample has to be air dried in order to avoid lumps of
fine particles being classified as large particles and also to prevent clogging of the finer sieves.
The weights of the reduced samples for sieving are as given in Table 4.4.

Sieve Sizes (2) (3) (4) (5)

(mm) Weight Retained Percentage Cumulative Cumulative
(gr) Retained Percent Retained Percent
Passing

Column 1: Sieve sizes

Column 2: The weights retained on each sieve
Column 3: Percentage of retained weights on each sieve according to the total weight of the sample.
Column 4: Cumulative percentage retained starting from largest sieve to smallest one
Column 5: Cumulative percentage passing from each sieve. It is found by subtracting Column 4 values
from 100.

4.5.8 Grading Curves

The results of a sieve analysis can be graded much more easily if represented graphically, and for this
reason grading charts are very extensively used. By using a chart it is possible to see at a glance whether
the grading of a given sample conforms to that specified or is too coarse or too fine.
In the grading chart commonly used, the ordinates represent the cumulative percentage passing and the
abscissa the sieve opening plotted to a logarithmic scale.
4.5.9 Fineness Modulus
Fineness modulus is the sum of the cumulative percentage retained on the sieves of the standard series. The
value of the fineness modulus is higher the coarser the aggregate. The fineness modulus is not
representative of a distribution, therefore it can be used only for measuring slight variations in the
aggregate from the same source. It is used in concrete mix design especially in U.S.
Standard test sieves are as follows:
Coarse aggregate: 75mm, 38mm, 20mm, 10mm
Fine aggregate: 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.600mm, 0.300mm, 0.150mm

Limits for FM:

Fine aggregate: 2.3-3.0
Coarse aggregate: 5.5-8.0
Combined aggregate: 4.0-7.0
Before the sieve analysis is performed, the aggregate sample has to be air dried in order to avoid lumps of
fine particles being classified as large.

Example on Mass retained Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

sieve analysis: (Grams) retained percentage percentage
Sieve size (mm) retained passing
10.00 0 0.0 0 100
5.00 6 2.0 2 98
 2.36 31 10.1 12 88
1.18 30 9.8 22 78
0.600 59 19.2 41 59
0.300 107 34.9 76 24
0.150 53 17.3 93 7
pan 21 6.8 - -
Total = 246
Total = 307 Fineness modulus = 2.46

Grading Requirements
The purpose of sieve analysis is to determine whether or not a particular grading is suitable. The related
problem of grading is the combining of fine and coarse aggregates so as to produce desired grading (See
Table 4.5, 4.6).
The strength of fully compacted concrete with a given water/cement ratio is independent of the grading of
the aggregate. Grading in the first instance affects only the workability of fresh concrete. But however the
development of strength with a given water/cement ratio requires full compaction, and this can be achieved
only with a sufficient workable mix.
The main factors governing the desired aggregate grading are: the surface area of the aggregate, which
determines the amount of water necessary to wet all the solids; the relative volume occupied by the
aggregate; the workability of the mix; and the tendency to segregation.
The grading of aggregate is a major factor in the workability of a concrete mix. Workability, affects the
water and cement requirements, controls segregation, has some effect on bleeding, and influence the
placing and finishing of the concrete. These factors represent the important characteristics of fresh concrete
and affect also the properties in the hardened state: strength, shrinkage and durability
Grading is thus of vital importance in the proportioning of concrete mixes, but its exact role in
mathematical terms is not fully known.
It also must be remembered that far more important than devising a good grading is ensuring that the
grading is kept constant; otherwise variable workability results and as this is usually corrected at the mixer
by a variation in the water content, concrete of variable strength is obtained.

Gap-Graded Aggregate
Aggregate particles of a given size pack so as to form voids that can be penetrated only if the next smaller
size of particles is sufficiently small. This means there must be a minimum difference between the sizes of
any two adjacent particle fractions.
Gap grading is a grading in which one or more intermediate size fractions are omitted. The term
“continuously” is used to describe conventional grading when, it is to distinguish it from gap grading (see
Figure 4.2).

