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1. Introducción

When learning a second language, most of the time students use their first language to try

to communicate in the second one, which makes students follow the same grammatical patterns

in both languages. The importance of the influence of the first language in learning a second

language has been an important issue for the past four decades. It has led to several studies that

attempt to explain this phenomenon.

Due to the drastic change students have to face from high school to college regarding

thinking processes, this first language influence is relevant in their beginning level courses. In

high school, some students are only asked to reach the minimum level to pass. By the time they

go to college, things change radically. This is one of the reasons why students in beginner levels

have difficulties with writing complex texts, even more if those are required in another language.

The research question addressed in this study is: How does first language transfer

influence the second language writing? The objective of the present study is to analyze the

relation between first Language transfer and second language writing and provide through

quantitative analyses, an in-depth, cross-language investigation of the linguistic features of the

writing of 20 Spanish learners of English attending a public University in Cúcuta, Colombia. A

secondary goal in this paper is to explore, through qualitative methods, how the language and

literacy learning experiences of a randomly selected sub-group of six focal participants may have

contributed to these students’ developing identities as bilingual writers.

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This paper attempts to contribute knowledge in the field of writing and the influence L1

has on L2, focusing on the written structures of both languages. The aim of this paper is for

English Teachers and to help Spanish Learners of English to lessen basic mistakes when writing

in the L2, in order for them to focus their attention on the content and thus give way to academic

writing.

2. Theory

L1 influence is a main aspect to keep in mind in its process for the development of all the

four basic skills an L2 requires: reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Second language

acquisition is not an easy matter. It is known that when a person is learning a second language,

he/she uses the first language as a tool to make this process easier and faster. What people may

not know is that the L1 does not only have a positive influence when acquiring the L2; it can also

have negative influence. In order to identify the role L1 has in the acquisition of L2, this study is

based on some pertinent theories by professors and researchers which are highlighted and

summarized below.

A relevant way to organize the theoretical framework of this paper is to refer to Chomsky

(1959) who posits that imitation of L1 develops routines in L2 practices. In a similar manner,

Krashen (1981) says that there are L1 positive and negative transfers, which take into account

true and false cognates. Furthermore, Cummins (1982) states that the transferability of linguistic

characteristics and the influence of L1 in L2 phonology. Finally, Cummins (1981), with his

famous “Iceberg Theory” states that the role of first language is essential for the acquisition of

the second one, because through L1 learning, L2 becomes easier.

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The “language transfer theory”, also known as L1 interference, is the effect the learners’

first language has on his/her production of the second one. It states that the effect can be in any

aspect of language: grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking, and listening, among others.

This theory is divided into two parts: Positive and negative transfers. The first one,

positivetransference, is seen when the structure of both languages is the same and so the

interference of linguistic patterns can result in correct language production, sometimes called

“true cognates.” True cognates are used as a strategy to write in an L2 and it is part of the positive

transfer theory. Conversely, as Krashen (1981) pointed out, “negative transference” is frequently

discussed as a source of errors; this means that students transfer words or structures that are not

the same in both languages, otherwise known as “false cognates.” Many students may translate

words from L1 to L2 thinking that they have the same meaning in the target language, or in the

case of this research study, English.

Another theory on this phenomenon is the one proposed by Cummins (1982), called the

“Iceberg Theory”. In his theory, first language literacy and learning can be a benefit to L2

acquisition. Language devices and concepts learned in a first language make learning the second

language easier because students do not have to re-learn, in the new language, what they already

know in their native language. Understanding a concept in the first language requires only a re-

labelling of terms in the second language and not a re-learning of the concept (Cummins, 1982).

According to this theory, concepts and skills are usually developed in the first language before

they are transferred to the second. This is why it is important for students to continue to gain

experience and input in their first language at home (Cummins, 1981).

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The role of the first language in the acquisition of the second one is a very important

factor to bear in mind, due to the fact that L1 can influence the acquisition of L2 positively or

negatively. Based on some studies conducted by Krashen (1981) with L1 interference and

Cummins (1981) and his Iceberg theory, this project will present a wide perspective of how first

language knowledge influences second language attainment. These theories are an excellent

source for this research study and contain a great variety of aspects that can be taken into account

to enhance the learning process of a second language.

