Road Runoff Water-Quality Mitigation by

Permeable Modular Concrete Pavers

Elizabeth A. Fassman, Ph.D., A.M.ASCE1; and Samuel D. Blackbourn2
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Abstract: Discharge from a 200 m2 permeable modular concrete paver test section on an atypical 6.0 to 7.4% slope and in an active roadway
was monitored concurrently with an adjacent reference conventional asphalt section in Auckland, New Zealand. The permeable modular
pavement (PMP) underdrain water quality had consistent total suspended solids (TSS), zinc, and copper event mean concentrations that were
statistically less than the reference asphalt runoff. Event mean concentration (EMC) distributions ranged over only a few μg/L, or mg/L from
the PMP underdrain versus more than an order of magnitude for some parameters from the reference asphalt. Runoff volume control by the
PMP contributed to substantial pollutant mass loading differences despite clay subsurface soils. PMP joint and bedding material were iden-
tified as the likely source of most pollutants in the underdrain discharge that might be avoidable with a construction specification for well-
washed materials. A properly designed PMP section would likely provide adequate treatment for an expanded source area. Combined with
data from the literature, it is recommended that permeable pavements, in general, be given strong consideration for effective source treatment
of urban storm-water runoff. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000339. © 2011 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Porous media; Concrete pavements; Stormwater management; Sustainable development; Nonpoint
pollution; Best Management Practice; Water quality; Runoff.
Author keywords: Porous pavements; Storm-water management; Low impact development; Nonpoint pollution; Best management
practice; Water quality.

Introduction potentially significant source (Kennedy and Pennington 2009).

Roadways and other car habitats (e.g., parking lots, driveways)
comprise a significant proportion of the total impervious area in
urban settings. Along with the high volumes of surface runoff gen-
erated, studies indicate that associated non-point-source (NPS) pol-
lution is a significant contributor to receiving water degradation
(Pitt 2002). In Auckland, New Zealand, suspended solids and
heavy metals (particularly zinc and copper) have been identified
as priority pollutants of concern for urban runoff because of the
heavy loads generated and the potential for detrimental effects
to the coastal and harbor receiving environments (Auckland
Regional Council 2003; Boston Consulting Group 1994; Sawyer
et al. 1994). The New Zealand Ministry of Transport estimates that
road runoff accounts for 40 to 50% of urban metal contamination to
aquatic ecosystems (Ministry of Transport 1996). Local (Auckland)
studies indicate that roads are the second-largest contributor to
mass budgets for total zinc from a central city and residential catch-
ment monitored and modeled (Timperley et al. 2005). Tire wear
was specifically identified as the major source of zinc in road runoff
(Kennedy and Pennington 2009). Roads have also been identified
as major contributors of total catchment loads for total copper
(Timperley et al. 2005), with brake pad wear identified as a
1 or from the surface, they have shown markedly better water
Dept. Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Auckland,
Private Bag 92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
(corresponding author). E-mail: e.fassman@auckland.ac.nz
2
AECOM, 6th Floor, 1901 Rosser Ave., Burnaby, British Columbia,
V5C 6S3, Canada.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 30, 2009; approved
on January 14, 2011; published online on January 18, 2011. Discussion
period open until April 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering, Vol. 137, No. 11, November 1, 2011.
©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9437/2011/11-720–729/$25.00.
Preliminary results by Moores et al. (2009) of samplings from rural
and urban arterial motorways in New Zealand suggest that total
zinc is generated at a rate of 0:4–0:5 mg=vehicle=km, whereas
total copper is at 0:08–0:09 mg=vehicle=km. To protect or mitigate
effects on receiving environments, the control of heavy metals from
road surfaces deserves attention.
Various types of permeable pavements together may be consid-
ered as an emerging low-impact development (LID) technology to
replace conventional paving surfaces by using at-source control
to prevent or significantly delay runoff generation. In many appli-
cations, permeable pavement treats or manages only the surface
that it covers. Precipitation falling over the surface of a permeable
pavement infiltrates an aggregate-filled storage reservoir (the base
course) below the permeable surface (Fig. 1). Water flows through
the base course porous media to be exfiltrated to the surrounding
subsoil (where site conditions permit) or collected in an underdrain
for discharge to reticulation or receiving waters. In some cases, per-
meable pavement may also manage run-on (flow) from adjacent
impervious surfaces.
Field water-quality studies of permeable pavements suggest
promise in addressing pollutants of concern (sediment and heavy
metals) in the Auckland region. When permeable pavement
systems discharge runoff either with a subsurface underdrain
quality than reference conventional pavement systems monitored
concurrently, and as described in Table 1 (Barrett 2008; Bean et al.
2007; Booth and Leavitt 1999; Boving et al. 2008; Brattebo and
Booth 2003; Dempsey and Swisher 2003; International Storm
Water Best Management Practice Database 2010). Generally, mean
permeable pavement discharge total copper or zinc event mean con-
centrations (EMCs) are less than half the value of EMCs from the
reference surfaces. Only two of the four studies identified reported
dissolved fractions for reference sites, and only four studies

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729

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Fig. 1. Typical permeable pavement longitudinal section and underdrain detail

described TSS control. The extent of empirical evidence published
to date on permeable pavement discharge water quality is relatively
scarce, thereby signaling a need for additional field investigations if
the technology is to be widely accepted.
In the current regulatory context, the percent removal metric for
storm-water treatment devices remains the standard assessment
despite arguments highlighting inadequacies—namely, that a
percent removal does not give a clear indication of how clean
the treated discharge actually is (GeoSyntec Consultants and
Wright Water Engineers 2008). Nonetheless, Schlüter et al.
(2002) report an average 73.4% reduction in peak concentration
of TSS over five events by a permeable pavement. Sansalone et al.

