Fundamentals of Pore Pressure:

An Introduction
Instructor: Hatem A.

Date: May, 2018

UEP - Karachi - Pakistan

Safety Moment

2
 Agenda for the Week
• 1st Day: Introduction and Pore Pressure Theory

• 2nd Day: Continue Pore Pressure Theory– Class

Exercise. Fracture Pressure

• 3rd Day: Buoyancy and Centroid. Exercise

• 4th Day: Wellbore Stability.
• 5th Day: Continue Wellbore stability.
• Conclusion and Questions.
 “Human Error”

But which human(s)?

What error?
4
.
 What is Geomechanics?
• “Geo”  Earth

• “Mechanics”
– Statics  the analysis of physical
systems in static equilibrium
– Dynamics  the analysis of physical
systems in which motion
occurs
• Geomechanics deals with understanding
the mechanical behavior of the Earth. The
interplay of various forces, pressures and
stresses with various properties of Earth
materials is key to this understanding.
5
 Geomechanics Applications in Petroleum Industry
Characteristics of problems: mechanical impact related

Start Exploration Drilling Completion Production Finish

Subsidence
Casing integrity

Fault reactivation

Wellbore stability
Hydraulic
fracturing
Fault sealing Compaction

Unconventional reservoirs Sand control

Need complete Geomechanics study from the stage of planning to the stage of finishing
 Geomechanics Subdivisions/Applications

• “Drilling”
– Pre-Drill
– While-Drilling
• Well-site
• Remote
• “Reservoir”
– Sanding
– Frac job design
– Completion design
– Subsidence
– Reservoir performance

7
.
Component Discipline(s) of Geomechanics
• Parts of several
disciplines

• Petrophysics
• Geology
• Geophysics
• Drilling Engineering
• Rock Mechanics
• Soil Mechanics
• Reservoir Engineering
• Basin Modeling
• Geochemistry

8
Value Proposition : Reduce Non-Productive
Time
Service Company
Equipment
Rig Contractor
Pore Pressure and 7% Equipment
Wellbore Stability Pore Pressure
8%
Drilling
Problems 41% Prediction 27% Equipment
59% Procedures &
44% 11% Training
Drilling
Drilling
Kicks Environment
Management

Stuck Pipe 7% Risk

Lost Circulation Management
Other
Hole Collapse 17%
Pack-off 14%
Wellbore
Low ROP Stability
9%
Other
Tight Hole
Weather
High Torque

US $8 Billion in Costs to the Industry

(James Dodson survey, 2001)
 Types of Non-Productive Time
• “Visible”
– stuck pipe
– lost circulation
– well control
– tool failures
– rig downtime
– wellbore instability
– sloughing shales
– Influx
• “Invisible”
– Excess MW, reduced ROP
– Excessive bit trips
– Hole conditioning
– Other sub-optimality in the drilling process
 Lost Opportunity 12000’

Case history of needless hole problems

•PP pre-planning from vertical offset well MW

•No wellbore stability pre-planning
•GOM continental shelf well
•High deviation

KOP 10000’
To 50
Lost Opportunity
 Time Value of Information

FOR
 VP #3 - Create a High Quality Wellbore

•Reduce - Washouts, Breakout, Drilling Induced Fractures, Lost Circulation

•Improve - Logging Conditions, Casing Runs, Cement Jobs, Productivity
 Allowable Mud Weight Range

Mud Weights
• Must lie within the range bounded by:
- Maximum of pore pressure or shear failure
gradient
- Fracture gradient minus safety margin
Casing
• Used when mud weights must be increased
above shallower fracture gradients to keep
pace with deeper pore pressures.

“Safe Mud Weight Window”

Consequences!
 Data Sources and Types

• Well logs
• Well reports
• Seismic/checkshots
• LOT/FIT/loss circulation
• Direct pore pressure measurements (DST,
RFT, MFT)
• Mud weight
• Well flow/kicks
• Gas shows
• Directional
• Casing setting depths
A pressure is a force divided by the surface where
this force applies.
Pressure Pascal = Force Newton / Surface m2

The official pressure unit is the Pascal

It is a very small unit: 1 Pascal = 1 Newton/m2
1 bar = 105 Pascal
1 Mega Pascal = 10 bars
A practical unit on the rig is the kgf/cm2
1 kgf/cm2 = 0.981 bar

In API , the unit is the pound per square inch (psi)

1 bar = 14.4988 psi
So, What is the
difference
between a
Force &
Pressure?
A Force is Unidirectional
And can be either :

1-Tensional
2-Compressional
Pressure – Omnidirectional = All directions
 1.Hydrostatic pressure : Ph

Pressure exerted by the weight of a static column of fluid

It is a function of fluid specific gravity and of vertical height of
the fluid
Ph = d * g * H

With Ph = hydrostatic pressure (Pascal)

d = Fluid specific gravity (kg/m3)
H = Vertical height of fluid (m)
g = 9.8 m / sec^2
Using well site units, the formula becomes :
Ph = H*d
10
Consequently, in the following sketches, the Ph is xxxxxxxxx

H
Pascal was betting he could destroy a barrel with just a pint of water:
He fixed a long and thin tube on the barrel and poured the water, the volume
of water was small, but the height was enough to make the barrel explode !


With Ph= hydrostatic pressure (bar or kg/cm2)

With Ph= hydrostatic pressure (bar or kg/cm2)

d = Fluid specific gravity (kg/l)
H = Vertical height of fluid (m)
NB : the term 10 is approached, for precision, you
should use 10.2 with pressure in bars and 9.6 for
pressure in kg/cm2

In API, the formula is:

Ph = 0.052 * H * d
With Ph= hydrostatic pressure (psi)
d = Fluid specific gravity (ppg)
H = Vertical height of fluid (ft)
Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient:

Or 3.28 psi / m

HG = (P2 –P1 / D2 – D1) x 10 kg/m^2 / m

HG = (P2 – P1 / D2 – D1 ) PSI / m
The conversion factor for pressure gradient
to mud weight equivalent is as follows:

1.0 lbf/in2 3 1 BBL 19.25 lbf

144 in2 5.615 ft
X X X =
ft ft2 BBL
42 GAL GAL

= 19.25 ppg

Therefore, 1.0 psi/ft is equivalent to 19.25 ppg mud or

(the inverse) equal to 0.052 GAL/lbf.

Height of fluid 1000 Fluid SG 10 Ph 520.00

(ft): (ppg): psi:
 Fluid Density Gradients
Pressure
Fluid Density Gradient:
= DPressure / DTVD due to
a fluid’s weight.
0.15 psi/ft (gas)
True Vertical Depth (TVD)

In a permeable zone, equals the local

pressure gradient.
0.30 psi/ft (oil)

Typical Fluid Density Gradients

Fluid Density Gradient
0.45 psi/ft (water) (g/cc) (psi/ft)
Gas 0.23-0.46 0.10-0.20

Oil 0.64-0.80 0.25-0.35

Normal
Pressure RFT’s Water 1.00-1.20 0.43-0.52
 Wellbore Pressure Terms
Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW): mud density required to produce a given
pressure at a give depth.
EMW in lbs/gal (ppg) = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) / 0.052
EMW in g/cc = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) / 0.434

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD): sum of the hydrostatic pressure of the

mud column plus friction losses caused by pushing the mud up the annulus.
Usually given as EMW, but may also be expressed as pressure.