This section reviews studies that focus on one or more of a set of six variables related to

role of L1 role in L2 situations. The first study analyzes grammar transference from L1 to L2.

Other studies look at the transferability of cognates and word association models. Moreover,

other studies investigate interlingual awareness and positive and negative transference. Finally,

another study examines the role of first language during the acquisition of the second one, along

with its positive and negative points. In order to have a better idea of these studies, a summary of

all of them is presented in this section.

Grammar Transference

The following study looked at the importance L1 has on the acquisition of L2 and how

grammar in the first language is somehow transferred to the second language. The study tried to

define to what degree the first language determines the acquisition of grammar in adult learners

of a second language. In a study conducted in Italy, Kim (2002) wanted to know which position

best captures the role of the first language: No Transference, Partial Transference or Full

Transference. He found that the frequency of occurrence of the grammar transference in the first
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language into the second one varied among the students, regardless of the language in which the

second language is taught. This means that no matter what language the first or the second is, the

transferability of the first language into the second one will vary because of the student, not the

language.

The Transferability of Cognates

Williams (1992) studied “The Cross-Language Transfer of Lexical Knowledge”. This

study was carried out with a population of 74 upper elementary school students who were literate

in both Spanish and English. Williams sought to discover how Hispanic bilingual students’

knowledge of Spanish vocabulary and awareness of Spanish cognates influence comprehension

of English expository text. She found that the students were aware of cognates and made some

use of that knowledge in their English reading. This means that students consciously use their

native language in order to support their reading in the second language, and thus, make their

reading understandable and easier for them. This author found that the contribution of Spanish

vocabulary knowledge to English reading is not automatic, but depends on the degree of

awareness of the languages’ cognate relationship. What it says is that if you know about cognate

relationships, you will be able to use cognates to help develop vocabulary in L2. When you have

internalized more vocabulary, you do not have to guess the words you do not know or translate

them into the nearest word in your mother tongue. Finally, Williams found that student

knowledge of cognates could be even greater; suggesting that explicit instruction in cognates may

be useful.
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Word Association

Recent studies have been used as support for the word association model, which has to do

with cognates as a useful tool to learn a second language. One of the studies mentioned before by

Holmes and Ramos (1993) with a group of English and French adult learners says that cognate

vocabulary exists when vocabulary items in two languages can be recognized by most users as

being the same word. They found, in their study of English cognate recognition, that cognates are

a well-used strategy that language teachers can exploit, but that they have to be careful with, due

to the fact that one of the results showed that grammatical transposition occurs where verbs are

read as nouns, sometimes creating minor misreading. The other result showed that irresponsible

guessing is done with true and false cognates, resulting in an erroneous reading of the text.

Clearly, this shows that second language learners, when they finish reading a text, do not always

understand it. Learners do not look for the words in the dictionary. Instead they try to guess what

the word means. Thus, L2 learners finish reading with an unclear meaning of the text and with a

false meaning of the words they translated into their native language.

Positive and Negative Transference

The study carried out by James (1980) with a Chinese population, based on contrastive analysis,

showed that the negative transference of L1 was more powerful than the positive one in L2

writing. Also, L1 always interfered in L2 writing, and the way of thinking in L1 influenced the

pattern of the text organization in L2 writing (James, 1980). Many other researchers have had

similar findings. According to Schumann (1998), L2 writers make many mistakes and 51% of

these come from L1 interference. Researchers also believed that differences between languages
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caused difficulties, which led to errors in L2 learning and writing. The more differences there

were between languages, the more the difficulties appeared, and at the same time more errors

took place.

According to Schumann (1998), similarities and differences between the two languages

may result in either positive or negative transference according to different learning stages and

language environments.

First Language Role

Jones and Tetroe (1987) found that L2 proficiency constrained the amount of writers’

planning while composing in L2. Their observations showed that the amount of L1 use was

reduced when written tasks were facilitated by providing relevant vocabulary for the students

with a low level of L2 proficiency. However, Cummins (1990) found that there was not any

relation between the use of L1 while composing in L2. Nonetheless, these studies all suggest that

using L1 can be an efficient and effective strategy while composing in L2.

Social frameworks of writing.