Well Graded means sizes within the entire range are in approximately equal amounts (friction at many
points, excellent interlocking, very few voids) (see Figure 4.2).

Uniform gradation means a large percentage of the particles are of approximately the same size (poor
interlocking, high percentage of voids, friction at few points of contact) (see Figure 4.2).

Combined gradation means fine and coarse aggregates are combined (friction at many points, good
interlocking, few voids, economical).
Figure 4.2

Bitumen
Bitumen is defined as “A viscous liquid, or a solid, consisting essentially of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives, softens gradually when heated. Also, it is an oil based
substance. It is a semi-solid hydrocarbon product produced by removing the lighter
fractions (such as liquid petroleum gas, petrol and diesel) from heavy crude oil during the
refining process.
it is obtained through petroleum processing in this manner the bitumen is essentially the
residue yielded through a distillation process of petroleum. Although bitumen can be
found in natural form, the world currently relies for all purposes on petroleum.

Use of bitumen
• Adhesion: Bitumen has the ability to adhere to a solid surface in a fluid state
depending on the nature of the surface. The presence of water on the surface will
prevent adhesion.
• Bitumen in Tank Foundation- A smooth Bitumen-sand mix of minimum 50 mm
thickness shall be hot laid over the foundations for water proofing/water
protection and to provide a sufficiently firm layer. This surfacing shall also be
required to retard corrosion of the tank bottom. The Bitumen-sand mix shall be
such as for the bitumen to just wet the sand.
• Bitumen as a Joint filling material- Bitumen used as a joint filling material for
masonry work which is capable of expansion and contraction, generally placed
between two slabs. In the construction of runways, roads and buildings, involving
the casting of concrete in slab form, provision must be made to accommodate the
expansion and contraction which occurs with seasonal variation in temperature. It
permits free movement of the concrete slab in expansion and contraction.

Tars
Tars are drives from coal. Tar is a sticky black liquid made of thick oil. It is a natural
substance, oozing out of the ground in places like the La Brea tar pits. Usually it is made
by heating coal inside a chemical apparatus. Tar made from coal or petroleum is
considered toxic. Moreover, Tars derive as condensates from the processing of coal (at
very high temperatures), petroleum, oil-shale, wood or other organic materials.
Uses of Tar

• Wood tar is still used to seal traditional wooden boats and the roofs of historical
shingle-roofed churches, as well as painting exterior walls of log buildings.

• Tar is also a general disinfectant. Pine tar oil, or wood tar oil, is a pure natural
product used for the surface treatment of wooden shingle roofs, boats, buckets.

• Tubs and in the medicine, soap, and

• Rubber industries.

Application

Tar is applied in construction and maintenance of:

• Highways,
• Airport runways,
• Footways / Pedestrian Ways,
• Car parks, Race tracks,
• Tennis courts, Roofing,
• Damp proofing,
• Dams Reservoir and pool linings,
• Sound proofing,
• Pipe coatings,
• Cable Coatings,
• Paints, Building Water Proofing,
• Tile underlying water proofing,
• Newspaper Ink Production,
• and many other applications

Asphalt
Asphalt is a composite material consisting of mineral aggregates bonded together by
bitumem.
it is usually plastic in character,strongly adhessive and water proof. its palsticity is
affected by heat and over heating may result in hardness,brittleness and some lost in
adhessive properties.

Uses of Asphalt

Although asphalt is mainly used for paving roads, it can also be used for various other
purposes. The versatility of asphalt makes it such a widely used material. Among others,
it can be found in the following sectors. Also, Asphalts are used, generally in
combination with other materials, in many engineering fields. Some examples are given
below:

• Transportation (e.g. roads, railway beds or airport runways, taxiways, etc.),

• Recreation (playgrounds, bicycle paths, running tracks, tennis courts….),

• Agriculture (barn floors, greenhouse floors….)