Balanced Wellbore Pressure: wellbore pressure exactly equals the pore

pressure.

Underbalance/Overbalance: wellbore pressure less than/greater than the pore

pressure.

11/29/98 Applied Mechanics Technologies 32

Normal (Hydrostatic) Pressure vs Connate Water Salinity

0.52 psi/ft Saturated SW

Specific Gravity = 1.2

0.455 psi/ft SW
Specific Gravity = 1.05

.433 psi/ft FW
Specific Gravity = 1.0
Theory of Equivalent Density

Jjjjjjjjjjjjj
Jjjjjjjjjjjjjjj
jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj
 Definitions
Normal Pressure =
Pressure Stress/Pressure Hydrostatic pressure of
column of pore water from
current depth to surface.
Abnormal Pressure = Pore
pressure which exceeds
Overburden Stress
normal pressure.
The terms Abnormal
Pressure and Overpressure
Abnormal are sometimes used
Pressure interchangeably..
Subnormal Pressure =
Pore pressure < Normal
pore pressure.
Pore Pressure
Normal Overburden Stress =
Pressure Vertical stress caused by the
weight of overlying
formations and fluids.
 Overburden Stress
Area = 1 in.2 Weights
Density (g/cc) (lbs. / in.2)
Thickness
(ft.) t1 r1 0.434r1t1
t2 r2 0.434r2t2
r1
t3 r3 0.434r3t3
r2
r3 t4 r4 0.434r4t4

r4 t5 r5 0.434r5t5

r5

Overburden Stress = Total Weight / in.2

= 0.434(r1t1 + r2t2 + r3t3 + r4t4 + r5t5)

r6
 and Water

Overburden Pore Effective

Stress - Pressure = Stress
 Overburden Stress: S

At a given depth, the overburden is the pressure (applying on fluids) or stress

(applying on matrix) exerted by the weight of the overlying sediments.
S = H * rb
10
With S = Overburden stress (kg/cm2)
rb = Formation bulk density
H = Vertical Thickness of sediments (m)

In API, the formula is:

S = H * rb * 0.433
With S = Overburden stress (psi)
rb = Formation average bulk density (no unit)
H = Vertical thickness of overlying sediments (ft)
 The bulk density of a sediment is a function of the
matrix density, the porosity and the density of the fluid
in the pores.
rb = (f * rf) + (1-f) * rm

With rb = Bulk density (no unit)

rf = Formation fluid density (no unit)
f = Porosity (from 0 to 1)
rm = Matrix density (no unit)

With depth, the sediment porosity will

decrease under the effect of compaction
(proportional to overburden) and of course, the
bulk density will increase.
 Relationship between bulk density and depth

On shore Off shore

rb rb
2.31 2.31

Sea botttom

Depth
Depth
 Normal Pressure Regimes Definitions: Overpressure
Pressure

Pob = Pm + Pw

Depth
Pob = Overburden Pressure
Pm = Matrix Pressure
Pw = Fluid Pressure

Pob  [Rhom (1 - f )  Rhow (f )]D

Rhom = Matrix Density
Rhow = Water Density
Pw Pm
D = Depth
f  porosity

Pressure
Abnormal Pressure Regimes

Depth
(Over or Underpressure)

OBG = ES + PP

OBG = Overburden Pressure ES

ES = Effective Stress PP
PP = Pore Pressure
OP

Velocity, Density and Resistivity all React to Changes in PP & Effective Stress,
Especially in Shales - Less in Sandstones & Carbonates
 Clay Compaction
(Terzaghi’s Effective Stress Principle)

sponge
+ plastic bag
H20 sponge
+ H2O

weight weight

H20 H20 H20

weight weight KICK

H20 H20
H2O

NORMAL COMPACTION UNDERCOMPACTION <=> OVERPRESSURE

 Overpressure from increasing stress
S = Sob + ST Total Stress = OB + Tectonic Increase
stress on sediment faster than it can drain, controlled by rate
of increase and permeability

Terzhagi
and Peck
springs

Permeability
 Effective Stress
Terzaghi’s Equation states that the
overburden (Sv) is supported by a
The Effective Stress is
combination of the pore pressure (Pf) and
the difference between
the effective stress (σe).
the PP and the OBP
Sv = Pf + σe

Overburden Pressure
Effective Stress = Sv - Pf
At In Situ Conditions:
Vertical Effective Stress = Sv - Pf.
Pore Pressure This portion of the overburden is carried
by the rock grains.
It is the effective stress that causes
compaction. Most of the pore
pressure models calculate σe and
then back out the corresponding pore
pressure.
 Origins of Abnormal Pressure (1)
Undercompaction (Compaction Disequilibrium)
- Trapped pore fluid squeezed by the overburden
Fluid Expansion
- Trapped pore fluid constrained from increasing in volume
* Heating (Aquathermal pressuring)
* Clay Diagenesis
* Hydrocarbon Maturation
* Charging from other overpressured zones
* Up-dip Transfer of Reservoir Pressures (Lateral Transfer)
Tectonics
- Trapped pore fluid squeezed by tectonic stresses
 Origins of Abnormal Pressure (2)

Faults and Fractures:

Conduits for pressures from deeper zones, or
Seals against fluid movement

Poor drilling practices on offset well:

Insufficient sealing of permeable zones eg, leakage via poor
cement around a casing string or across permeable zone

Topography:
Well elevation relative to potentiometric surface

Structure:
Centroids
Clay
Clay Platelet Structure
Clay and Formation Water

Molecular dynamics
"snapshot" of water
molecules (blue and
white), sodium ions
(purple), and methane
molecules (yellow-
brown) intercalated
simultaneously between
two layers of
montmorillonite, a
common clay mineral.
 Water Expulsion

Thats a lot of water. It all has to go somewhere.

Bulk density increase with burial
Depth = 8m
Density = 1.48 g/cc
Solids = 33% 2.5

Fluid = 67%
2

Depth = 100m

Weight, kg/m3
1. 5
Density = 1.71 g/cc
Solids = 52% 1

Fluid = 48%
0.5

Depth = 210m
0
0 10 0 200 300
Density = 1.97 g/cc
Depth, m
Solids = 73%
Fluid = 27%
 Hydrostatic pressure during normal compaction
Fluid Pressure, Pf, bars
Sea level

River delta
D

Pf=0.0981*pfl*D
Vertical Depth, metres

Free water expelled as sediments compact

Sediment Pore Fluid

Weight of Grains
overlying
sediment
supported via
grain-to-grain
contact
Abnormal pressure due to compaction disequilibrium
Sea level

Hydrostatic Pressure

Free water expelled as sediments compact

Sediment Pore Fluid

Grains
Low permeability zone Some of weight
impedes normal water of overlying
expulsion sediment
supported by
pore fluids
 Computed porosity decrease with burial, US Gulf Coast

f=0.41e-0.000085Ds
Porosity
0.01 0.1 1
0

2000

4000
Sediment Depth, Ds, ft

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

20000
 Porosity decrease with burial

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
%
0 Por

500

1000

1500

A thy, P enns ylv , P erm

2000

v o n Engelwardt, G erm ., Lias

2500
Sto rer, P o , M io c /P lio c

D ic k ins o n, G ulf C o as t, T ert

3000
mTV M agara, J apan, T ert
D
3500

4000

4500

5000
Compaction depends on shale de-watering

Water escape

Controlled by permeability
 Shale Permeability
How one conceives the shale permeability in
overpressured rocks affects how all aspects of
pressure prediction and detection are interpreted.