Table 1. Permeable Pavement Water-Quality Performance Reports: Mean Study Event Mean Concentrations
Total heavy metalsb (μg/L) Dissolved heavy metals (μg/L)
Type of
TSS (mg/L) Copper Zinc Copper Zinc
permeable Number of storms
a
Test location pavement PP Ref PP Ref PP Ref PP Ref PP Ref or samples
Austin, TX-site 1 Permeable 8.8 117.8 12.9 26.8 34.7 167.4 9.8 5.9 27.4 47.1 25
(Barret 2008) friction course
Austin, TX-site 2 Permeable 23.2 174.2 12.4 31.7 23.3 138.6 8.4 5.9 13 16.6 6
(Barret 2008) friction course
Renton, WAc (Booth and Leavitt 1999) Grasspave 21.4 9 2.5 12.6 3
Gravelpave 1.9 2 3
Turfstone 1.4 < MDL 3
Uni ecostone 14.3 7.9 3
Renton, WAc (Brattebo and Booth 2003) Grasspave < MDL 8 13.2 21.6 9
Gravelpave 0.89 8.23 9
Turfstone 1.33 7.7 9
Uni ecostone 0.86 6.8 9
Goldsboro, NC (Bean et al. 2007) Uni ecostone 8 12 5 13 8 67 TSS: 13 Metals: 8
Durham, NH (International Stormwater Porous asphalt 5.7 57.9 13.1 58.4 Ref: 23; PP
BMP Database 2010) TSS 12; Zn 13
Lakewood, CO site 1 (International Pervious 27.2 12.8 28.2 0.8 16.7 TSS: 11 Metals: 12
Stormwater BMP Database 2010) concrete blocks
Lakewood, CO site 2 (International Modular block 38.9 9.7 33.2 6.1 15.4 TSS: 36 Tot.
Stormwater BMP Database 2010) Metals: 36 Diss.
Metals 35
Kingston, RI (Boving et al. 2008) Porous asphalt < 50–1280 < 20–440 Range of 14 mean
monthly EMCs
University Park, PA (Dempsey and Porous asphalt < 20 191; 197 Annual average
Swisher 2003) for 2 years
a
All sites tested parking stalls with the exception of the two Barrett (2008) sites, which were overlays on active roadways; all sites tested reference (Ref)
untreated parking stalls adjacent to or very near the permeable pavement (PP) sites with the exception of the two Barrett (2008) sites, which were adjacent to
or before-and-after installations of the permeable friction course on active roadways.
b
Analytical procedure unknown (e.g., total metals versus total recoverable metals).
c
These studies reported on the same site with several years between studies, hence demonstrating long-term performance.