According to Prior (2006), the dominant writingresearch paradigm is currently driven by

sociocultural theories. In contrast to cognitive theories of writing, sociocultural frameworks

highlight the dialogic processes of text composition: because writers produce texts within a given

sociocultural-politicalhistorical context and utilize culturally appropriated tools, resources, and

practices, all writing is viewed as socially-mediated, distributed, and collaborative (Prior, 2006).
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For example, a white, monolingual English-speaking child attending school in the

suburban U.S. will learn and utilize literacies differently than an adult, Spanish-speaking migrant

worker studying English through a community program. These individuals will also acquire

different types of symbolic capital based on language status, power structures, and other

contextual factors (Christian &Bloome, 2004). Similarly, as viewed through the sociocultural

lens, writing may be conceptualized not only as a means of communication, but also as a medium

for social action (Berdan et al., 2006; Collins & Blot, 2003).

3. ResearchMethods

The purpose of the present study is to obtain a deeper understanding of Spanish Learners

of English writing at the University level. The quantitative focus concerned a comprehensive

assessment of the linguistic features of the participants’ texts written in both Spanish and English.

An additional aim of this investigation is todevelop through qualitative methods an understanding

of how the identities of the participants as writers have been shaped by their bilingual

languageand literacy learning experiences. Because of this dual purpose, and in keeping with

asociocultural framework, a mixed methods design was selected to address the researchquestions.

3.1 General Approach and Design

In order to conduct this project and accomplish the objective of this study it is necessary

to implement mixed methods, based on the theory of Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) that

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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states “the goal of mixed methods is not to replace quantitative or qualitative research, but rather

to incorporate the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of both into a single research study”.

By utilizing a quantitative and qualitative approach, it allows for a more comprehensive analysis

of the data.

3.1.1 Mixed Methods

Rossman and Wilson (1985) identified three reasons for combining quantitative and

qualitative research. First, combinations are used to enable confirmation or corroboration of each

other through triangulation. Second, combinations are used to enable or to develop analysis in

order to provide richer data. Third, combinations are used to initiate new modes of thinking by

attending to paradoxes that emerge from the two data sources. Taking into account this theory,

this project includes observation, opened-ended questionnaires to collect information from the

field work.

3.1.2 Research Design

This study applies ethnographic research design due to the type of information that it is

expected to collect in this process in a natural context. Baxter and Jack (2008) define

ethnographic research method as an approach to research that facilitates the exploration of a

phenomenon within its context using a variety of data sources”. This type if study permits to

deepen and describe a small or specific group in a detailed way, getting information about

experiences, thoughts and behaviors of learners through instruments applied in the project.

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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3.2 Data Collection

In this study, mainly two types of data collection methods are used: a written test that consists of

20 sentences in Spanish and students are to translate those sentences into English and also semi-

structured interviews. Through these instruments it is possible to identify the influence L1 written

structure has on L2 written structure and how L1 affects students’ written papers positively or

negatively. The interviews related to how students use Spanish when writing in English, how

much they use English-English and Spanish-English dictionaries, and how much knowledge

students have about the different written structures in both languages, L1 and L2.

Each interview will last about fifteen minutes. Theyconsist of a list of open-ended questions

addressing the various issues related to the research question of this study. The participating

teachers were asked to review the questions briefly before the interview.

Each interview will be transcribed as soon as possible afterwards and transcripts of the interviews

will be sent to the participants for verification. The transcriptions will be kept in a folder on the

researcher’s password-protected personal computer. Moreover, when any direct quotes will be

used in the final report, a pseudonym will be assigned so that it would be impossible for anybody

to be identified as an individual.

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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3.3 Sample and Instruments

18students of Advanced English II in sixth semester whose teacher is JhonatanAcuesta are the

sample of this research study. These students are currently in sixth or seventh semester. They all

belong to the program of Foreign Languages English – French. This study is conducted in the

facilities of the University of Pamplona in Cúcuta. For the purposes of the present investigation,

the primary source of data is the participant’s writing. These formal writing samples will be

analyzed quantitatively toexamine several aspects of academic language proficiency. The content

of the focalparticipants’ writing are also analyzed qualitatively to increase opportunitiesto explore

consistency and variability within and across the writing abilities of the participants.