Two schools (with plenty of gray in between):

1) Slow Darcy flow, permeability well known from

Core measurements and basin models

2) Near impermeability due to non-Darcy flow in

extremely small pores (shale) and affect of adsorbed,
crystalline-like water on clay; threshold gradient
(Miller and Low, 1963)
 Shale Permeability
Consequence of FLOW school:
Pressure of sands and adjacent shale
should be very similar (flow!)
Therefore:
Log and seismic methods should be calculating
pressure in shale which is very close to
sandstone pressure. Frustrated at times.

Consequence of SEAL school:

Sandstone and adjacent shales can be at very
different pressure. Log calculations may not
directly estimate adjacent sandstone pressure.
Shale Permeability - Flow

Mouchet and Mitchell (1989)

Hydrocarbon Generation
Hydrocarbon Generation & Cracking
of Oil to Gas: Generates High
Pressures and Fractures the Source
Rocks in Order to Migrate from them.
0

Conversion of
5
Oil to Gas @
3000 Cu.Ft./BBL
Depth, ft/1000

10

Effect of 25% Oil

in a Reservoir
15

20
0 30
10 20 40
Pressure, psi/1000
Other OverPressure Causes: Clay Diagenesis
Bound Water Layer (3 Ao)

Smectite Grain 10 Ao
Illite
Dry Grain
Clay 100 Ao
Smectite “Particle”

Smectite Illite
Illite “Particle”

Illite Grain Smectite-Illite Transformation

o
100 C • Requires temperature of 100o C.
• Smectite’s bound water expelled
Expelled into pore space.
Bound • Bound water tries to expand 1.04-
Water 1.1 times as it turns into pore water.
 Aquathermal Pressuring

20 DL Pore water expands 15-

Pore Water
20 times more rapidly
DL than the pore space.
L

Excess Pressure
Necessary to Make Water
Fit Inside Pore Space
 Aquathermal pressuring
Often cited for origin of underpressure due to
cooling contraction during uplift

Uplift

Burial
 “Pump” origins – Diagenesis & Osmosis:

Clay sediment at point of “sealing”

Cementation takes up
pore space displacing
water. Decreasing pore
volume increases
pressure; PVT.

Cement
Osmosis – water
“pumped” in due to
salinity differences
across the clay / shale
membrane.
Osmosis
Pressure leakage via faults or poor well seals

A. Communication B. Poor cement or C. Leaking cement plugs

along fault damaged casing in abandoned well
 Pressure gradients in reservoir with
constant overpressure
(1500*1.05*0.0981) + 100 = 254.5 bars
254.5/1500 = 0.1697 bar/m = 1.73 sg EMW
Pressure, bars

P/Z=0.1697 bar/m
1500m
3000m ‘Hard’ overpressure

Depth, m
1500m
P/Z=0.1363 bar/m
‘Soft’ overpressure

(3000*1.05*0.0981) + 100 = 409 bars

409/3000 = 0.1363 bar/m = 1.39 sg
EMW 3000m
Effect of hydrocarbon buoyancy on reservoir pressure

Fluid Pressure, Pf, bars

D
Gas, r = 0.25g/cc
Pg = Po - (0.0981*0.25*H2)

Oil, r = 0.80g/cc Po = Pw - (0.0981*0.80*H1)

H2

H1

Pw = 0.0981*1.03*D

Formation water, r = 1.03g/cc

 Hydrocarbon Column

Due to the difference of densities between water and hydrocarbons, the

pressure at the top of the reservoir is almost the same that at hydrocarbon –
water contact

Pressure

gas

Water

Depth
The formula for the pressure anomaly (excess of pressure respect to normal) is

Phc = H * (dw – dhc)

10
With
Phc = Pressure anomaly at the top of the hydrocarbon column (kg/cm2)
H = Height of the hydrocarbon column (m)
dw = Water SG (kg/l)
dhc = Hydrocarbon SG (kg/l)
Note that this anomaly is proportional to the height of the hydrocarbon column
and to the diffeence of SG between water and hydrocarbon.
 C
A

Water SG (kg/l) 1.05

Hydrocarbon SG (kg/l) 0.25
Point A & C depth (m) 2000
Point B depth (Hydrocarbon/water 2590
contact)(m)
Calculate Pf in A (kg/cm2) 210.00
Calculate Pf in B (kg/cm2) 271.95
Calculate Ph of the column of water AB 61.95
(kg/cm2)
Calculate Ph of the hydrocarbon 14.75
column (kg/cm2)
Calculate the Pf in C (kg/cm2) 257.20
Pressure anomaly at top of hydrocarbon 47.20
(kg/cm2)
 Origins of Abnormal Pressure (cont’d)

Paleo Pressures:
Uplift of sealed compartments

Pressure compartments:
Sealing faults

Massive salt:
Perfect impermeable seal for pressure entrapment
 Lithologic Pressure Seals

Sea Level
Normal
Pressure

Overpressured
Top of Normally Sand
Overpressure Pressured Sands
(Shales)

Sand Shale
 Fault Seal

Fault
Normally
Pressured Sand

Top of
Overpressure
(Shales)
Overpressured Sand

Sand Shale
 Checking for Pressure Cells
Pressure
Fault Fault Sands 1 & 2 are in same
pressure cell;
Sand 3 is not.

Depth
RFT1 RFT1
RFT3 RFT3
0.45
RFT2 0.45 psi/ft RFT2
psi/ft

Normal Constant
Pressure Overpressure

Sand Shale
Up-Dip Transfer of Reservoir Pressures

Pressure Pressure
“Far Field” Shale
Shale Pore Pore
Pressure Sand Pressure Sand
Pore
Shale Pressure
Pore
Pressure

Depth

Depth
A B C D

A B

Boundary
Of Zone
Pressure Pressure
Affected Shale Shale
By Pore Sand Pore Sand
Sand Pressure Pore Pressure Pore
Pressure Pressure
Depth

Depth
Water Sand
C D
Salt movement effects on pore pressures
Salt intrusion causes stresses
in formations, and
impermeability prevents
drainage of pressures

Paleopressured sands Osmosis effect

because of salinity
differences

Similar structures
are mud volcanoes
or shale diapirs,
Salt seals off sands
caused by rapid
loading and/or
plastic flow in
young sediments;
eg central Asia or
N. Sea.
Artesian Spring
 Formation of Cap-rock

Clay
Clay
Preferential
absorption of Clay
fresh water

Zone of higher pressure and permeability

Remaining
water more
Precipitation of carbonates and
saline
silicates at formation boundary creates
permeability barrier
Significance of Pore Pressure Mechanism

Very important in Basin Modeling:

controls how the model is populated with
algorithms to handle these various factors.

Resistivity and sonic / velocity techniques less so.

These techniques depend on a direct
relationship of porosity to pressure – presume
undercompaction mechanism.