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729

 (2008) determined that a permeable concrete system reduced tur-
bidity by more than two orders of magnitude, and Schlüter et al.
(2002) reported approximately 80% turbidity reduction. Likewise,
Barrett (2008) demonstrated that runoff from asphalt pavement may
contribute TSS at an order of magnitude in greater concentration
than runoff from a permeable friction course. As part of a treatment
train configuration, annual pollutant mass discharges from per-
meable pavement plus swale configuration were 91.5, 87.5, and
82% less than from an asphalt catchment without any treatment
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for TSS, copper, and zinc, respectively (Rushton 2001). Generally,
few permeable pavement monitoring studies report percent
reductions either for mass load or concentration. It appears that
the efficacy of monitoring is challenged where test systems are
not lined, thereby making it difficult to collect base course dis-
charge samples.
Permeable pavements are not yet widely used in the Auckland
region for storm-water management due, in part to, a lack of local
performance data. The storm-water management design manual
from the regional environmental authority does not currently in-
clude permeable pavement when designed as a detention device
(i.e., primary discharge through underdrains with little to
no ex-filtration expected) as an accepted water-quality treatment
device that could be used as a component in a permitted site
storm-water management plan (Auckland Regional Council
2003). Therefore, the University of Auckland undertook a study
to empirically assess PMP performance for urban NPS pollutant
control in the local context, and to compare results against the cur-
rent regulatory requirement for removal of 75% TSS for permitted
activities.
The test site was located on Birkdale Road (an active roadway)
in Auckland, New Zealand, because it was hypothesized that in-
creased loading from frequent traffic would accelerate failure
and hence yield a better understanding of long-term performance.
Data from the PMP section and an adjacent reference asphalt sec-
tion were collected concurrently from 2006 to 2007 and again in
2008, when additional funding became available. Site data are used
herein to evaluate the discharge water quality, identify possible
sources of pollutants in the discharge, and compare pollutant loads
against untreated runoff from the reference asphalt surface.
Receiving water protection is considered the ultimate goal of
limiting NPS discharges from urban storm-water runoff. Therefore,
an effective management plan considers the quality of the treated
discharge (e.g., the concentration) entering the environment. An
additional aim of the current investigation is to compile data sets
Fig. 2. Birkdale Road test site; reference asphalt catchment (white border) = 850 m2 , including asphalt, sidewalk, and grass; PMP catchment (black
border) = 200 m2 ; a Sigma 900MAX automatic sampler with pressure transducer was installed at each monitoring station to measure flow and collect
water-quality samples
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J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729
from multiple testing locations to investigate the reliability of
permeable pavement as a tool for water-resources protection.
Site Description
Constructed in February 2006, the trial site (Fig. 2) comprises a
standard asphalt section and a PMP section that was built purposely
for concurrent monitoring. The entire 850 m2 asphalt catchment
includes pavement, sidewalk, and grass that drain to a single catch-
pit. The asphalt surface has an 8.9 to 10% longitudinal slope and
3.6 to 5.9% cross fall. The catchpit discharges to a storm sewer
along Birkdale Road through a 225-mm-diameter concrete pipe.
The 200 m2 PMP test section includes a live traffic lane and
parking lane with bus stop. Longitudinal surface slope measures
at 6.0 to 7.4% more than the PMP, with 3.0 to 3.7% cross fall
toward a catchpit should surface runoff be generated.
The ∼35-m long ∼6-m wide PMP test section was constructed
from impermeable concrete paver blocks with enlarged joint spaces
filled with 2–5 mm aggregate chip (Fig. 3) to allow flow into a two-
layer aggregate base course. Joint spacing was calculated to allow
infiltration of the peak flow that would be generated by a 2-year,
24-h annual recurrence interval (ARI) storm from an equivalent en-
tirely impervious area. Spacing was somewhat arbitrarily increased
by a factor of 10 to allow for clogging over time, resulting in a
design surface infiltration rate of 1;200 mm=h and a ratio of joint
space to impervious paver area of 0.19. The same 2–5 mm aggre-
gate chip was used as bedding material for the pavers. A nonwoven
geotextile with equivalent opening size (EOS) of ≤ 250 μm was
laid between the bedding layer and the base course. Water infil-
trated into the PMP base course was discharged through an under-
drain at the downstream end of the test section. The underdrain
discharged through a 150-mm-diameter PVC pipe to the storm
sewer along Birkdale Road.
An overall two-layer 480-mm base course thickness was
required to provide structural stability to support the daily
458 equivalent standard axle load along Birkdale Road (including
5% heavy traffic). Structurally, the top 150-mm-deep layer of
12-mm-diameter aggregate would only be adequate for lighter
loads (e.g., cars in parking lots), whereas the bottom 230-mm-deep
layer of 40-mm-diameter aggregate was required because of the
truck traffic and loading frequency in the live roadway. A secon-
dary motivation for the two layers was that the 40-mm aggregate
costs less than the 12-mm aggregate, resulting in a greater specified
depth of the former; the latter is still necessary to prevent migration
 to directly compare pollutant mass loadings from catchments of
equivalent sizes.
A Sigma 2149 tipping bucket rain gauge located near the end of
the PMP section recorded rainfall depth in 5-min intervals on the
basis of 0.25-mm bucket tips. Individual storm events were delin-
eated by at least 3 hours with less than 2 mm of rainfall conditional
also on cessation of runoff from both monitoring stations.
Runoff samples for water quality analysis were collected from
the upstream side of the V-notch weirs in each monitoring station.
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In an attempt to capture representative samples over the duration of

Fig. 3. PMP surface detail at Birkdale Road
of the 2–5 mm joint/bedding chip if a geotextile fabric is not used.
A 2007 investigation into underdrain construction revealed that ac-
tual base course depth varied from 590 to 660 mm in some areas
near the downhill end of the test section. Loss of joint chip was
observed by 2007 and replaced in April 2007.
Testing before construction by the installation team character-
ized subgrade soils as silty clay and clayey silt. Soil permeability
testing equipment broke during field measurements but perme-
ability was later estimated at 0:01 mm=d through on-site perc
testing.
Methodology
Data Collection
Monitoring equipment was installed in the 150-mm PMP under-
drain and the 225-mm pipe discharging from asphalt catchment
catchpit. Water depth in each pipe was recorded at 5-min intervals
by a Sigma 900MAX automatic sampler with pressure transducer
rated for up to 1.75 m depth with
2 mm accuracy. Pressure trans-
ducers were secured upstream of a 120° V-notch weir installed in
each pipe upstream of the discharge point to the storm sewer.
Laboratory replicas were used to develop rating curves for each
monitoring station, including all equipment that might cause
turbulence in the flow. Details of the laboratory replica are
presented in Fassman and Blackbourn (2010). Measured flow
from the asphalt catchment was scaled down on the basis of the
ratio of PMP surface area to asphalt catchment (200 m2 =895 m2 )
a hydrograph while also adequately sampling over a range of storm
events (e.g., short versus long durations), discrete 1 L samples were
collected more frequently during the first 2 hours of sampling, fol-
lowed by gradually increased time intervals until all bottles were
filled or no water was in the pipe. Samples were only analyzed if
sampling occurred over a period representing at least 60% of the
total runoff volume of a storm event, whereas the overall average
for all storms was in excess of 75% according to best practice guid-
ance from the American Society of Civil Engineers and the
U.S. EPA (Geosyntec Consultants and Urban Drainage and Flood
Control District 2002).
Up to 14 discrete samples from each monitoring station per
storm were analyzed for solids and heavy metal concentrations.
Total suspended solids and particle size distribution (PSD) testing
was carried out at the University of Auckland. To ensure laboratory
data quality, data-quality assurance procedures from the Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (American
Public Health Association et al. 1995) were followed. Zinc and
copper analysis were performed by an external New Zealand-
accredited laboratory. Analytical procedures and method detection
limits (MDL) are shown in Table 2. Results below the MDL are
reported as the MDL. Dissolved heavy metals are considered
bioavailable—the form taken up by biota and thus related to tox-
icity. Between 2006 and 2008, analysis of total metals was shifted
to total recoverable metals. Both procedures also encompass
dissolved fractions in the result. The total recoverable metals ana-
lytical procedure is considered to be a better measure of overall
heavy metals that are or could become bio-available to biota in
the chemical environment of the gill or the gut (U.S. EPA 1992).
Event mean concentrations were determined by numerically
compositing results of discrete sample analysis according to stan-
dard volumetric flow-weighting protocol. Within a single event,
different numbers of samples were sometimes analyzed for differ-
ent parameters, depending on available sample volume rather than
on analytical requirements. Numerical composites usually con-
sisted of 8–10 sample aliquots. One composite consisted of 6–8