In addition to the participants’ writing, other instruments are designed and applied to collect

background information about all of the focal participants, as well as to provide additional data

for the qualitative analysis of the participants. These instruments include a participant

questionnaire, and interviews of the focal participants. The interviews will give me a better idea

of how influential L1 is in L2 writings and they will be analyzed qualitatively in order to

analyzethe influence of socio-cultural framework. The participant interviews are developed to

provide insight into the qualitative research question that inquired about how previous and

current language and literacy learning experiences and practices influenced the participants’

identities as bilingual writers. Specifically, the participant interview inquires about the focal

participants’ language and literacy learning experiences, language usage, and language and

literacy practices for both Spanish and English in the home, community, and University contexts.

The interview also provides a forum to explore the focal participants’ attitudes and feelings

toward their language learning experiences and bilingualism in general.

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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Participants

A major challenge for research involving bilingual populations is the difficulty in

recruiting a homogenous sample with respect to language proficiency, the frequency and

conditions of language use, and social, educational, and linguistic experiences.

The final group of participants in this study included18 students attending The University

of Pamplona. Their family members are from Colombia or Venezuela.All of the participants

speak Spanish at home. They have studied English at school since sixth grade and have been

studying at the University for over years. At the time of data collection, the participants attended

the same middle school; therefore, they shared the same English Teacher Mr. Acuesta, and

overall University culture.

Table No 1. Participants Sample

Participant Sex Semester Age Place of Birth Neighborhood

Number Number
1 Female 6 19 Cúcuta Motilones

2 Female 9 23 Cúcuta Colsag

3 Female 8 22 Pamplona El llano

4 Female 8 20 San Antonio Barrio Miranda

del Tachira
5 Male 9 22 Cúcuta Salado

6 Female 6 19 Villa del Palmita

Rosario
7 Male 8 23 Cúcuta San Martin

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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8 Male 8 22 San Antonio Simon

del Tachira Bolivar
9 Male 9 20 Cúcuta San Luis

10 Male 9 23 Cúcuta Cundinamarca

11 Female 8 24 Cúcuta Contento

12 Female 8 23 Ocaña Claret

13 Male 8 21 Bucaramanga Comuneros

14 Female 9 22 Cúcuta San Rafael

15 Male 8 25 Cúcuta La Merced

16 Male 8 26 Cúcuta Guaimaral

17 Female 8 21 Bucaramanga Miraflores

18 Female 9 22 Chinacota Los Pinos

Gender: 10 students are women - 8 students are men

Age: 19 to 26 years old.

Interview

1. What is your gender?

 Male
 Female

2. When and where were you born?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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3. What is your age?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

4. What is the highest level of education you have completed?

 somehighschool
 highschoolgraduate
 somecollege
 trade/technical/vocational training
 collegegraduate
 somepostgraduatework
 post graduatedegree

6. What is your hobby?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

7. At what age and where did you begin to study/learn English?

8. Do you or your family speak any other language(s) besides Spanish?

9. What language(s) do you speak to parents? Siblings? Grandparents, extended

family?

10. What language(s) do you speak with friends in/outside of school? Phone?Email?
Chat?

11. What language do you prefer for TV/radio/movies at home/with friends?

(examples)

12. What language do you prefer for reading for fun? (examples)

13. What do you most remember about your English classes? Tell me aboutit.

14. The ability to write clearly and effectively

1=Poor 2=Fair 3=Good 4=Excellent

15. The ability to speak clearly and effectively

1=Poor 2=Fair 3=Good 4=Excellent

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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16. Please indicate how satisfied or dissatisfied you are with your writing skills in English

 Verydissatisfied
 Dissatisfied
 Neithersatisfiednordissatisfied
 Satisfied
 Verysatisfied
 Notsure

17. Please rate the importance of writing clearly for an English Teacher.

 NotImportant at All
 SomewhatImportant
 Important
 VeryImportant
 Notsure/NotApplicable

18. How prepared are you for your future career as an English Teacher

 Not at allprepared
 A little bit prepared
 Somewhatprepared
 Quite a bit prepared
 Verymuchprepared
 Notsure / Notapplicable

19. On a scale of 1 to 7, with 1 being extremely unimportant and 7 being extremely important, please
rate how important you think It is to speak in English without making any grammar mistake or
mispronunciation.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20. Please indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following statement: Grammar mistakes in
English leaners’ writing are caused by the Spanish influence.