If another mechanism is suspected, then another

method of calculating overpressure should be used.
 Outline
• Review of Sources of Abnormal Pressure
• Pressure Seals and Compartments
• Pore Pressure Indicators
• Quantitative Pore Pressure Estimation
– Overburden Gradient
– Conventional undercompaction analysis
– “Advanced” topics: centroid/buoyancy, seal failure, unloading,
basin modeling, tectonics
• Fracture Gradient
• Wellbore Stability
• Summary
 Pressure Seals
A pressure “seal” is any barrier that separates rocks that are
demonstrably not on the same hydrostatic pressure gradient;
The sands / limestones are at different pressure forming a
Pressure
SHALE Compartment
PRESSURE SEAL or Cell
EVALUATION

(3000)
10000
DEPTH, feet (m)

10500
(3250)

11000

(3500)
11500

4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 0 100 0.2 20

PRESSURE (psig) GR RESISTIVITY
Pressure Compartments
A completely sealed porous and permeable rock.
Internally pressure changes vertically dependent on the dominant fluid; follows a
water gradient if no oil or gas.

Rate of pressure change

Water Gradients
dependent on fluid density

Seals

X psi above
normal

Z psi above
normal

Bradley and Powley (1994)

 Pressure Compartments
May be very complex. Each thin sandstone or siltstone lens may
be a separate pressure compartment, or very large such as the
Cretaceous Chalk of the Central Graben.

Bradley and Powley (1994)

Note: Wide Swings in PP from DT & Res.
Pressure Bleed-off in Sands. Higher Shale PP.

Note: This is part of a Field-Wide Pressure

Compartment.
 Abnormal Pressure Indicators - Drilling
Gas:
Drill gas (Background gas)
Connection gas
Trip gas
Pumps-off gas
ROP:
Normalized ROP (d-exponent and other)

Cuttings/cavings and Hole Instability:

Cavings - size and shape; splintery, 'rotor'-shaped
Torque, Drag, Hole Washout

Formation Temperature:
Formation temperatures is usually inferred from downhole
circulating temperature or flowline temperature.

Mud Chlorides
Background Chlorides
Trip Chlorides
 Wellsite Pressure Parameters

Dx Flow Line Mud

% Temperature Wt.
ROP Sand Gas Units (F) (ppg)

Dx

ROP
10.5

2000

12.5
1250
 Wellsite Overpressure Indicators
• Increase In:
dx
- Rate of Penetration
- Gas
ROP
- “Splintery” Shale Cuttings
- Volume of Shale Cuttings
- Flowline Temperature
- Chlorides dx
- Shale Travel Time (MWD)
ROP
• Decrease In:
- d-exponent
- Shale Density
- Resistivity (MWD)

• No Single Indicator Is 100% Foolproof!

Gas Units
 Swab/Surge Pressures
Drill Pipe Drill Pipe Drill Pipe
Static Raised Lowered

Mud Swab Pressure - Surge Pressure -

Hydrostatic pressure drop when pressure jump when
Pressure drill pipe is raised drill pipe is lowered
 Mud Log Gas

Drill Gas Underbalance Connection/

Trip Gas

Background Gas
 Factors That Affect Mud Gas

• Background Gas Gas Units

- Mud Properties - Permeability
- Pump Rate - Porosity
- ROP - Gas Composition
- Mud Weight - ECD
Connection/Trip Gas
- Pump Shut Down Time - Permeability
- Swabbing - Porosity
1250
- Mud Weight - ECD
 Overpressure Detection - Gas Readings
Constant ROP

Hydrostatic
Pressure
ECD
Mud Pore
ROP Background
Weight Pressure 1 Gas
Connection
Connection
Swab
2 Gases
Pressure

4
 Overpressure Detection - Gas Readings
Increasing ROP

Hydrostatic
Pressure
ECD
Mud Pore
ROP Background
Weight Pressure
1 Gas
Connection
Connection
Swab
2 Gas
Pressure

4
 “Normalized Gas Units”
To Compensate for Gas Changes Not Due to Differential Pressure

Gn = G * (ROPn/ROP) * (Dn/D)2 * (Q/Qn) * (1/E)

Gn = Normalized Total Gas Units

G= Measured Gas Units
Alun Whitaker & George Sellens,
ROPn = Reference ROP “Normalization of gas shows improves
evaluation”, Oil & Gas Jr., April 20,
ROP = Actual ROP 1987.
Dn = Reference Bit Diameter
D= Actual Hole Size
Qn = Reference Pump Rate
Q= Actual Pump Rate
E= Gas System Efficiency (Take as 1?)
 Overpressure Detection - Gas Readings
“Raw” vs Normalized Gas Units

Hydrostatic
Pressure
ECD Normalized
Mud Pore
ROP Background Background
Weight Pressure
1 Gas 1 Gas
Connection
Connection
Swab
2 Gas 2
Pressure

3 3

4
4
ROP
 ROP vs Differential Pressure
Underbalanced Overbalanced
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
80
70
60
50 Faster
Change in ROP, %

40
ROP
30
20
10
0
-10
-20 Slower
-30
ROP
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80

After Vidrine & Benit, 1969

Diff. Pressure, Pm-Pf, psi x 100
 Factors That Affect Rate of Penetration (ROP)

• Drilling Parameters
- Weight on Bit - Torque
- Rotary Speed - Bit Type, Condition
- Mud Weight - Hydraulics
Mud Bit Tooth
Pressure
• Formation Properties

- Lithology - Porosity
- Permeability
Pore
Pressure
• Differential Pressure =

Mud Pressure - Pore Pressure

 Roller Cone Vs PDC Bits
Sensitivity of ROP to Differential Pressure

Roller Cone PDC

Mud Bit Tooth Bit Tooth Mud
Pressure Pressure

Pore Pore
Pressure Pressure

• Roller Cone Bits tend to have higher sensitivity.

• Roller Cone Bits Break Rock Like A Hammer
- Chips subject to hold-down by differential pressure
• PDC Bits Scrape Rock Like A Lathe
- Cuttings less affected by differential pressure
 Formation Drillability vs Overbalance vs Bit Type
Rock Bit Pm>Pf Pm=<Pf
Bit tooth
Mud Hydrostatic Pressure, Pm

Formation Pressure, Pf

With large With underbalance

Bit tooth in contact Fractures created
overbalance, cuttings or small
with formation by bit tooth action
held on bottom overbalance,
cuttings released
PDC Cutter
PDC Bit
Cutting action of
PDC means Pm/Pf
less important for
cuttings removal;
hence Dxc less
reliable

Bit cutter in contact Bit cutter shears Cuttings ‘pushed’ away from formation
with formation formation by bit cutter and lifted by mud flow
 Differential Pressure vs d-exponent
2.0
d-exponent (dx):
Tries to Compensate for Changes
Roller Cone
in ROP Not Due to Pore Pressure
1.5
log(ROP/60N)
dx =
log(12W/106D) PDC
1.0
ROP = Rate of Penetration (ft/hr)
N = Rotary Speed (rpm)
W = Weight on Bit (lbs)
0.5
D = Hole Diameter (in) 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Differential Pressure
dx May Not Be Reliable Overpressure (psi)
Indicator for PDC Bits!
Hole Instability
 Cavings Due to Underbalance vs
Mechanical Instability

Underbalance Mechanical Instability

Front Side Front Side

Blocky, or
Delicate, Top Angular Shapes
Spikey
Shapes
Top Concave Surface
 Cavings Due To Underbalance
In Situ Path of Least
Horizontal Sh Resistance for
Stress Pore
Fracture
Pressure
Wellbore
Pmud “Blows”
Chips Into
Wellbore

Sh Pmud

Concave Shape
 Cavings Due To Mechanical Instability

In Situ Hoop Stress

Horizontal Sh Shear Plane
Stress
Hoop Stress
Pmud “Squeezes”
Wellbore Chips Into
Wellbore

Sh Pmud

Blocky Shape
 Hole Cavings as Overpressure Indicator

Amount, shape, size and colour of cavings are important.

