ME2300: Manufacturing Processes

Jan-May 2018

For internal circulation only

Casting process flow chart (sand casting)
•Pattern and mould
•Melting and pouring
•Solidification and cooling
•Removal, cleaning, finishing and inspection

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Sand casting

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Pattern
•Functions of the pattern

•Pattern material

•Ideal characteristics of the pattern material

•Pattern allowances

•Types of patterns

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Pattern
•A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting
process, with some modifications.

•The main modifications are:

Pattern allowances
Provision of core prints

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Functions of the pattern
•It defines the mould cavity.

•It enables creation of core prints.

•It makes provision for runner, gates and risers.

•Patterns properly made and having smooth surfaces reduce

casting defects.

•A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of

the casting.

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Pattern material
•Wood
•Metal and alloys
•Plaster of Paris
•Plastics and rubbers
•Wax
•Resins

Each material has its own advantages, limitations, and field of

applications

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Pattern material (wood)

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Pattern material (Polymer)

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Pattern material (wax)

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Pattern material characteristics

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Pattern allowances
•Pattern always made larger than the final object
•Excess dimensions - Pattern allowance
•Shrinkage allowance (Contraction of casting)
Liquid (pouring temperature to liquidus)
Compensated from liquid feeding from the riser
Solidification (Liquidus to solidus temperature)
Compensated from liquid feeding from the riser
Solid (Solidus to room temperature)
Compensated by providing shrinkage allowance on the patterns

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Pattern allowances (Shrinkage)

Room Pouring
temperature temperature

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Pattern allowances (Shrinkage)

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Pattern allowances
•Draft allowance
To withdraw pattern from the mould

•Machining allowance
To obtain the final shape (finishing operation)

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Pattern types
Choice of pattern depends upon
•Configuration of casting
•Number of objects required from one processing cycle

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Pattern types
•Single piece pattern

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Pattern types
•Spilt pattern

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Pattern types
•Match plate pattern

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Pattern types
•Cope and drag pattern

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Casting process flow chart (sand casting)
•Pattern and mould
•Melting and pouring
•Solidification and cooling
•Removal, cleaning, finishing and inspection

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Mould
Open and closed mould

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Mould types

Permanent mould Expendable mould

Gravity Die casting Sand
Low and high pressure Shell
die casting Slurry
Investment
•Lost wax

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Casting processes

Sand casting - 60%

Permanent die casting - 11%
Die casting (Low and high pressure) - 9%
Investment casting - 7%
Centrifugal casting - 7%
Shell mould casting - 6%

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Sand casting process

“Flow” of sand and metal in a sand casting process

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Sand casting process

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Main constituents of moulding sand
•70-85% base sand: silica sand, zircon sand, Chromite
sand, and olivine sand
Size: Small, medium, large silica sand grain
Shape: Angular, sub-angular and rounded
•10-12% bonding material (binder)
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite
(Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O). Bentonite can absorb more water
which increases its bonding power.

•2-8% water (moisture)

is added for developing bonds

•Additives
Coal dust, wood flour etc.
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Properties of moulding sand
Refractoriness
Ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures
without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound
casting. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

Permeability
Porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of any
air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when
the molten metal is poured into it.

Green strength: The molding sand that contains moisture is

termed as green sand. The green sand particles must have the
ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the
mold.
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Properties of moulding sand
Dry strength/Hot strength
The ability of the dry molding sand to retain the exact shape of
the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to
withstand the pressure of the liquid material.

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Properties of moulding sand
Adhesiveness
It is property of molding sand to adhere with foreign material
such as sticking of molding sand with inner wall of molding box

Collapsibility
The molding sand should be easily collapsible. It should not
resist the contraction of the solidified casting, which may result
in cracks in the castings.

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Effect of moisture, grain size and shape on mould quality

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Effect of moisture, grain size and shape on mould quality

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Effect of moisture, grain size and shape on mould quality

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Temperature dependence of the green tensile strength

Sand + Bentonite
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Na effect

Polarized water bonding: Rigid bonding

Ionic water bonding: Bridge bonding
Sodium bond
- Improves
strength
- Also absorbs
moisture and
deteriorate
strength

Jina,W, (2009), Foundryworld.com

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Mould making

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Casting process flow chart (sand casting)
•Pattern and mould
•Melting and pouring
•Solidification and cooling
•Removal, cleaning, finishing and inspection

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Melting and pouring

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Melting
•Metal => Molten/liquid state
•Furnace: basic ore refining process and to melt the metal
•Different furnaces are employed for melting and re-melting
ferrous and nonferrous materials

Heat in a melting furnace is created

Combustion of fuel
Electric arc
Electric resistance etc.

