Climatology

Humidity

 Refers to the amount of the moisture present in the air

 Three ways in which the humidity can be measured:

a) Absolute Humidity

b) Specific Humidity

c) Relative Humidity

 Absolute Humidity refers to the amount of moisture in grams

present in the unit volume of air.
 The absolute humidity keeps on changing with the change in the
volume without any alteration in the amount of the moisture
present.
 Specific Humidity refers to the amount of the moisture present in
per kilogram of air.
 Specific Humidity is a more stable way of measuring the humidity
since this won’t change until there is an alteration in the amount
of the moisture
present.
 Relative Humidity=
 Moisture holding capacity of the air varies with the temperature.
 Relative Humidity varies inversely with the moisture holding
capacity of the air.
 The temperature at which the moisture holding capacity of the air
is exactly equal to the moisture present in the air is called the
Dew point.

 Two processes of temperature change are:

a) Diabatic process
b) Adiabatic process
 In diabatic process there is a uniform exchange of the heat of the
air with the surrounding environment.
 This exchange of heat is responsible for the lowering of
temperature.
 Diabatic process occurs only in those air masses which are either
stationary or have a horizontal movement.
 Diabatic process of temperature change leads to the formation of
fog, dew or frost.
 Four conditions necessary for the formation of the dew:
a) Longer winter nights: During
 winter, especially during the nights, the earth loses radiation and
cools down to a relatively larger extent.

b) Absence of clouds: Clouds prevent the loss of radiation and

hence do not allow the surface of the earth to be cooled down
completely.

c) Relative humidity of the air should be high: Difference in the

moisture present in the air and the moisture holding capacity of
the air should be minimal.

d) Air should be calm: The movement of the air should be

minimal.

 A number of microscopic droplets of water combine together to

form one drop of water which finally falls down in the form of
dew.
 Four conditions necessary for the formation of the fog:
a) Longer winter nights
b) Absence of clouds
c) Relative humidity of the air should be high
d) Slight wind movement: Temperature of the air mass will reduce
beyond the saturation point. Thus moisture will transform into
macroscopic water droplets. But these water droplets do not
combine together to form drops of water. Instead they get
scattered in the environment with the moving wind in the form of
fog.
  Four conditions necessary for the formation of the frost:
a) Longer winter nights: During winter, especially during the
nights, the earth loses radiation and cools down to a relatively
larger extent. In this case the temperature of the earth must fall
below zero degree centigrade.

b) Absence of clouds: Clouds prevent the loss of radiation and

hence does not allow the surface of the earth to be cooled down
completely.

c) High Relative Humidity: Air should be dry.

d) Air should be completely calm.

 Frost gets formed when the dew point falls below the freezing
point.
 Dry air ensures that the temperature at which the air gets
saturated is below the freezing point.
 The temperature at which the moisture present becomes
equivalent to the moisture holding capacity of the air for the first
time will be below freezing point.
 This leads to the formation of frost without any dew being formed
in the process.
 Adiabatic process is responsible for rain, sleet, snow, hail or
cloudburst.

Note: An adiabatic process is any process occurring without the gain or

loss of heat within a system.
  This process of temperature change is operative only in those air
masses which have a vertical movement.
 It is the only process that is responsible for the formation of all
kinds of clouds.
 This expansion leads to the decrease in the temperature of the air
parcel.
 As an air starts sinking downwards, due to the increasing
atmospheric pressure, it contracts. This contraction leads to the
increase in the temperature of the air parcel.
 Although upon expansion the temperature of the air parcel
decreases but the heat content of the air parcel remains
unaltered.
 Upon contraction the temperature of the air parcel increases but
the heat content of the air parcel remains unaltered.

Note: Adiabatic Lapse Rate refers to the rate of decrease in

temperature with increase in altitude without exchange of heat.