With low or negative differential pressure or stress relief at borehole wall ->
sloughing of rock into the hole as cavings.
Cuttings released easily from under bit; may even be 'ejected' by formation
pressure, -> different-shaped cutting little affected by bit contact, eg less rounded.
PDC cuttings have special character, easy to distinguish from cavings.

Top Top

Shale cavings Shale cavings

Side Side
resulting from resulting from relief Front
Front of rock stresses
underbalance
during drilling -
indicate excess
Concave cross- lateral stresses in
section, thin and formation
spiky shape, Blocky, rectangular
may be striated shape, often cracked
Formation Temperature
 Formation Temperature as Overpressure Indicator

Heat Conductivity Relative to

Water
Water = 1.0
Clay = 1.7
Quartz = 4.8 – 13.5

O-P
Zone

Temperature
Gradient
Temperature Porosity

Increase
Mud Chlorides
 Factors That Affect Chlorides

Pressure (ppg) Chlorides (ppm)

14 16 18 0 50000 • Pore Fluid Salinity
13300

13400 PPresistivity • Mud Salinity

13500
• Mud Weight/ECD
13600 PPsonic
13700 • Pore Pressure
TVDrkb (ft)

13800 Mud

13900
Weight
• Porosity
14000
• Permeability
14100

14200 Tight • Circulation Rate

Flow
14300
Kick
• Penetration Rate
14400
Calibration: Cavings

Angular cavings have irregular shape and

rough surface texture. Their surfaces
intersect at acute angles <<90 degrees. The
surfaces are distinctively fresh, reflecting
newly created fractures (shear fractures)
 Calibration: Cavings
The shape of these
cavings indicates
that they are the
product of pre-
existing weaknesses
at the borehole wall

Cavings with parallel edges/tabular form: from

tangent section drilled close to parallel with
bedding. Fissile bedding planes contributed to the
formation of these cavings. These bounding
surfaces are bedding planes.
1
1

Caving Shapes to Reveal Failure Mode

9

Platy shape due to bedding

Wedge shape due to shearing

Calibration – Normal Cuttings

At 17280 ft normal
Diagnosing Wellbore Failures

A wellbore can fail for a variety of reasons. Formation fluid influx, drilling fluid loss, tight hole, hole fill, ballooning and washout are all symptoms
of wellbore failure. By studying the available information, one can better understand the mode of wellbore failure, and take proper remedial
actions. This poster is designed to help oilfield professionals improve their diagnostic abilities by providing information and references that
Knowledge Systems’ Geopressure Analysts have found useful in supporting our clients in the creation of functional wellbores free of fluid influx,
loss or instability.
MUD WEIGHT TOO LOW

Splintered Shale LOOK FOR PLUME

Splintery shale is caused by a tensile failure all long the circumference of the wellbore. This type of failure typically occurs whenever the pore pressure in the shales STRUCTURE ON
exceeds the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid column. The fluid pressure in the shale literally pops the cuttings into the wellbore. These cuttings are CAVINGS
usually long, splintery, and concave in shape. In general, wellbore enlargement from this type of failure will occur all along the circumference of the wellbore rather Failure Origin

than only in specific directions. In cases where horizontal wellbore stresses are unequal, there may be more washout in some directions than in others, but the entire
wellbore circumference will still be enlarged. This type of failure can be controlled by increasing mud weight.

Wellbore Collapse
A borehole collapses when the effective wellbore stresses on the wellbore wall exceed the rock strength. This type of failure is also know as shear failure. Wellbore
pressure, exerted by the mud, can reduce the wellbore stresses. Wellbore Collapse occurs if mud weight is insufficient to reduce the wellbore stresses. Although
wellbore collapse or wellbore instability is in part a function of pore pressure, drilling with a mud weight less than the ‘collapse pressure’ does not mean that the well is
being drilled under balance in the sense that formation pore pressure is equal to or greater than the mud weight (see splintery shales.) It is important to account for
wellbore azimuth and inclination when considering wellbore collapse, the mud weight required to prevent wellbore collapse may require significant modification
dependent on well trajectory while all other parameters remain the same. This type of failure can be controlled by increasing the mud weight.

Safe Operating Envelope

In this region the wellbore pressure is sufficient to prevent formation fluid influx or wellbore collapse and is insufficient to exceed the minimum horizontal stress and
create a hydraulic fracture. While operating in the zone, gas, hole fill, tight hole and cavings would be minimal or non-existent. The safe operating envelope can be
identified and managed through the use of modeling that computes this window in real-time based on encountered conditions. Furthermore, this window should be
communicated to operations personnel as it changes such that drilling, tripping, logging and cementing operations do not allow the wellbore pressure to drop below
the wellbore collapse pressure or exceed the minimum stress. By doing so, non-productive time will be reduced and the wellbore integrity will be preserved for
evaluation or production.

Rubble Zones
Rock may be natural rubbelized, or exist in a rubble state due to changes in the subsurface stress environment. Rubble zone are often found near salt bodies and
active faults. This type of failure is generally associated with brittle rocks that fail in place under the far field stresses in the Earth. Rocks that are more plastic may
simply deform under the same stress environment and not be as dangerous as this specific case. As the wellbore schematic (left) and picture right shows, the rock
exists like building blocks in the Earth. As fluid penetrates the cracks in the rock, they enter the wellbore and the wellbore stresses are redistributed. Increasing the
mud weight causes greater infiltration and failure. Reducing the mud weight allows the fluid to exit the cracks and wellbore failure. Therefore, any change in mud
weight will destabilize the wellbore. Diagnose properly, minimize all changes in mud weight and employ “gentle” drilling practices. Avoid reaming and monitor trips
through destabilized intervals.
MUD WEIGHT TOO HIGH

Ballooning
Wellbore ballooning or breathing is caused by the creation and activation of a hydraulic fracture. This condition is ALWAYS associated with drilling fluid losses and may DRILL LOG
occur in sands or shales. It is very common to have shales that fracture more easily than sands, and the fracture may be located using time lapse resistivity logging
(SPE 67742, 74518, 78205). With the mud circulating the ECD is greater than the fracture extension pressure. Mud losses are observed and the fracture is enlarged.
When the mud pumps are not creating ECD, the static mud weight is less than the minimum closure pressure and the fracture returns fluid to the wellbore.
Understanding the fracture gradient and prevention is highly advised; however, if this condition occurs, Locate the fracture, manage wellbore pressures to minimize
fracture growth, and consider a polymer treatment if conditions deteriorate. Typical LCM treatments are usually ineffective and may even act as proppants for the
fracture. REAM LOG
 Outline
• Review of Sources of Abnormal Pressure
• Pressure Seals and Compartments
• Pore Pressure Indicators
• Quantitative (Petrophysical) Pore Pressure Estimation
– Overburden Gradient
– Conventional undercompaction analysis
– “Advanced” topics: centroid/buoyancy, seal failure, unloading,
basin modeling, tectonics
• Fracture Gradient
• Wellbore Stability
• Summary
 Overpressure Indicators - Wireline/LWD Response
Normal Compaction Trends
Vsh (ft/s)