Important factors
Casting alloy, its melting point and pouring temperature
Capacity requirement of the furnace and its efficiency
Cost of investment, operation and maintenance
Environmental pollution considerations
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Furnace for melting different materials
Cupola furnaces (Cast Iron, Steel)

Direct fuel-fired furnaces (Copper based alloys, Al)

Crucible furnaces (Aluminium and other non ferrous)

Electric arc furnaces (Cast iron and Steel)

Electric Induction furnaces (Cast iron, Steel, Aluminium)

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Furnace for melting different materials
Cupola furnaces (Combustion fuel: Coke)

Direct fuel-fired furnaces (Combustion fuel: Natural gas)

Crucible furnaces (Combustion fuel: Oil, gas or powdered

coal)

Electric arc furnaces (heating by electric arc: electrical

breakdown of a gas by passing current through it)

Electric Induction furnaces (Induction heating principle:

Alternating current => magnetic field => Induced eddy
current => rapid heating and melting)

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Blast furnace

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Crucible furnace

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Electric arc furnace

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Induction furnaces

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Melting
•Raw material (Charge)
-Alloying materials, scrap

•Atmosphere
-Air (oxygen), vacuum, inert gas (argon)

•Heating source
-External: electric, gas, oil
-Internal: induction, mix fuel with charge
- Steel making in blast furnace-mix coke with iron

•Furnace material
-Refractory ceramics

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What is the time req for melting in furnace
•Idli making

W= calculated from
volume change in idli

•From 1st law of thermodynamics

Time to make idli depends on the
burner power
•𝑄 = W + Δ𝑈
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Total heat required (melting + pouring)

H  V [cs (Tm  Ti )  H f  cl (T p  Tm )]

H=Total heat c= Specific heat(s: solid; l: liquid)

ρ= density Hf=Heat of fusion
V= volume m= melting point
i= room temperature p= pouring temperature

•Room temperature => Melting temperature

•Heat of fusion => Solid phase to liquid phase
•Melting temperature => Pouring temperature
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Melting time
•Estimated by: Energy
Time 
Power
•Furnace efficiency should be taken into account

Problem
Calculate the time required to raise the temperature of a 130 kg
aluminum billet from 25 ºC to 100 ºC above its melting point
using a 20 KW furnace (Efficiency: 75%).

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Melting time (data required)
Problem
Calculate the time required to raise the temperature of a 130 kg
aluminum billet from 25 ºC to 100 ºC above its melting point
using a 20 kW furnace (Efficiency: 75%).

Density = 2700 kg/m3

Melting point = 660 ºC
Heat of fusion = 396 kJ/kg
Specific heat (liquid) = 1.05 kJ/kg-K
Specific heat (Solid) = 0.9 kJ/kg-K

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Pouring
Pouring: process by which the molten metal is delivered into the
mould. It involves melt flow through the gating system and into
the main cavity

Goal: Metal must flow into all regions of the mould, particularly
the casting's main cavity, before solidifying.

Important parameters:
a) Pouring temperature
b) Pouring rate
c) Turbulence

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Pouring
Pouring temperature: temperature of
the molten metal used for the casting
as it is poured into the mould.

Superheat = TPouring - TMelting

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Fluidity
Fluidity: Capability of the molten metal to fill the mould cavities
•Characteristics of molten metal
•Casting parameters

•Fluidity of molten metal is more at higher temperatures but it

results into more amount of dissolved gases and high
temperature also damage mould walls and results into poor
surface quality of the final casting

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Fluidity
Characteristics of molten metal
Viscosity
Surface tension
Inclusions
Solidification pattern of the alloy

Casting parameters
Mould design
Mould material and surface characteristics
Degree of superheat
Rate of pouring
Heat transfer

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Fluid flow and gating design
Minimize turbulent flow to reduce
•Absorption of gases,
•Oxidation of metal and
•Erosion of mould surfaces

Regulate entry of molten metal into the mould cavity

Ensure the complete filling of mould cavity

Promote a temperature gradient within the casting so that all

sections irrespective of shape and size could solidify properly

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Fluid flow and gating design
Basic components of a simple gating system

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Fluid flow and gating design
Pouring (fluid flow)
•Reynold’s number

•Bernoulli’s equation

•Continuity

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Fluid flow and gating design
Reynold’s number (Re)
Ratio of momentum (inertia) to viscosity

vd (density) * (velocity) * (diameter)

Re  
 (vis cos ity)

•Re < 2000 (viscosity dominated, laminar flow)

•Re > 2000 (inertia dominated, turbulent flow)
•Controlled through gate and runner design

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Fluid flow and gating design
•Bernoulli’s equation
Used to calculate flow velocities
Assumptions: steady state, incompressible, inviscid flow

v 2
P  gh  f  cons tan t
2
P= pressure g= gravity
ρ= density h= height
V= velocity f= loses due to friction

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Fluid flow and gating design
•Continuity
Assumptions: steady state, incompressible, inviscid flow

Q Q
0 1

A v  Av
0 0 1 1

Where,
Q = volumetric flow rate
A = area
v = velocity

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Fluid flow and gating design

Sprue top

Velocity at point 3?