Table 2. Pollutant Analysis Procedures

Parameter Testing procedure Method detection limit
pH AQUA TPS pH/Conductivity probe n/a
TSS Method 2540D (APHA, AWWA, WEF 1995), modified to filter > 200 mL 2:5 mg=L
of sample by pouring into the filtration device.
Total recoverable zinc and copper Nitric/hydrochloric acid extraction by EPA 1638 (U.S. EPA 1996). ICP-MS, 1:0 μg=L Zn; 0:5 μg=L Cu
trace level by Method 3125B (APHA, AWWA, WEF 2005)
Total zinc and copper Nitric acid digestion by Method 3030E (APHA, AWWA, WEF 1998). ICP-MS 1:0 μg=L Zn; 0:5 μg=L Cu
by Method 3125B (APHA, AWWA, WEF 1998)
Dissolved zinc and copper Sample filtration through nitric acid washed 0.45μm membrane filter 1:0 μg=L Zn; 0:5 μg=L Cu
by Method 3030B (APHA APHA, AWWA, WEF 2005). ICP-MS trace level
by Method 3125B (APHA APHA, AWWA, WEF 2005)
PSD Malvern laser diffraction particle analysis n/a

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J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729

 aliquots, but sampling occurred over the full hydrograph duration,
with short sampling intervals compared to hydrograph duration.
PSD was performed on volumetric flow-weighted composite
samples mixed from aliquots of well-mixed discrete samples.
PSD analysis was carried out for eight storms for the asphalt runoff
(three in 2006 and five in 2008) and 10 storms for the PMP under-
drain discharge (four in 2006 and six in 2008). The laser diffraction
methodology generally improved with increasing particulate con-
centration in the sample; however, treated runoff samples tended
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to produce relatively low particulate concentrations. The PSD test-
ing procedure produced skew in the range of 0.4–1 mm diameter
because of low sediment concentration in the PMP underdrain
discharge. Distinct individual particles were not observed in the
underdrain discharge, suggesting an absence of particles in this size
range. Raw data measured above 0.4 mm for PMP underdrain
discharge were attributed to instrument limitations and discarded
from the analysis.
Wash Test
PSD testing in 2006 suggested that sediments discharged from the
PMP underdrain were not sourced from the surface. A wash test
was performed in 2008 to determine if the sediment source was
actually from the materials used in the PMP system. Samples were
also analyzed for heavy metals because the effort had been
expended to set up the trial.
Wash tests were performed on each of the three aggregate
subbase materials: 2–5 mm aggregate chip for joints and bedding,
12 mm aggregate in the top 150 mm of the PMP base course, and
40 mm aggregate in the lower part of the base course.
The wash test apparatus consisted of a 2 m section of
100-mm-diameter PVC pipe. Caps were placed at the ends, and
hose nozzle fittings were sealed into the end caps. The tube was
then filled with the test material, and water was washed through
the tube at a rate of 0:0067 L=s. The resultant velocity in the pipe
was similar to the estimated velocity in the PMP base course during
peak runoff. Discharge water samples were collected after 6, 12,
and 24 h of washing.
Comparison among Performance Reports
Acceptance of new technologies often depends on empirical
evidence supporting performance across a range of applications.
To supplement the Birkdale Road site data, performance reports
from the printed literature (summarized in Table 1) and data from
the International Stormwater BMP Database (2010) were also ex-
plored. Of the nine sites in the BMP Database reporting TSS or zinc
data, six sites provided results for three storms or fewer, which was
deemed insufficient for analysis herein without comparison to a
reference site. Ultimately, data from two studies from Colorado
and one study from New Hampshire were used to further assess
permeable pavement water quality.
Results and Discussion
Storm-water quality monitoring at Birkdale Road occurred almost
continuously from March 2006 to early January 2007 and from
June 2008 to December 2008. Up to 13 complete storms were cap-
tured for water-quality analysis, depending on water-quality param-
eter. A complete storm was considered an event in which both
reference asphalt runoff and PMP underdrain discharge samples
were collected, which allowed for calculation of percent differen-
ces. A few additional storms analyzed for either reference asphalt
runoff or PMP underdrain discharge EMCs were used to character-
ize the pollutant distribution from each monitoring station. EMCs
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J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729
were further explored through probability distributions (Pitt 2002)
in an attempt to provide a more comprehensive interpretation of
treatment performance than typical considerations of mean or
median statistics, or percent removals.
The sampling program aimed to characterize typical perfor-
mance. Auckland is described by 1,240 mm of mean annual precipi-
tation spread relatively evenly over 137 wet days (> 1:0 mm=day
rainfall) (National Institute of Water and Atmosphere Science
2000). It was considered important to sample events as frequently