Rsh (ohmm) dtsh (us/ft) rsh (g/cc)

Freshwater /
Temperature
Effect
Depth

Normal
Trend Normal Normal
Trend Trend

A normal compaction trend is an estimate of the log response in a

normally pressured environment.
Overpressure Indicators – Seismic Interval Velocity
Interval Velocity (kft/s)

Top Of
Overpressure

“Normal”
Trend
 PP Pred. With Seismic Data
Velocity Pressure Effective Stress
Pp = Pore Pressure (Red)
25
k
Carbonates

Velocity (ft/sec)
20
k
Depth

Depth
Normal Pressures
ES = Effective Stress
or Eff. Pressure 15
k
Unloading Curves Shales
Overpressures

10
k

5
Op = Overpressure
k
 PP Pred. With Seismic Data
Velocity Pressure Effective Stress
Pp = Pore Pressure (Red)
25
k
Carbonates

Velocity (ft/sec)
20
k
Depth

Normal Pressures Depth

ES = Effective Stress
or Eff. Pressure 15
k
Unloading Curves Shales
Overpressures

10
k

5
Op = Overpressure
k
 Overpressure Indicators - Wireline/LWD Response
Vsh (ft/s)

Rsh (ohmm) dtsh (us/ft) rsh (g/cc)

Freshwater /
Temperature
Effect
Depth

Top of
Overpressure

Normal Normal Normal

Trend Trend Trend
 Effective Stress and
Calculations that Use It
 Effective Stress
Terzaghi’s Equation states that the
overburden (Sv) is supported by a
The Effective Stress is
combination of the pore pressure (Pf) and
the difference between
the effective stress (σe).
the PP and the OBP
Sv = Pf + σe

Overburden Pressure
Effective Stress = Sv - Pf
At In Situ Conditions:
Vertical Effective Stress = Sv - Pf.
Pore Pressure This portion of the overburden is carried
by the rock grains.
It is the effective stress that causes
compaction. Most of the pore
pressure models calculate σe and
then back out the corresponding pore
pressure.
 Insensitivity of Effective Stress to Water Depth
Stress/Pressure Stress/Pressure
Sea Floor

Overburden
Stress Sea Floor
TVDbml
Overburden
Stress
Pore
Pressure TVDbml

Pore
Effective Pressure
Stress

Pore Pressure Effective

Stress
Effective Stress (Compaction, Strength)
Only Depends on Depth Below Mud Line
 Outline
• Review of Sources of Abnormal Pressure
• Pressure Seals and Compartments
• Compaction and Pore Pressure Indicators
• Quantitative (Petrophysical) Pore Pressure Estimation
– Overburden Gradient
– Conventional undercompaction analysis
– “Advanced” topics: centroid/buoyancy, seal failure, unloading,
basin modeling, tectonics
• Fracture Gradient
• Wellbore Stability
• Workflow and Example
Overburden Pressure Calculation from Density

n
OBP =
i=0
Sri*(DLi)*C

where OBP = Total Overburden Pressure

ri = Average Density within ith Interval
DLi = Interval length over which ri is calculated
C = Units conversion constant
 Recommendations for Calculating OBG

• All cases should account for very high near-mudline porosities

• Density can be calculated from porosity (Φ) data as follows

ρb = Φ * ρwater + (1 – Φ) * ρmatrix

where Φ = Water fraction

ρwater = Water Density, g/cc
ρmatrix = Rock matrix density, g/cc

• The rest depends on the data available:

– Velocities only
– Good offset, but incomplete, RHOB data
– No data
 Many Methods to Calculate Rhob

• From Density log or Density Porosity log

ρb = Φ * ρwater + (1 – Φ) * ρmatrix

• Miller Method : See later

• Gardner Transfer of Interval Velocity:

• Gardner Transfer of Sonic DT
 Near-Mudline Sediment Densities
• Figure on right from
Ostermeier, et al SPE/IADC
67772, “Trends in shallow
sediment pore pressures -
deepwater Gulf of Mexico.”
• Other data from ODP are
consistent with these
measurements.
• At f = 0.70, rg= 2.68, and rw
= 1.03; rb = 1.53 gm/cc.
• Curve equation given by
f = f1 +f2exp(-ld1/n)
f1 = 0.35, f2 = 0.35
l = 0.0035, n = 1.09
 OBG Theory

1. Overburden pressure can be estimated

by calculating the pressure contribution
of each layer.
2. To do this, we must know the Bulk
Density of each layer.
a) Sea water rb = 1.027g/cc
b) 500’BML rb = Ostermeier or
ODP rb (Miller Method)
c) Rock rb = rb log, or velocity to
rb transform
i. Gardner
ii. DEA-119 Transform
1. Calculate pressure contribution of each
layer:
2. rb * .4335 (layer thickness (ft) ) = psi
Where ρb = Layer Density, g/cc
5. Sum pressures and convert to ppg
equivalent at desired depth
Overburden Gradient Calculation (Example)
 OBG from Velocity Data

• Use densities calculated

from KSI near mudline
porosity correlation for
depths < 1000 ft BML.

• Use Gardner’s equation

calibrated to offset data,
ρb = A*VB,
A ≈ 0.235 for depths >
1500 ft BML in Gulf of
Mexico.
 OBG Calculations

• From Integrating Actual Rhob values from Density log

•From Miller Method for near Mud line sediments.

•Amoco Method
 Outline
• Review of Sources of Abnormal Pressure
• Pressure Seals and Compartments
• Compaction and Pore Pressure Indicators
• Quantitative (Petrophysical) Pore Pressure Estimation
– Overburden Gradient
– Conventional undercompaction analysis
– “Advanced” topics: centroid/buoyancy, seal failure, unloading,
basin modeling, tectonics
• Fracture Gradient
• Wellbore Stability
• Workflow and Example
 Basic 1-D PP Estimation Process
Conventional pore pressure analysis is based on Terzaghi’s effective stress principle
which states that vertical stress ( Sv) is equal to the sum of the effective vertical
stress (σe) and the formation pore pressure (Pf) as follows:
Sv= e + Pf
The basic steps in performing a conventional 1-D pore pressure analysis are:
1. Calculate total vertical stress (Sv) from rock density
2. Estimate vertical effective stress (e) from log measurements or seismic (LWD-
WL, Vel)
3. Pore pressure Pf = Sv - e

4. The analysis is then calibrated to credible information as it becomes available:

– MDT/RFT
– SIDPP
– SPLINTERED CAVINGS
– EXCEPTIONAL CONNECTION GAS
– HOLE FILL
– EXCESS DRILLSTRING DRAG
 “Vertical” Effective Stress Methods: Miller
& Bowers
Velocity (km/s) Pressure (MPa)
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 0 40 80 120
4.5
0
Overbrd 4
Normal Compaction Trend

Velocity (km/s)
Pnorm
1000 Trend
3.5

3 VB = VA
Depth (m)

2000 VA = VB Equivalent
A
{
Depth 2.5
A
3000
2
B = A
4000 1.5
VB PB
B 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
{