 A rising parcel of air cools under two different rates:

a) Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
b) Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate

 A rising air parcel cools at a fixed rate of 9.8 degree centigrade per
kilometer before reaching the condensation level.
 For all practical purposes this temperature is considered to be 10
degree centigrade per kilometer.
 This constant rate of cooling of the air parcel is referred to as the
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
  The rate of cooling of the air parcel beyond the condensation
level is referred to as the Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
 This rate is not uniform

Note: The quantity of heat absorbed or released by a substance

undergoing a change of state, such as ice changing to water or water to
steam, at constant temperature and pressure is referred to as the
Latent Heat.

 Two forces at play beyond the condensation level:

a) Expansion of the air mass and its gradual cooling.
b) Moisture holding capacity of the air is continuously
depreciating.
 Release of latent heat of condensation reduces the rate of cooling
of the air parcel
 Beyond condensation level:

Rate of cooling= 10o C/Km-Latent Heat of Condensation released

 Rate of cooling beyond condensation level is always less than the
rate of cooling before the condensation level is reached, i.e. Wet
Adiabatic Lapse Rate is always less than Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
 Release of the latent heat of condensation beyond the
condensation level depends upon the initial amount of moisture
present in the air parcel.
 There will be no condensation level and the rate of cooling will
remain uniform throughout if the moisture present in the air
parcel is zero.
 The temperature of the air parcel if it has been brought down
from beyond the condensation level, is more than its initial
temperature.
- A sinking air parcel always gets heated at a fixed rate of ten
degree centigrade per kilometer.
 Areas characterized by the sinking air parcel are devoid of the
rainfall.
 Subtropical high pressure belt in both the hemispheres are prime
examples of areas with sinking air.
 Latent Heat of condensation also depends upon the initial
temperature of the air.
- Initial temperature of the air determines the moisture
holding capacity of the air.
 Thus Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate depends upon:
a) initial moisture present in the air parcel
b) initial temperature of the air
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate is neither dependent on the initial
moisture present in the air parcel nor on the initial temperature
of the air.
 A rising air parcel is characterized by Instability.
 This condition is responsible for the cloud formation and the
rainfall.
 A stationary air parcel is characterized by stability.
 Rising of the air parcel will depend upon:
a) Environmental Lapse Rate
(refers to the rate of the decrease of temperature with
altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time
and location)
 b) Triggering Effect:
- an intense heating will cause the air parcel to rise.
- a force uplift along an inclined topography by a horizontal
moving wind can also cause the air parcel to rise.

Normal Lapse Rate

 Normal Lapse Rate refers to the temperature decrease in the
troposphere at a fixed rate of 6.5 degree centigrade per
kilometer.
 Environmental Lapse Rate is the actual prevailing rate at which
the temperature is decreasing in the surrounding atmosphere at a
particular place and at a given time.
 Environmental Lapse Rate changes with seasons and regions.
 Thermal inversion occurs when a layer of warm air settles over a
layer of cooler air that lies near the ground.
 Level of Inversion refers to the level beyond which temperature of
the air parcel increases.
 Thermal Inversion is quite significant during winter season.
 Wet adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the temperature of
the air parcel cools down.
 The air parcel will rise if and only if the environmental lapse rate is
more than the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
 The surrounding air will provide a buoyant force to the air parcel if
it is at a lower temperature than the air parcel.
 If the environmental lapse rate is more than ten degree
centigrade, the air parcel will rise.
 The air parcel will sink down if the surrounding air is at a lower
temperature than the air parcel.
Triggering Effect
 The air will rise even faster after reaching the condensation level.

Four ways of depicting the ELR & DALR

Note: ELR - Environmental Lapse Rate
DALR - Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
WALR - Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate

1. Absolute Instability: ELR> DALR

2. Mechanical Instability: ELR>> DALR

3. Conditional Instability: WALR<ELR< DALR

4. Potential or Convectional Instability

Condition of absolute stability : ELR = DALR

Condition of absolute stability depicts thermal inversion. No rainfall can

occur under this condition.

Condition for no rainfall

Condition conducive for fog, dew and frost formation