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Fluid flow and gating design
v12 v3 2
P1   gh1  P3   gh3
2 2

Assumption: the entire mould is at atmospheric pressure

Pouring basin remains full at all time
Pouring basin is impermeable

v3  2 ght similarly v2  2 ghc

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Mould filling time estimation
•Gate is at point g
•Using continuity
Q A v  A v
g g 3 3

•Assuming Ag  A3

v gate  v3  2 ght

•Hence, Mould filling time = (Mould volume)/Ag v g

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Problem
•Given
-Height of the sprue (ht) = 20 cm
-Area of sprue (A3) = 2.5 cm2
-Volume of the mould cavity (V) = 1560 cm3

•Find
-Vsprue
-Flow rate (Q)
-Mould filling time
-flow type
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Solution
Vbase of sprue = 2 ght = 2 * 981* 20 = 198.1 cm/s

Q A v 3 sprue = 2.5 *198.1 = 495 cm3/s

Mould filling time = Volume/Q

= 1560/495
= 3.2 s

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Number of gates in a system
•The number of gates needed to fill a casting cavity in an
acceptable time is determined by the:
-Casting size
-Casting complexity

Plate casting
Objective: Uniform and quick filling
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Number of gates in a system

ST: Sand trap A1 > A2 >A3

Quickly ??
Uniformly ??
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Runner/Gate inlet area

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Flow through sprue

Low pressure area

Air aspiration

(a) (b) (c)

Free falling liquid Straight sided sprue Tapered sprue

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Changes in cross sectional of a flow channel

Low pressure area

Air aspiration

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Flow through sprue

(a) (b) (c)

Turbulence flow Casting defect coming Streamlined flow
resulting from sharp from the sharp edges minimize turbulence
corner and casting defects

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Casting process flow chart
•Pattern and mould
•Melting and pouring
•Solidification and cooling
•Removal, cleaning, finishing and inspection

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Riser design

•Liquid shrinkage
Riser
•Solidification shrinkage
•Solid shrinkage Pattern making
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Riser design
Volumetric contraction of various cast metals

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Chvorinov’s rule (Riser design)
•Solidification time as a function of shape and size
n
V 
ts  k  
 A

-V= volume, A = surface area and n = 2

-k = constant value that depends on mould material, cast
material, mould design, pouring temperature etc.
-Casting with higher V/A ratio solidifies more slowly than
one with a lower ratio
-Used in riser design
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Different shapes with same volume

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Riser design
•Purpose: to accommodate the liquid shrinkage and to
supply liquid feed metal to compensate for the
solidification shrinkage within the casting

•Design issues:
Riser must solidify after the casting
Risers must feed a volume of metal equal to the part’s
shrinkage
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Riser design
•Riser must solidify after the casting (sand casting)
2 2
V  V 
   
 A  riser  A  casting

•So that riser freezes after the casting

- Otherwise shrinkage or porosity can result

V 
   Modulus(M )
 A

M riser  1.1(M casting ) Effectively feed the solidifying

casting
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Modulus of riser and casting

M =a/6

L>>t, w & w=t M =wt/(2(w+t))

M =t/2
L = W >> t
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Location, shape and size of a riser
Example: Step bar

Location ?? Ease of removal MA = 0.25/2 = 0.125

Shape?? Cube, cylinder, sphere MB = 0.5/2 = 0.25
Size ?? MR > 1.1(MC) MC = 1/2 = 0.5

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Other expendable mold casting process
•Shell molding

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Other expendable mold casting process
•Vaccum molding

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Other expendable mold casting process
•Expandable polystyrene

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Other expendable mold casting process
•Investment casting or lost wax

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Permanent mold casting
•Slush casting,
•Low pressure casting, Self study
•Vaccum permanent mold casting

Pressure die casting

Hot Cold
chamber chamber
7 -35 MPa 14 -140 MPa

Flash to be trimmed later

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Permanent mold casting
True centrifugal
•Squeeze casting,
•Semisolid metal casting,

Centrifugal

centrifuge
Semi centrifugal

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Horizontal true centrifugal casting
True centrifugal

•Centrifugal force
𝒎𝒗𝟐
•𝑭 =
𝑹
v-velocity, R-inside radius

𝑭 𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐
•G factor, 𝐆𝑭 = = =
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝒎𝒈 𝑹𝒈

𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑵
•S𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐯 = ;
𝟔𝟎

𝟑𝟎 𝒈 𝑮𝑭
•𝑵 =
𝝅 𝑹 87
Horizontal true centrifugal casting

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Casting process flow chart
•Pattern and mould
•Melting and pouring
•Solidification and cooling
•Removal, cleaning, finishing and inspection

89
Casting solidification
•Transformation of molten metal into solid state
Solidification differs:
-Pure element
-Alloy
•Solidification process influence the final casting quality
•Influence the material properties of the final casting

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Solidification (pure metals)

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Solidification (pure metals)

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Dentritic solidification

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Solidification (Alloy)

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Solidification (Alloy)

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Solidification (freezing range)

Short Moderate Long

Direction solidification Scattered locations
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Solidification (Alloy)

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