B = A Eff. Stress (MPa)

5000
 “Horizontal” Effective Stress Methods: Eaton

Velocity (km/s) Pressure (MPa)

1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 0 40 80 120
4.5
0
Overbrd 4 Eaton’s Eq. VNB
Normal

Velocity (km/s)
1000 Trend Pnorm  = NB (V/VNB)3
3.5

3 VB Normal
Depth (m)

2000
Trend
2.5
3000
2
NB B NB
4000 1.5
VB VNB
B 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
{

B Eff. Stress (MPa)

5000 PB
 Eaton’s Effective Stress Methods
(Horizontal)
Assumes: Pf = Sv - e

Pf = Pore pressure e = Effective stress (vertical)

Sv = Overburden Stress n = Effective stress for normal
Mn = Normal trend pressure at current depth
value for M Mo = Observed value for M

General Form : e =  n (Mo/Mn)x

Resistivity: e = n (Ro/Rn)1.2
Sonic: e = n (Δtn/Δto)3
 Bowers Velocity / Effective Stress (1994)

V = Vml + A(e)B

Where: V = Velocity, ft/sec

A = Empirical coefficient
B = Empirical exponent
e = Effective Stress (Sv – Pf)

A and B are empirical calibration constants. A and B should be derived

from offset well data. For Gulf of Mexico wells, A  10-20 and B  0.7 –
0.75.
Miller’s Velocity – Effective Stress Relationship
Miller’s Velocity-Effective Stess Relationship

V = Vmatrix – (Vmatrix – Vfluid)(e-l)

Where: V velocity
Vmatrix matrix velocity
Vfluid fluid velocity
e base of natural logarithms
l lambda, calibration constant
 effective stress

The physical relationships built into this equation:

• at zero effective stress, the velocity is simply the fluid velocity
• as the effective stress approaches infinity, the velocity approaches the matrix velocity
 Miller Velocity-Effective Stress Relationship
Miller velocity curve, assuming
that the effective stress results from
a normal pore pressure gradient.

V = Vmatrix – (Vmatrix – Vfluid)(e-l)

Lambda is used for calibrating the

relationship to actual conditions.

Vertical scale in meters

Velocity scale in m/s
OBG scale in g/cc
 Example Fits Through Data

14000

12000

10000
Velocity (ft/sec)

8000

6000
Data from 20 Deepwater GOM Wells
Bowers, A = 14.2, B = 0.72
4000
Vmatrix = 15,500 ft/sec
lamda = 0.00016
2000
lamda = 0.00022

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Effective Stress (psi)
 Outline
• Review of Sources of Abnormal Pressure
• Pressure Seals and Compartments
• Compaction and Pore Pressure Indicators
• Quantitative (Petrophysical) Pore Pressure Estimation
– Overburden Gradient
– Conventional undercompaction analysis
– centroid/buoyancy, seal failure, unloading, basin modeling,
tectonics
• Fracture Gradient
• Wellbore Stability
• Workflow and Example
Centroids/Buoyancy
 Centroid

• The point at which the sands and shales are

equal in pressure

• This is our implicit assumption when we adjust

the shale pressure curve to match the RFT and
DST measurements in the sands
Causes of elevated pressures in sands

• Water pressure transmitted along a permeable

conduit (i.e. sand or fault)

• Buoyancy forces of trapped Hydrocarbons

Pressure Transfer and
HC Buoyancy are Responsible for

• Kicks in sands

• Topseal Failures
 Limitations on Shale Pressure
Estimation
• Shale permeability is to low to allow
direct measurement. Therefore Sand
Fluid Pressure is measured.
• Pressure Develops in Shales and is
transmitted to Sands
• Pressure Estimation Physics is only
appropriate to Shales.
 Calibration Assumption

• Sands are in Pressure Equilibrium with the

Surrounding Shales

therefore

• Sand Pressures can be Used as Calibration

Points for Pressure Estimation in Shales
 Factors Affecting Sand Pressure
Deviating from Shale Pressure
• Lateral extent
• Structural Dip
• Permeability (sand and shale)
• Centroid position
• Temperature Probabilistic exercise,
not deterministic
• Fluid distribution – Hydrocarbon phases
• Fluid properties - Density
Centroid Position

• Flow into the sand increases its pressure

• Flow out of the sand reduces its pressure
• Flow/ unit area is f (pressure diff. and shale perm.)
• Centroid position in a sand shifts with different shale
pressure, permeability, and contact area for flow in
and flow out.
 Factors Governing Centroid
Position

• Pressure path continuity

• Pressure changes in adjacent shale with depth and
location in the basin
• Geometry (contact area efficiency)
• Permeability of adjacent shale
Pressure path continuity
 Some Possible Geometries

At Mid-depth
* *

Above Mid-depth
*
Below mid-depth

*
 Permeability of adjacent shale

Effect of Hydrocarbons

Decreases water flow out

of the upper portion of *
the sand
 Capillary Seals
for two fluid phases only

Moving oil through a low

permeability pore is
“Like shoving a basketball
through a keyhole”
-- Roy Hille, 1981
(from J. Dolson, BP Egypt)
 Centroid and Buoyancy
Pressure
Shale “Clean” Shale Picks
B Shale Pore
Pressure

Boundary Actual Sand Pore

Of Zone Pressure Missed

Depth
Affected
By Shale Picks
By
Sand
Sand Pore Pressure
Estimated From
Clean Shale Picks

Water Sand “Clean” Shale Picks

 The “Centroid”

Overburden

Kick pressure
D
Flow from E
sand to shale Flow Balance P Sand
Point T Pore
H Pressure
“Centroid” “Centroid”

Flow in sand

Hydrostatic
Flow from shale Shale Far
Pressure
to sand Field Pore
Pressure
PSI
Sand Shale
Effect of hydrocarbon buoyancy on reservoir pressure

Fluid Pressure, Pf, bars

D
Gas, d= 0.25g/cc
Pg = Po - (0.0981*0.25*H2)

Oil, d= 0.80g/cc
H2 Po = Pw -
(0.0981*0.80*H1)
H1

Pw=0.0981*1.03*D

Formation water, d= 1.03g/cc

 Pore pressure in a sand as a result of transmitted
shale pressure and buoyancy.
16000 Fracture Deviation
Pressure
Gas Leg

16500
Oil Leg
D
E
P Water
17000 Leg
T
H
Shale Pore
Pressure
17500
“Centroid”

18000
13000 13500 14000 15 16 17
PSI PPG
 Seal Fracture Criterion
(Maximum Hydrocarbon Column Height)

Pressure

Shale Fracture
Reservoir Pressure In
Hydrocarbon Zone Smin

Minimum Pres
Shale Stress
Depth

1 1
2 2
3 3

Reservoir Pressure In Water

Water Zone Hydrocarbon Reservoir

AMT
 Testing for Breach of Seal

• RFT provides a
pressure value in
a sand
• Assume that up
dip is gas-filled to
the crest at
14,250’
• Projected PP
does not exceed
shale FG – seal
likely not
breached
What MW to drill
out with?
What FG is
needed?
Secondary Pressuring/Unloading
 Velocity Depends on Stress History

C
B' Along the red line, we
A' have a large change in
the effective stress but
only a small change in f.
Therefore, the PP model
B must be modified to
account for this.