as feasible, reflecting the frequency of storm runoff while acknowl-
edging the practical limitations of resetting equipment and the qual-
ity assurance requirements for sample representation of the runoff
hydrograph. As a result, short antecedent dry periods were occasion-
ally encountered (Table 3), namely storms on December 19, 2006;
September 11, 2008; and October 7, 2008.
Event Mean Concentration Analysis
Individual event EMCs are presented in Table 3; overall results are
summarized in Table 4. Analysis of individual event data indicated
that there was no deterioration in water-quality characteristics in
either monitoring station between the distinct study periods and
over a total of approximately 2.5 years. The difference between
total zinc or copper and total recoverable zinc or copper between
2006 and 2007 and 2008 reflects the change in analytical method
rather than implying a change in site behavior. Statistically signifi-
cant differences were observed between PMP underdrain discharge
and asphalt EMCs for all parameters (all p-values ≤ 0:002), as
shown in Table 4. SPSS statistical software (formerly, Predictive
Analytics SoftWare Statistics 18) was used for analysis. The
Shapiro and Wilk test for normality (Shapiro and Wilk 1965) in-
dicated that all parameter EMCs followed a log-normal distribution
(all p-values > 0:05), with the exception of dissolved zinc. EMC
differences for parameters other than dissolved zinc were statisti-
cally assessed by using the student t-test on log-transformed data,
whereas dissolved zinc EMC distributions were assessed for differ-
ences with the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test for independent
samples.
Birkdale Road reference asphalt total or total recoverable zinc
EMCs are higher than other reference sites (Table 1) but not atypi-
cal for Auckland runoff (Kennedy 2003). They are also comparable
to reference data from the only other active roadway monitoring
site (Barrett 2008). It is feasible that the overall higher Birkdale
Road zinc concentrations compared to the literature reflect the site
characteristics, e.g., a downhill section of roadway that produces
above average brake wear. Total recoverable copper and total
recoverable zinc from the reference asphalt is 59 and 53%, respec-
tively, in particulate form (Table 3), suggesting that treating asphalt
runoff by using a combination of particulate and dissolved pollutant
removal mechanisms (e.g., sedimentation, filtration including
sorption, and/or precipitation) is needed to substantially reduce
potential toxicity from these heavy metals to biota in receiving
environments.
The PMP underdrain discharged only 9% of zinc in dissolved
form, suggesting that sorption of zinc to the PMP materials oc-
curred. Over the measured pH range (Table 3), zinc is likely to re-
main sorbed to particulates within the PMP base course (Sawyer
et al. 1994). Dissolved copper may generally prove problematic
for permeable pavements. Copper mobility is affected by pH,
moisture content, and organic matter (Altaher 2001; Howell and
Gawthorne 1987). Whereas, organic content should not be relevant
in permeable pavement, the fluctuating moisture content may be
the reason that more copper was found in dissolved form (42%)
than zinc (9%) in the PMP underdrain. Keeping perspective on po-
tential receiving water impacts the actual magnitude of the average
 Table 3. Asphalt Runoff versus PMP Underdrain Discharge Individual Storm Event Mean Concentrations
Total copper Total zinc Dissolved Dissolved
pHa TSS (mg/L) (μg/L)b (μg/L) copper (μg/L) zinc (μg/L)
Storm Antecedent
Storm date depth (mm) dry period (d) Asph PMP Asph PMP Asph PMP Asph PMP Asph PMP Asph PMP
9/09/2006 45.2 12.0 6.3 7.3 186.9 44.3
10/16/2006 19.7 5.4 66.2 13.7 260.8 5.2 178.4
10/23/2006 30.7 6.2 26.0
11/07/2006 19.4 8.2 9.8 7.5 48.0 28.8 8.3 5.4 156.3 14.8 6.1 2.0 34.8 1.0
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11/18/2006 15.5 1.7 7.0 7.6 167.5 28.2 19.3 4.9 252.9 11.7 3.9 1.6 75.3 1.0
11/30/2006 18.5 2.3 6.6 7.6 121.6 63.7 15.8 6.2 246.1 14.9 4.5 1.7 126.6 1.0
12/19/2006 8.1 0.6 6.8 7.9 54.4 45.5 5.7 9.3 2.7 1.0
01/09/2007 24.8 12.3 8.0 46.3 7.5 15.9 2.4 1.0
2006 Average 107.4 40.4 14.3 5.9 229 13.3 3.9 2.1 103.8 1.0
2006 Median 93.9 44.3 14.8 5.7 249.5 14.8 4.5 2.0 101.0 1.0
9/11/2008 11.4 0.6 6.9 7.6 35.5 36.4 9.3 4.4 72.3 13.3 4.5 1.6 33.7 1.0
9/17/2008 15.5 5.4 74.4 19.8 9.6 3.8 61.5 12.2 5.2 1.6 41.8 1.6
10/06/2008 12.4 5.0 6.8 7.9 40.8 43.5 11.4 3.9 76.5 10.7 7.5 1.9 47.1 1.0
10/07/2008 25.3 0.6 7.0 7.7 126.3 75.8 12.6 7.6 98.5 26.0 3.4 2.7 48.9 1.0
10/17/2008 15.3 5.7 6.9 7.1 22.0 14.4 10.9 4.1 105.8 11.7 4.6 1.7 35.7 1.0
10/24/2008 19.3 1.0 6.5 7.3 93.4 26.0 6.8 4.7 66.4 10.5 2.9 2.3 31.1 1.0
10/26/2008 9.4 1.2 5.8 6.8 241.4 15.4 27.3 3.3 187.2 7.5 3.3 1.7 62.1 1.0
11/05/2008 13.1 2.8 66.5 7.0 22.5 2.2 1.0
11/23/2008 13.2 6.0 7.5 8.4 128.7 39.0 15.4 5.8 105.2 10.6 6.1 2.8 39.8 1.6
12/09/2008 33.1 7.5 90.9 7.7 20.7 2.5 1.0
2008 Average 95.3 42.8 12.9 5.2 96.7 14.6 4.7 2.1 42.5 1.1
2008 Median 83.9 37.7 11.2 4.6 87.5 12.0 4.6 2.1 40.8 1.0
a
Arithmetic average of discrete samples.
b
Analytical method was for total metals in 2006 and 2007 and total recoverable metals in 2008.