• Industrial (ports, landfill caps, work sites…)

• Building construction (floorings…..)

• Electrical uses: High-grade asphalts are used in electrical industry on mixing with
wood tar, pitch, rubber, and resin. The battery containers are its best examples.

• Roadway construction: Asphaltic are characterized by a set of useful properties

such as: resistance to weather, water proofness, binding capacity and ability to
provide a flexible surface.
• Asphalt road surfaces can significantly reduce noise both inside and outside the
car. Standard asphalt roads have the lowest noise levels of all traditional road
surfaces and the most recent development of porous and silent asphalts have
reduced noise levels even further. A standard asphalt surface produces half the
noise compared to alternatives options such as concrete, and porous asphalt
reduces this by a further 50%.
• Asphalt is 100% recyclable and reusable. Recovered asphalt is routinely re-laid
along with fresh materials, saving money and preserving non-renewable natural
 resources. Recycling also reduces the use of virgin quality gravel, reduces landfill
and saves both cost and emissions for transport.

Quarrying

Stones occur in the form of natural rock masses or layers in die surface. The

process of extraction of suitable stones from their natural rock beds or layers

is commonly called Quarrying of stones.

It differs from the mining of ores of metals in that, whereas quarrying is an

operation carried out entirely on the surface, mining involves digging below

the ground, sometimes at considerable depth,

The stones must be available in large quantity and must be of uniform

quality. Quarrying is commonly a commercial operation. The quarry must

not be located for away from the area where constructional activities are

going on.

A quarry must not be located very close to a town because quarrying

operations are full of hazards. This becomes especially important where

blasting methods has to be used for quarrying of stones.

Methods of Quarrying of Stones

Quarrying methods are classified differently. It is convenient to divide them

under two main headings namely, quarrying without blasting and quarrying

by blasting.

Quarrying of Stones without Blasting

On these methods blocks of rocks are broken loose from their natural

outcrops by men using hard tools or special purpose channeling machines.

No explosive material is used at any stage in this method of quarrying. Soft

rocks and also those rocks which have layered structure are easily quarried

by these methods.

As a first step, the loose cover of soil over the rock (the over-burden) is first

removed and the rock surface is cleared. It is then systematically broken into

blocks of desired sizes either by driving wedges or by cutting channels. The

Wedged Methods of Quarrying

It is consisting of digging a few holes at carefully selected places on the

rock. These holes are dug either manually using chisels, and hammers by the

skilled workers. Or in major quarrying, these holes may be drilled by special

machines called hammer drills, once the hole is ready, a steel wedge is

inserted in between two steel strips or feathers, this is done with all the holes

drilled in a sequence, such firmly inserted wedges are then struck with
hammer almost simultaneously. This process develops cracks along the lines

joining the holes.

After that, long iron bars are inserted in the holes and cracks, and then the

blocks of the rocks are pushed forward into f the free face of a quarry.

THE CHANNELING METHOD OF QUARRYING

In this method of quarrying evolves the use of a big machines called

channelizers which have reciprocating cutting tools and are power driven.

When single large blocks of costly stones like marbles and lime stones are

required. This method is most suitable.

The channelizer can cut a groove as deep as 3m, as wide as 5cm and as long

as 3m, or even more, when a simple block is required.

Grooves required depth and length are first cut at the back and sides of the

working face of the quarry.

Holes are their drilled from the free front size horizontally to meet the back

channel at its base. Using wedges and rods, die block is separated from the

rock and hoisted up to the transporting lorries or wagons.

Single blocks as big as 10meters long and 3meters thick and 1-3 meters wide

can be quarried by this method from soft rocks

QUARRYING BY HEATING

It is an old, crude method which may be useful locally for obtaining small

quantities of stones, Rocks are heated for a few hours by burning heaps of

firewood over their surface such a process results in expansion of the upper

layers and their cracking and separating from the lower layers.