Effective Stress
Secondary Pressuring Example

In a strictly under-
compacted environment
Effective Stress Overburden Pressure with a near-perfect seal,
effective stress should
Increasing remain constant or
Effective increase slowly. It
Stress should not decrease, as
shown here.

A decrease in effective
Decreasing Effective stress is an indication
Estimated PP (Eaton) Stress that something besides
undercompaction is
Porosity trend reversal affecting the formation
indicates decreasing pressure.
effective stress
Typically, an under-
compaction model will
underestimate PP’s in an
underloading situation.
 Bowers Velocity / Effective Stress Relationship
Unloaded Case
V = Vml + A[(max (e/max)1/U]B
Where: V = Velocity, ft/sec
Vml = Velocity at mud line, ft/sec
A = Empirical coefficient
B = Empirical exponent
e = Effective Stress (Sv – Pf)
max = Effective Stress at onset of
unloading (Sv – Pf)
Rearranging and combining with Terzaghi’s Equation, we get:
Pf = Sv – [(V - Vml) / A]U/B * (σmax)1-U

A and B are empirical calibration constants. A and B should be derived

from offset well data. For Gulf of Mexico wells, A  10-20 and B  0.7 –
0.75. U must be empirically derived for each area. Usually, U ranges
between 3 and 5.
 So: What is the True Pore Pressure?
• Analyze All Data

• Consider All Possibilities

• Match All Calibration Information

• Make an Interpretation
Interpret Def (“True”) PP fm All Avail. Data
Shale Pt PP Res PP DT & Chk PP Rhob
fm GR (Eaton) (Bowers) (Eaton)
 Outline
• Review of Sources of Abnormal Pressure
• Pressure Seals and Compartments
• Compaction and Pore Pressure Indicators
• Quantitative (Petrophysical) Pore Pressure Estimation
– Overburden Gradient
– Conventional undercompaction analysis
– “Advanced” topics: centroid/buoyancy, seal failure, unloading,
basin modeling, tectonics
• Fracture Gradient
• Wellbore Stability
• Workflow and Example
 Cause of In Situ Horizontal Stress
Free Standing Elements Squash Out
Horizontally As They Are Squeezed Vertically

Closely Packed Elements Push Against

Each Other, Generate Horizontal Pressure
 S1 (overburden)

S2

S3

S1 = Pp + 1

S2 = Pp + 2

S3 = Pp + 3
Effective Stress - review

Randy Smith
 Effective Stress Ratio
Pressure Required to Keep
Water & Rock Grains from
Squashing Out Horizontally
Overburden
SV Stress
P V

EffectiveOverburden
Stress Stress
Sh P h

Total
Stress
= Pore
Pressure
+ Effective
Stress
Pore Pressure
h
SV = P + V K= = Effective Stress Ratio;
V
Sh = P + h = P + K V “K” increases with ductility.
 Empirical Linear Elastic Minimum Stress
MethodsMethod S’hmin = K S’v
Sh min  0.3Sv - PP   PP 
Hubbert and Willis  0.3 h min

(1957) v (K=0.3)

 h min
Sh min  Ki ( z )Sv - PP   PP
Mathews and
 Ki z 
Kelly (1967) v (K=0~1)

    h min   
Sh min   Sv - PP   PP  
 1 -  v 
Eaton (1969)  1 - 
0~0.5, K=0~1; =0.25, K=0.33)
Zoback and S h min - PP
Sv - PP

 1  2 1/ 2
 
-2  h min
v

 1   2   
1/ 2

-2

Healy (1984)
0.6~1, K=0.32~0.17; μ=0.6, K=0.32)
 h min
Holbrook (1990) S h min  1 - f Sv - PP   PP  1-f
v

f0~1, K=0~1; f=0.3, K=0.7)

 Effective Stress Ratio, K
Ko - effective stress ratio
0 0.5 1.0

sands & clays &

sandstones shales

K (

)
 '
h
1-
v'

sh/sv sh/sv

depth
 Fracture Gradient Calculation

Terms and Definitions:

•Leak-Off Pressure (LOP): wellbore pressure at which fractures in the
wellbore wall will open and start taking mud.
• Fracture Gradient (FG): leak-off pressure equivalent mud weight.

• Minimum Stress (MS): minimum in situ stress; fractures will try to

propagate perpendicular to the MS.
• MSEMW: minimum stress equivalent mud weight.

• Overburden Gradient (OBG): overburden stress equivalent mud weight.

• PPEMW: pore pressure equivalent mud weight.

Equations (for tectonically relaxed basins):

MS = K (SV-PP) + PP; MSEMW = K (OB-PPEMW ) + PPEMW

LOP = K* (SV-PP) + PP; FG = K* (OB-PPEMW ) + PPEMW

 Leak-Off Test

1200
Pressure
Cement Gauge Leak-Off
Pressure Stop Pump
Pump Shut-In 1000
Drill (LOP)
Valve
Pipe Minimum

Pressure (psi)
800 Stress
Drilling (MS)
Rig
Fluid
Floor 600

400 Shut-In Time

(Minutes)
BOP
200

Casing
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

Volume (bbls)
Cement
PFRAC = PLOT + Mud Hydrostatic Pressure in
the well

Fracture

Formation
 FIT and LOT Interpretation

•There is NO relation between FIT and Sh!

•For a LOT with no leak off the FIT could be <> Sh and up to almost Pb!
•For a LOT with leak off the FIT could be <> Sh and up to almost LOP!
 S1 (overburden)

The fracture plan is

perpendicular to the weakest
stress S3 Direction

S2

S3
Idealized Leak-off Test (LOT)
Fracture Propagation Theories
Events During Extended LOT
Types of LOTs
Near-wellbore stress concentration
 Borehole Ballooning (“Breathing”)

Fractures open when pumps are turned on, resulting in loss of drilling mud.
Fractures close when pumps are turned off, returning lost mud.

Randy Smith
Constructing a Stable Wellbore
Examples of Drilling Challenges in Narrow
Drilling Window
Chevron : MC 713 (GoM East)

After Karpa, 2001

 Allowable Mud Weight Range

Mud Weights
• Must lie within the range bounded by: Sea Floor
- Pore Pressure Fracture
Gradient
- Fracture Gradient
Casing
Casing
Point
• Used when mud weights must be increased
Mud
above shallow fracture gradients to keep Weight
pace with deeper pore pressures.
Pore
Pressure

Equivalent Mud Weight

 Outline
• Review of Sources of Abnormal Pressure
• Pressure Seals and Compartments
• Pore Pressure Indicators
• Quantitative (Petrophysical) Pore Pressure Estimation
– Overburden Gradient
– Conventional undercompaction analysis
– “Advanced” topics: centroid/buoyancy, seal failure, unloading,
basin modeling, tectonics
• Fracture Gradient
• Wellbore Stability
• Summary
Pore Pressure – Fracture Gradient Procedure

➢ Develop the density profile (for OBG)

➢ Calculate overburden gradient from density profile
➢ Select shale intervals (usually using GR or SP)
➢ Plot porosity-indicating values (usually Resistivity or Sonic
Dt in shales on semi-log scale
➢ Develop a normal compaction trend
➢ Calculate pore pressure
➢ Calculate fracture gradient
➢ Calibrate model parameters using known pressures and
events