dissolved copper EMC (2:1
0:2 μg=L) (Table 4), which is less
than the U.S. EPA’s chronic or acute effects threshold (3:1 μg=L
and 4:8 μg=L, respectively) for marine water quality (freshwater
criteria depends on hardness, which was not measured in this study)
(Burton and Pitt 2002).
Average TSS in the PMP underdrain discharge (41:8 mg=L)
shown in Table 3 is greater than the typical values reported in
Table 1, with the exception of the modular block study in Colorado
site 2. Median EMC TSS from Birkdale Road (39:0 mg=L) does
substantially exceed the Colorado site 2 median (11:5 mg=L)
(International Stormwater BMP Database 2010), implying overall
that TSS was not well controlled at Birkdale Road compared to
other permeable pavement installations.
An initial reaction would be to attribute discrepancies between
this site and other sites to site-specific characteristics; questioning
loading in particular because Birkdale Road is subject to truck and

Table 4. Treatment Summary

Total Total
Total recoverable Dissolved recoverable Dissolved
Characteristic pH TSS coppera copperb copper Total zinca zincb zinc
Asphalt runoff (mg/L TSS Average 6:99
0:55 100:5
33:9 14:3
4:5 12:9
4:4 4:8
0:8 229:0
47:9 96:7
28:1 63:0
25:5
or μg/L metals) EMCc
Median 6.84 83.9 14.7 11.1 4.6 249.5 87.5 44.5
EMC
PMP underdrain Average 7:66
0:22 41:8
10:3 5:9
0:9 5:2
1:0 2:1
0:2 13:3
2:4 14:6
3:8 1:1
0:1
discharge EMCc
(mg/L TSS Median 7.66 39.0 5.7 4.6 2.0 14.8 12.0 1.0
or μg/L metals) EMC
P valued 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Average concentration difference (%)c 49
18 57
23 58
12 55
11 93
3 85
5 97
1
Average mass difference (%)c 65
17 79
9 68
15 69
15 97
1 88
7 98
0
Number of events 13 3 8 11 3 8 11
a
2006–2007 data.
b
2008 data.
c
Average of individual events
95% confidence interval.
d
Assessment of statistically significant difference between asphalt runoff and PMP underdrain EMC; statistics calculated on log-transformed paired
water-quality data for all parameters except dissolved zinc, which was assessed by using the Mann-Whitney U test with untransformed data.

JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / NOVEMBER 2011 / 725

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729

 bus traffic. At Birkdale Road, PMP underdrain discharge water
quality was not correlated to untreated runoff water quality accord-
ing to Pearson (Milton and Arnold 1995) correlation on log-
transformed data for TSS, total/total recoverable zinc, or total/
total recoverable copper. Data from the New Hampshire study
(International Stormwater BMP Database 2010) was also investi-
gated. Spearman’s rho correlation again failed to identify correla-
tions between the New Hampshire reference site and permeable
pavement water quality for TSS or total zinc. Unfortunately, at
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Road, EMC distributions of reference asphalt TSS and dissolved
zinc EMCs range over an order of magnitude (Figs. 4 and 5). De-
rived from Birkdale Road data, a percent removal metric to predict
performance subsequently applied at another site would suggest
that treated discharge would also range over an order of magnitude.
However, Figs. 4 and 5 demonstrate that the distribution of PMP
discharge EMCs is actually rather small for all parameters, meaning
that it would be reasonable to expect a range of only a few μg/L or
mg/L of pollutant in the treated discharge, regardless of conditions.