QUARRYING OF STONE BY BLASTING

This method consists of using explosives for breaking stones from very hard

rocks. It has been observed that quarrying of granites, basalt, traps,

quartzites and sandstones by wedging and other methods is very laborious

and costly.

These hard rocks, however, can be loosened economically and easily byby

using explosives. The basic principle of this method is to explode a small

quantity of an explosive material at a calculated depth within the rocks. The

force generated due to this explosion is sufficient only to create cracks and

loosen blocks of good size. Blasting for quarrying for stones may be quite

different from blasting for road clearance. In the latter case, the size of the

broken stone is of not much consequence

Quarrying by blasting, therefore, requires very experienced persons

thoroughly acquainted with blasting explosion on the one hand and strength
qualities of rods on the other hand, quarrying by blasting involves a series of

systematic operations such as drilling of blast holes, charging of blast holes

and firing of shots.

plastics
Typically, construction professionals select plastic materials based on the
following criteria:

• Durability

Many plastic materials are as strong as if not stronger than certain metals. Plastic
hardware is also frequently corrosion resistant, allowing it to survive outside in
inclement weather indefinitely.

• Cost Effectiveness

As is the case in most industries these days, cost is an important factor in any
construction project. Many plastic materials are very economical.

• Recycling

Unlike metals, some plastics can be recycled without losing any chemical
properties and hence can be used over and over again.

• Energy Saving

Plastic consumes less heat than metal. The insulating effects of some plastics can
also decrease sound pollution level.
• Safety
Plastic materials are typically much lighter than metals. The lightness of the
material makes it easier to carry and lift into place.

• Easy to install
 A while back we posted about an FRP bridge that was installed in just a few days.
The lightweight of plastic materials allows for quick and easy installation.

USE OF PLASTICS IN DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

• Flooring

Plastic materials like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene are used to make
flooring less prone to wear and tear. It also decreases the sound pollution level
and can be cleaned easily.
• Roofing

To protect the outer surface of the roof from damage, two layers of different
plastic materials are required. The upper part is made of colored thermoplastic
olefin or vinyl while the lower part consists of polyurethane foam which
consumes less energy and keeps the interior of a house cooler.

• Insulation

Polyurethane spray is frequently used for insulation when constructing green or

low energy buildings. Rigid polyurethane foam is known for its high thermal
resistance which promotes temperature consistency. Polyurethane foam is also
popular because it is lightweight, chemical resistant, and flame retardant. Due
to its closed cell nature, polyurethane insulation performs as an air barrier,
resulting in significant energy savings.

• Wall

A structural insulated panel (SIP) is a sandwich of expanded polystyrene amidst

two slim layers of oriented strand board. This type of pre-fab, composite wall
board can be transferred to the work place easily for a particular task and provide
good support to columns and other associated essentials during renovation.

• Pipes

Commonly made up of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), CPVC, acrylonitrile butadiene

styrene (ABS) or polyethylene, plastic pipes are flexible and very light in weight,
making them easy to install. All of these plastic materials are also highly chemical
and water resistant, making them suitable for many extreme environments.
• Windows

Polycarbonate is used to manufacture building windows. This plastic material is

strong, clear and very light in weight. Polycarbonate windows are considered
more burglar-proof than regular glass windows. Two plastics materials, vinyl and
fiberglass, are used commonly in the production of window frames. Fiberglass is
extremely strong while vinyl is quite durable and also inexpensive.

• Doors

Some construction projects use doors made from a stiff polyurethane foam core
with a fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) coating. The sandwich structure of these
doors makes them incredibly strong.