 Strongly Disagree
 Disagree
 Neutral
 Agree
 Strongly Agree
 Not sure/Not applicable

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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3.4 Context

DATE: October 24th, 2012

PLACE: Advanced English II

TIME: 6:00 – 8:00 pm

DURATION: 2 hours

ITEM: Space

1. 4 whitewalls
2. Spaciousroom
3. 8 X 7 meters
4. 2 bigwindows
5. Secondfloorclassroom
6. Roomnumber: 202
7. Goodlighting
8. Propersetting
9. Goodventilation of air.
10. No paintings
11. Noisyenvironment
12. Comfortable.

ITEM: Objects

1. 4 fans
2. 40 woodendesks
3. 4 lightson
4. 2 lights off
5. 1 desk ( Teacher )
6. 1 seat ( Teacher )
7. 1 board
8. 1 rubbishbin
9. 5 outlets
10. 1 Front door

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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11. 2 bigwindows
12. 1 Marker
13. 1 Eraser

ITEM: PhysicalEnvironmentalElements

1. General Santander Stadium

2. FlagsSquare
3. Helmets and vests shop
4. Charitable home
5. Familyhouse
6. Arepas sale
7. Industrial uniforms shop.
8. Apartmentbuilding
9. NursingAssistants
10. Fastfood restaurant
11. Familyhouse
12. Avenida 3ra Hotel
13. Acuario Relax Hotel
14. Colmundobroadcastingstation
15. Plasticstore
16. Copymaker
17. Caney Hotel
18. Casual dining restaurant
19. Bar
20. Copyweb Office SupplyStore
21. T.V Repair Shop
22. Parking lot
23. El profe Office SupplyStore
24. Digital Services Internet Café
25. Divimar Internet Café
26. Gomez Real State Agency
27. Casual dining restaurant
28. PekinChinese restaurant
29. Ice crem store and minutes sale
30. Apuestas Cucuta 75
31. Liquorstore
32. INDENORTE
33. FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND
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34. Olympicswimming pool.

35. Tenniscourte
36. Diagonal Santander Avenue
37. ThirdAvenue
38. Fifthstreet

3.5 Data Analysis

Number of correct answers Number of students with that number of

correct answers

2 4

3 4

4 1

5 1

6 1

7 1

8 2

9 12

12 1

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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Conclusions

There seems to be a lack of audio-visual equipment in the University of Pamplona so that the

students can improve their communicative abilities. The hobby of reading or writing is not very

common among the students. Spanish is the only language spoken at home and outside the

classroom which causes a negative influence on the second language. The teacher needs to be

aware of this Spanish influence because of the role of monitor and assessor of learner’s output

with respect to diagnostic, feedback and remedial work. The learner should know why he or she

has committed this type of errors in order to avoid making these mistakes in the future (Parker &

Riley, 1994). This body of research would benefit additional studies of bilingual writing across

languages.

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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Appendix A Written English

A Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Es un punto importante .
________________________________________________________________________
2. En la comunidad hay muchos problemas.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Quiero que mi profesora me explique la materia.
________________________________________________________________________
4. Los soldados que están peleando en Iraq están estresados.
________________________________________________________________________
5. El Profesor Smith enseña en Londres.
________________________________________________________________________
6. Yo solía pronunciar mal esa palabra.
________________________________________________________________________
7. No saben nada sobre los problemas.
________________________________________________________________________
8. Disfruto discutir temas interesantes.
________________________________________________________________________
9. La gente está muy disgusta con el incremento de los impuestas.
________________________________________________________________________
10. Quiero que abras la puerta.
________________________________________________________________________
11. Estoy de acuerdo contigo.
________________________________________________________________________
12. Le preguntaré a mi mamá si viene o no
________________________________________________________________________
13. Él me dijo hola.
________________________________________________________________________
14. Mi papá llega mañana.
________________________________________________________________________
15. El estudiante cuya madre murió ayer está en el hospital.
________________________________________________________________________
16. Mi clase de francés es muy aburrida.
________________________________________________________________________
17. ¿Podrías decirme que hora es?
________________________________________________________________________
18. ¿Cómo se llama esto en Ingles? = ¿Cómo le llama usted a esto en Ingles?
________________________________________________________________________
19. Claudia siempre está ocupada.
________________________________________________________________________
20. Me gustaría que me expliques esto.
________________________________________________________________________
FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND
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Appendix B Classroom(Real context)

FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND SECOND

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