the time of analysis the International Stormwater BMP Database
(2010) provided only one concurrent study of permeable pavement
and reference site runoff. Whereas site type (e.g., parking versus
roadway) may influence the availability of pollutants on a conven-
tional pavement surface, it does not appear to be related to per-
meable pavement underdrain discharge water quality.
Consistency and reliability are important characteristics for
treatment systems to protect receiving environments. At Birkdale
The amount of time that runoff exceeds critical values
(e.g., water-quality standards) may be as significant as the dis-
charge quality itself with regard to potential receiving water im-
pacts (Ackerman and Stein 2008). At Birkdale Road, 90% of
total recoverable zinc and 60% of total recoverable copper PMP
EMCs were approximately one-third the concentration of only
10% of the cleanest reference asphalt samples. In other words,
nearly all samples from the PMP underdrain were approximately

Fig. 4. Particulate parameter EMC probability distributions

Fig. 5. Dissolved parameter EMC probability distributions

726 / JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / NOVEMBER 2011

J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729

 one-third of the value of only the few cleanest samples from the
reference asphalt. Likewise, all dissolved zinc samples would be
expected at an order of magnitude less EMC than the cleanest
10% of reference asphalt samples.
Percent Differences
Summary water-quality performance is presented in Table 4 in
EMC and pollutant mass percent differences. At Birkdale Road,
the pollutant percent removal commonly used to assess treatment
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efficiency between inflows and outflows of storm-water treatment
devices is not an accurate term, as runoff from the reference asphalt
catchment does not flow onto or into the PMP for treatment. The
PMP acts as a self-mitigating source control to prevent pollutant
discharge. A mathematical percent difference in EMCs demon-
strates comparative discharge quality between the untreated refer-
ence asphalt catchment (EMCAsphalt ) and the PMP underdrain
discharge (EMCPMP ) as shown in Eq. (1):
EMCasphalt  EMCPMP
EMC % difference ¼ × 100% ð1Þ
EMCasphalt
In Eq. (1), pollutant mass (determined by the product of EMC and
runoff volume) for each monitoring station may be substituted for
EMCs to determine percent differences in pollutant loadings.
Although the Birkdale Road PMP site was installed over clayey
subsoils, some reduction in underdrain discharge volume was
measured compared to rainfall volume, whereas runoff from the
reference asphalt catchment generally mirrored rainfall. Runoff
volume control was significant for frequently occurring small
storms (Fassman and Blackbourn 2010), indicating the potential
for good water-quality control on a mass basis. All but one of
the storms sampled for water quality from the reference asphalt
catchment were less than the local water quality storm depth of
28 mm, whereas two storms sampled from the PMP discharge were
greater than 28 mm of rain (Table 3).
The reduction in runoff volume contributed to greater differen-
ces in pollutant mass loads rather than EMCs discharged from the
PMP compared to the reference asphalt catchment (Table 4). Differ-
ences in EMCs were statistically significant, but the comparison of
mass loadings highlights the importance of runoff volume control
in reducing NPS impact to receiving waters. The arithmetic average
of the difference in TSS discharge increased by 16% when mass
loads were considered rather than only EMCs for the PMP under-
drain discharge (Table 4). Only when the 95% confidence interval
on the average mass difference (upper bound of 82%) is considered
Fig. 6. Wash test and average Birkdale Road PSD analyses
JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / NOVEMBER 2011 / 727
J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729
does the PMP potentially satisfy the 75%-removal local regulatory
requirement for storm-water treatment devices.
The larger percent differences determined for zinc than copper
(Table 4) exemplifies one of the criticisms of using a percent
removal calculation as a stand-alone measure of performance rather
than any particular characteristic of the PMP. The influence of the
asphalt runoff characterization is substantial in Eq. (1). At Birkdale
Road, asphalt runoff zinc (total, total recoverable, or dissolved)
EMCs were typically an order of magnitude greater than copper
for each storm sampled; the PMP zinc discharge EMCs were only
2–3 times greater than copper (Table 3). Hence, a higher percent
difference for zinc will be determined from Eq. (1), potentially
implying less capacity to manage copper. The analysis of copper
PMP EMCs indicates that copper is below U.S. EPA marine effects
thresholds, regardless of the percent difference measure. It is
therefore concluded that the PMP system effectively discharges
significantly less EMCs and less mass of heavy metals than a con-
ventional asphalt surface.
PMP Underdrain Discharge Pollutant Source
Assessment
Average PSD for each of 20 particle size bands were compiled from
individual storm results and component wash testing to produce
Fig. 6. Most sediments discharged from the PMP underdrain were
in the 5–6 μm-size range (clay), whereas most of the pollutants
from the reference asphalt runoff were in the 70–80 μm-size range
(silt-fine sand). Difference in color between asphalt surface TSS
samples (black) and PMP underdrain discharge TSS samples (light
brown) seemed to reflect surface source materials. Likewise, lack
of statistical correlation between reference asphalt and PMP
underdrain EMCs called to question the source of pollutants
discharged from the PMP.
Wash test pollutant concentrations from the 2–5 mm chip were
extremely high compared to the 12 and 40 mm base course materi-
als for all parameters (Table 5). The PMP construction specification
did not call for washed aggregates. Compared to base course
materials, the small particle size of the joint/bedding chip means
the potential for very large surface area. Unwashed construction