USES OF PLASTICS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Form in which

it is
No. Material Use Normal colour
commonly

used

Thin sheets in
Expanded Thermal
1 slabs 12mm White
polystyrene insulation
thick

Expanded polyvinyl Thermal Boards 20 to

2 Yellow brown
chloride (PVC) insulation 50 mm thick
 Foamed urea Thermal
3 Foamed in situ White
formaldehyde insulation

Foamed phenol Thermal Sheets and

4 Deep red
formaldehyde insulation blocks

Sheets and
Foamed Thermal
5 blocks or Brown
polyurethane insulation
foamed in situ

Thermal
6 Expanded ebonite Sheets Brown or black
insulation

Damp-proofing, Thin sheets, Transparent to

7 Polythene
plumbing pipes, cisterns black

Domestic

drainage, but
8 Polypropylene
water overflow

tanks

9 Unplasticised PVC Rainwater

 goods,

ventilation,

ducts, pipes of

water mains

10 Acrylic resins Sinks and baths Various

Cold water

11 Nylon fittings, window Various

furniture

Adhesives for
12 Phenolic resins Dark
laminates

13 Melamine Laminates Sheets Many

DEFINITION OF GLASS

Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread
practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware,
and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are
"silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the
primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only
to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles.
Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed
from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon
dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide,
also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives.

HOW GLASS IS MADE

Glass is manufactured by heating recycled glass, sodium carbonate (soda ash) and
calcium carbonate (limestone) in a furnace. This glass is also known as soda-lime-silica
glass. The soda-lime-silica glass is melted and poured into molds to make bottles, glasses,
jars. To make flat glass sheets for windows, the molten glass is poured into a big tank that
has molten tin metal. A ball of molten glass is wrapped around an open pipe and then
slowly rotated. Hot air is blown through the pipe, and the molten glass ball blows up like
a balloon and is skillfully manipulated to produce decorative glass containers. Glass
makers add chemicals to the glass to make decorative objects colorful.

TYPES OF GLASS

The following are the types of glass

• Laminated Glass

Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. .In the event
of breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB),
between its two or more layers of glass. .The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded
even when broken, and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking up into large
sharp pieces. This produces a characteristic "spider web" cracking pattern when the
impact is not enough to completely pierce the glass

• Fiberglass

Fiberglass is made of fine, solid rods of glass, each one of these rods measures to about
less than one-twentieth of the width of a human hair. It is used to make wool-like fibers
that serve as heat insulation material. This glass can also be used like wool or cotton
fibers to make glass yarn, tape, cloth, and mats. It is also used for electrical insulation,
chemical filtration and to make firefighter suits. Fiberglass is combined with plastic and
used in the manufacture of airplane wings, body parts of automobiles and boat hulls.

• Bulletproof

Bulletproof Glass is a thick multilayer of laminated glass that can stop heavy-caliber
bullets. It shatters on impact, but the plastic layers of this glass hold the glass fragments
together. This type of glass is also used in the manufacture of bank teller windows and to
make windshields for military tanks and aircraft.

• Tempered

Tempered Glass is stronger than laminated glass. It is a single sheet of glass and does not
have several layers similar to the laminated glass. It is used for glass doors, side and rear
windows of automobiles, and basketball backboards. This glass is hard to break but when
it does it shatters into many fragments.

• Foam

Foam Glass is filled with many tiny cells of gas. Each cell is sealed off from the other by
a thin glass wall. It is light and floats on water. It is used as an insulator in buildings,
steam pipes and in chemical equipment.

• Heat Resistant

Heat Resistant glass is high in silica and contains boric acid. This glass expands slightly
when heated and does not crack at high temperatures. Due to the heat-resistant property,
this type of glass is used in the manufacture of cookware, household, laboratory and
industrial equipment. It is also used in the manufacture of electric bulbs and television
sets.

• Heat Reflective

Heat Reflective Glass has two panes of glass separated by a layer of argon gas that helps
to improve insulation. This type of glass is used to make windows of apartments and
other buildings. It helps to keep your home warm during winter and cool during summer
and helps to reduce the electricity bill.

PROPERTIES OF GLASS

The following below are the properties of glass

• Transparency of Glass

Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the vision of outside world
through it. The transparency of glass can be from both sides or from one side only. In one
side transparency, glass behaves like mirror from the other side.

• Strength of Glass

Strength of glass depends on modulus of rupture value of glass. In general glass is a

brittle material but by adding admixtures and laminates we can make it as more strong.

• Workability of Glass

A glass can be molded into any shape or it can be blown during melting. So, workability
of glass is superior property of glass.

• Transmittance

The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the property of visible
transmittance.

• U value of Glass

U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is said to be
insulated unit then it should have lower u value.

• Recycle Property of Glass

Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw material in construction
industry.

• Density
The density of glass is 2.5, which gives flat glass a mass of 2.5 kg per m2 per mm of
thickness, or 2500 kg per m3.
• Elasticity
Glass is a perfectly elastic material: it does not exhibit permanent deformation, until
breakage. However it is fragile, and will break without warning if subjected to excessive
stress.

Curing of concrete:

Curing of concrete is defined as providing adequate

moisture, temperature, and time to allow the concrete to
achieve the desired properties for its intended use.

METHODS FOR CURING OF CONCRETE

There are various methods of curing. The adoption of a

particular method will depend upon the nature of work and
the climatic conditions. The following methods of curing of
concrete are generally adopted.
Curing of Concrete

• Shading concrete work

• Covering concrete surfaces with hessian or gunny bags

• Sprinkling of water

• Pounding method

• Membrane curing

• Steam curing

1. SHADING OF CONCRETE WORK

The object of shading concrete work is to prevent the

evaporation of water from the surface even before setting.

This is adopted mainly in case of large concrete surfaces

such as road slabs. This is essential in dry weather to

protect the concrete from heat, direct sun rays and wind. It

also protects the surface from rain. In cold weather shading

helps in preserving the heat of hydration of cement thereby

preventing freezing of concrete under mild frost conditions.

Shading may be achieved by using canvas stretched on

frames. This method has a limited application only.

2. COVERING CONCRETE SURFACES
WITH HESSIAN OR GUNNY BAGS
This is a widely used method of curing, particularly for

structural concrete. Thus exposed surface of concrete is

prevented from drying out by covering it with hessian,

canvas or empty cement bags. The covering over vertical

and sloping surfaces should be secured properly. These are

periodically wetted. The interval of wetting will depend

upon the rate of evaporation of water. It should be ensured

that the surface of concrete is not allowed to dry even for a

short time during the curing period. Special arrangements

for keeping the surface wet must be made at nights and on

holidays.

3. SPRINKLING OF WATER
Sprinkling of water continuously on the concrete surface

provides an efficient curing. It is mostly used for curing

floor slabs. The concrete should be allowed to set

sufficiently before sprinkling is started. The spray can be

obtained from a perforated plastic box. On small jobs

sprinkling of water may be done by hand. Vertical and

sloping surfaces can be kept continuously wet by sprinkling

water on top surfaces and allowing it to run down between

the forms and the concrete. For this method of curing the

water requirement is higher.

4. PONDING METHOD
This is the best method of curing. It is suitable for curing

horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof slabs, road and air

field pavements. The horizontal top surfaces of beams can

also be pounded. After placing the concrete, its exposed

surface is first covered with moist hessian or canvas. After

24 hours, these covers are removed and small ponds of clay

or sand are built across and along the pavements. The area

is thus divided into a number of rectangles. The water is

filled between the ponds. The filling of water in these

ponds is done twice or thrice a day, depending upon the

atmospheric conditions. Though this method is very

efficient, the water requirement is very heavy. Ponds easily

break and water flows out. After curing it is difficult to

clean the clay.

5. MEMBRANE CURING
The method of curing described above come under the

category of moist curing. Another method of curing is to

cover the wetted concrete surface by a layer of water proof

material, which is kept in contact with the concrete surface

of seven days. This method of curing is termed as

membrane curing. A membrane will prevent the

evaporation of water from the concrete. The membrane can

be either in solid or liquid form. They are also known as

sealing compounds. Bituminized water proof papers, wax

emulsions, bitumen emulsions and plastic films are the

common types of membrane used.