materials are typically stored in an open stockyard, thereby creating
an opportunity to be coated with dust that is not removed before
installation. As the PSD of PMP underdrain discharge indicated
a predominance of clay (known to be the prevalent soil type
in the Auckland region), it is likely sourced from the unwashed
2–5 mm joint/bedding chip. Clay (5–6 μm) would easily migrate
 Table 5. Wash Test Results
Average concentration a water-quality treatment, the PMP should not be overloaded with
Total Total
recoverable recoverable
Construction material TSS (mg/L) copper (μg/L) zinc (μg/L)
2–5 mm joint/bedding 337.4 14.1 65.0
aggregate
12 mm base course 31.5 1.4 4.0
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(top layer aggregate)
40 mm base course 17.2 2.2 6.6
(bottom layer aggregate)
a system provides less TSS control, but good control of other pollu-
Average of samples measured after 6, 12, and 24 h of washing.
through the geotextile with EOS ≤ 250 μm separating the bedding
layer from the base course in the field. Replacement of joint chip in
the field in April 2007 would have continued to provide the clay
detected in the 2008 monitoring.
Furthermore, field data for PMP underdrain TSS was correlated
to total recoverable copper on log-transformed data (p ¼ 0:01),
whereas total recoverable zinc was correlated to total recoverable
copper (p ¼ 0:05). If the sediment in the PMP underdrain discharge
is sourced from the joint/bedding aggregate chip, it can also be con-
cluded that most heavy metals in the underdrain discharge are, too.
An alternate joint/bedding aggregate chip specification, at least
calling for well-washed aggregates, should improve discharge
EMC and render it consistent with other permeable pavement
installations reported in the literature (Table 1).
Conclusions
A 200 m2 PMP test site was installed along Birkdale Road in
Auckland, New Zealand. Data from the PMP section and an
adjacent reference conventional asphalt section were collected
concurrently between 2006 and 2008. Monitoring results indicate
that PMP is an effective tool for minimizing NPS discharges from
transportation-related land uses.
Contaminant concentrations and loadings were measured for
TSS, total and dissolved zinc and copper, and pH. Statistically sig-
nificant differences in EMCs between reference asphalt runoff and
PMP underdrain discharge were measured for log-transformed
paired data for all parameters. A measurable change in PMP dis-
charge water quality over approximately 2.5 years was not observed.
Reference asphalt runoff requires a combination of sedimentation
and filtration to reduce potential receiving water impacts from heavy
metals, whereas the PMP demonstrates sorption effectively limits
dissolved zinc in the discharge. Dissolved copper may not be as well
controlled over the long term because it is more mobile than zinc in
moist environments; however, results to date indicate that copper
from the PMP does not pose a threat to receiving water quality.
For all of the pollutants analyzed at Birkdale Road, water quality
in the reference asphalt runoff varied significantly from storm to
storm, in particular, TSS and dissolved zinc ranged over an order
of magnitude. Conversely, for all parameters, the PMP underdrain
discharged relatively clean EMCs over a range of only a few μg/L
(heavy metals) or mg/L (TSS) and regardless of conditions. Con-
sistency in discharge water quality from treatment devices or source
controls may improve development of watershed management
strategies because more reliable estimates of receiving water loads
are enabled.
It is feasible to infer that the PMP could adequately treat run-on
from the asphalt catchment without compromising performance.
Considering the probability distribution of EMCs combined with
728 / JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / NOVEMBER 2011
J. Irrig. Drain Eng., 2011, 137(11): 720-729
a known storage volume exceeding minimum requirements for
additional source area.
PSD and wash testing of PMP components combined with cor-
relation analysis suggested that the joint/bedding aggregate chip
was the primary source of pollutants in the PMP underdrain dis-
charge. Identifying an alternative chip or, at least, specifying a
well-washed material should further improve results. Nonetheless,
PMP underdrain discharge was of markedly better water quality
than untreated asphalt runoff.
Local regulations require 75% TSS removal on a long-term
average basis but exceptions may be made in which a treatment
tants of concern, e.g., heavy metals. Over complete storm events
sampled at Birkdale Road, the upper bound of the 95% confidence
level on average difference between pollutant mass discharges from
the reference asphalt catchment and the PMP system was 82% for
TSS. Average mass differences for total recoverable or dissolved
copper were approximately 70%, total recoverable zinc was ap-
proximately 90%, and dissolved zinc was 98%. Large differences
overall are attributed to runoff volume control despite installation
over clay soils.
Empirical evidence presented herein suggests that PMP should
provide comprehensive water-quality treatment of storm-water
discharges for pollutants of concern locally; however, a decision
to include the technology as an accepted practice for storm-water
control lies entirely in the hands of the policy makers.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the North Shore City Council, the
Auckland Regional Council through the Stormwater Action Plan,
Maunsell Ltd. (now AECOM), and TechNZ. Viewpoints expressed
in this paper are those of the writers and do not reflect policy or
otherwise of the funding agencies. Special thanks are extended
to Steve Crossland, formerly with Stevensons, for materials
supply; Miriam Ortheil and Matthias Sindern for conducting the
2008 site survey; and Javier Barcelo and Emily Voyde for assis-
tance with presentation. Thanks also to University of Auckland
technician David Jenkinson for assistance with PSD analysis.
Finally, the writers would like to acknowledge contributions by
David Kettle.
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