Whenever bitumen is applied over the surface for curing, it

should be done only after 24 hours curing with gunny bags.

The surface is allowed to dry out so that loose water is not

visible and then the liquid asphalt sprayed throughout. The

moisture in the concrete is thus preserved. It is quite

enough for curing.

This method of curing does not need constant supervision.

It is adopted with advantage at places where water is not

available in sufficient quantity for wet curing. This method

of curing is not efficient as compared with wet curing

because rate of hydration is less. Moreover the strength of

concrete cured by any membrane is less than the concrete

which is moist cured. When membrane is damaged the

curing is badly affected.

6. STEAM CURING
Steam curing and hot water curing is sometimes adopted.

With these methods of curing, the strength development of

concrete is very rapid.

These methods can best be used in pre cast concrete work.

In steam curing the temperature of steam should be

restricted to a maximum of 750C as in the absence of

proper humidity (about 90%) the concrete may dry too

soon. In case of hot water curing, temperature may be

raised to any limit, ay 1000C.

At this temperature, the development of strength is about

70% of 28 days strength after 4 to 5 hours. In both cases,

the temperature should be fully controlled to avoid non-

uniformity. The concrete should be prevented from rapid

drying and cooling which would form cracks.

 Generally, concrete sets in 24 to 48 hours allowing for
you to work on it and partially cured within a week (keep
the cement free and clear of every equipment during this
period) at which you can continue building /construction.
Most mixes fully cured at 28 days.
The other important aspect of curing is temperature—
the concrete can't be too cold or too hot. As fresh concrete
gets cooler, the hydration reaction slows down. The
temperature of the concrete is what's important here, not
necessarily the air temperature.

CORROSION

Corrosion is a natural process that involves the deterioration of metal

component. According to NACE international, corrosion in the
destruction of a substance (usually a metal) or it properties because of
a reaction with its environment. This ultimately causes potentially
severe damage to your building or application and can become very
costly to repair

TYPES OF CORROSION

1. General Attack Corrosion

 Also known as uniform attack corrosion, general attack corrosion is
the most common type of corrosion is the most common type of
corrosion and is caused by a chemical or electrochemical reaction that
result in the deterioration of the entire exposed surface of a metal.
Ultimately the metal deteriorates to the point of failure.
General attack corrosion account for the greatest amount of metal
destruction by corrosion but is considered as a safe form of corrosion,
due to the fact that it is predictable, manageable and often
preventable.

2. Localised Corrosion: Unlike general attack corrosion, localized

corrosion specificially target one area of the metal structure. Localized
corrosion is classified as one of three types
i. Pitting: Pitting result when a small hole or cavity form in the metal
usually as a result of de-passivation of a small area. This area
becomes anodic, while apart of the remaining metal becomes
cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of
this small area penetrates the metal and can load to failure. This form
of corrosion is often difficult to detected due to the fact that it is
usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by corrosion
produced compounds

ii. evice Corrosion: Similar to pitting crevice corrosion occurs at a

specific location. This type of corrosion is often associated with a
stagnant Micro-environment, like those found under gasket and
washers and clamps. Acidic conditions or a depletion of oxygen in a
crevice can lead to crevice corrosion.
iii. Filiform Corrosion: Occurring under painted or plated surfaces when
water breaches the coating, filiform corrosion begins at small defect in
the coating and spreads to cause structural weakness.

3. Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion or dissimilar metal corrosion occurs when two
different metal are located together in a corrosive electrolyte. A
galvanic couple forms between the two metals, where one metal
becomes the anode and the other the cathode. The anode or sacrificial
metal corrodes and deteriorates faster than it would alone, while the
cathode deteriorates more slowly than it would otherwise.

Three Condition Must Exist For Galvanic Corrosion to Occur

i. Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present
ii. The metal must be in electrical contact
iii. The metal must be exposed to an electrolyte

4. Environment Cracking
Environment cracking is a corrosion process that can result from a
combination of environment condition affecting the metal.
Chemical, temperature and stress related condition can result in the
following types of environment corrosion
i. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
ii. Corrosion fatigue
iii. Hydrogen induced cracking
iv. Liquid metal embrittlement

7. High Temperature Corrosion

 Fuels used in gas turbines, diesel engine and other machinery which
contain vanadium or sulfate can during combustion, for compounds
with a low melting point these compounds normally resistant to high
temperatures and corrosion including stainless steel.
High temperature corrosion can also be caused by high-temperature
oxidation, sulfidation and carbonization.

Factors That Causes Corrosion

1. Impurities segregated to the grain boundaries
2. Larger amount of dissolved alloy element at grain boundaries
3. Smaller amount of dissolved element of alloying at grain boundaries

Prevention of Corrosion
The corrosion prevention is basically aimed at removing or reduces
the effect of the condition which leads to corrosion.
1. Selection of material that does not corrode in actual environment
2. By removing the oxygen or adding some anti-corroding chemicals
3. Developing the signs that help prevent corrosion
4. Changing the potential by making the metal more negative and help
natural metal ions tendency to move from metal to environment.
5. By applying coatings or anti-corrosion coating on metal surfaces in
order to create a barrier between the metal and the corroding
environment.

Structural Effect of Corrosion

1. Loss of Strength
 Corrosion reduces the effective cross section to structural component.
This will reduce the axial and flexural strength of element, and makes
them structurally weak. Even is corroded element look stable, it does
not mean they are safe in fact the corroded structures become
vulnerable for designs loads (ultimate loads) i.e. a strong ground
motion can increase the stress action beyond the capacity of the
sections. Loss of strength can happen in steel and reinforced concrete
structures. Corrosion under insulation (CUI) is a frequent observation
in refineries and oil and gas industry. Steel section covered under fire
proofing insulation experience example is the reduced flexural and
shear capacity of the RC element. Du et al (2005) developed a
mathematical model for the residual and strength parameters (such as
yield strength). This formula described the residual area based on the
corrosion rate.

2. Fatigue
Another structural effect of corrosion is on the fatigue strength of steel
element connection and RC element. Corrosion may accelerate fatigue
crack propagation in structural steels.
Development of pitting corrosion introduces additional point of stress
concentration at which cracking may develop, which will reduce the
fatigue strength. Apostolopoulos (2006) studied the effect of corrosion
on high and low cycle fatigue of reinforcing steel.

3. Reduced Bond Strength

The capacity of composite element such as RC element depends on
the characteristic of concrete rebar interface. When steel corrodes, the
 product steel layer over the surface of the reinforcement. This layer
has a poor bond with surrounding concrete. Therefore it will reduce
the capacity of section. In case of lap splices or anchorage, this may
reduce the affective length of anchorage and resulting in premature
failure of section. Stanish (1997) studied the effect of corrosion on the
bond strength in RC element.
4. Limited Ductility
Corrosion can significantly reduce the ductility of RC section. This is
critical in seismic design and evaluation. Corroded section’s have
lower ductility which means their plastic deformation is limited. This
will affect the seismic response of elements. Corrosion of
reinforcement in the lap splices will affect the load transfer in the laps,
preventing to develop yield stress. Asri an Ou (2011) studied the
seismic response of corroded bridge columns by non-linear push over
analysis

5. Reduced Shear Capacity

Corrosion can reduce the effective cross sectional area of transverse
reinforcement in beams and columns, and reducing the shear capacity
of the section. In concrete slabs, this can reduce the shear strength of
the slab close of the columns and increasing the chance of punching
shear failure. In footings, the corrosion can result in shear failure of
the footings, anchorage failure, or flexural yielding of steel
reinforcement.