Anti Aircraft Artillery

The Formative Years

AAA predates the advent of aircraft as the first use of guns against aerial targets was
during the Franco-Prussian War in 1878 when the German 2 Pounder were used against
French Balloons but it was not till 1915 that the first military aircraft was shot down on
September 30, 1915 by Private Radoje Ljutovac of the Serbian Army using a slightly
modified Turkish cannon. Ljutovac engaged one of the three enemy aircraft approaching
the Serbian town of Kragujevac, managing to draw first blood for AAA. The aircraft
crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries1.

The First World War saw extensive use of aircraft in combat role as a result of which
Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA) came on its own. Even as the period after the Great War
saw a decline in the fortunes of AAA due to budgetary constraints, progress in AAA
weaponry and gunnery continued mainly because the devastating effects of air power had
been experienced during the Great War, not the least by Great Britain.

In the inter war period, Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) was created as a Royal Air
Force command in 1925 which was the first time the term ‘Air Defence’ was probably
used2 though AAA and ‘Ack-Ack’ remained in popular use well into the 1950’s. The Inter-
War years had also seen the foundations of AA gunnery being laid and the AAA tactics
being firmed up. Great Britain had established an AA Experimental Section during the
war which had accumulated a lot of data during the war. After extensive analysis and
studies, the two volume Textbook of Anti-Aircraft Gunnery was published in 1924-253.
This was the first attempt to institutionalize the craft of AA Gunnery. The introduction
of Vickers 3.7” Heavy AA Gun was another important development during this period as
it could take on high flying bombers, till then way beyond the reach of smaller caliber
AA guns. In 1931, Bofors introduced the legendary 40mm L/60 AA Gun which was to
become the mainstay of AAA in most of the countries around the world, including India.

1939 saw the World plunge into another World War when Nazi Germany invaded Poland
on September 1, 1939. Japan was the Eastern pivot of the Axis Powers. AAA saw rapid
advancements including in South Asia as the aircraft had become a potent weapon by now
and there was a serious need to counter it.

The Beginning in Indian Sub Continent

The threat from Japan was the reason Air defence Artillery came into being in India in
1939 when a small number of Indian troops were initially trained to use 3-inch AA guns.
This was ostensibly to counter any threat which may emerge from the Japanese advance
in South East Asia. These gunners formed part of the anti-aircraft batteries of
the Hong Kong and Singapore Royal Artillery (HKSRA) as the initial focus was to contain
the Japanese threat in the Far East. Later the Indian troops were trained on the Bofors
40 mm L/60 guns and began to be assigned to Indian artillery formations. In the early
1940s, several anti-aircraft units and training establishments were raised throughout
the country. The AA units were formed with manpower from existing Artillery
establishments as also by milking some select infantry regiments. As the manpower was
still inadequate to meet the ever increasing demands, direct recruitment to AA Branch
of Artillery was started in July 1940 and AA and Coast Defence Wings were established
at Karachi for training of Indian Officers, JCOs and NCOs in the AA techniques4. There
is an interesting reason why the Coastal Artillery and AAA shared the same training
establishment. The tradition dates back to World War I when US Coast Artillery Corps
served as the foundation of its AA Branch5.

The British War Office decided in August 1940 to create a separate AA branch of
Indian Artillery on the concept of Territorial Army. This was however to be limited to
Heavy AA units for static tasks and not for field formations. On 14 September 1940,
One Indian AA Technical Training Battery was raised at Colaba, Bombay. It included
nucleus of the first AA unit of Indian Artillery - the ‘R’ (Royal) HAA Regiment6. In
January 1941, Light AA unit called the ‘U’ LAA Regiment was raised at Malir Cantt (Now
in Pakistan) and was equipped with L/60 guns. In April 1941, both of these units were re-
named and thus ‘R’ HAA became 1 Indian HAA Regiment IA and ‘U’ LAA became 1 Indian
LAA Regiment IA. The main difference between the role of HAA and LAA Regiments was
that while the HAA Regiment were for static tasks against High Altitude Bombers , the
LAA units were raised for mobile role against low flying fighter aircraft. Most, if not all
HAA Regiments were TA Regiments. The LAA Regiments were integral to Artillery
Brigades of Infantry and Armoured Divisions, some of them being organized as Anti-
Tank/ Anti-Aircraft Regiments.

By 1942, the air defence branch had grown considerably with a total of eighteen anti-
aircraft regiments, of which nine were HAA Regiments and nine were Light AA
Regiments. There were grouped under four AA Brigades. Besides these 18 Regiments,
AAA had one Independent HAA Battery and two Independent LAA Batteries. By the
end of 1944, AAA had a total of thirty three air defence artillery units making India
Command the second most densely protected area- second only to Great Britain7. One
interesting feature of Indian AAA was that the Infantry Divisions on standard
MT(Mechanical Transport) establishment had an integral LAA Regiment with up to fifty-
four light anti-aircraft guns while some had an additional composite AT/AA Regiment
with two Anti Tank and Anti Aircraft Batteries each. The Indian LAA Regiments
performed well during the war with Three Indian LAA Regiments being awarded with
Mention-in-Desptaches during their employment in East Bengal, Assam and Rangoon. A
total of three MC, one MBE and seven IDSM were awarded to AA Artillery during the
Second World War.

At the end of Second World War, a large number of AA Regiments were disbanded or
converted to Field Artillery regiments or even to regular infantry Regiments. At the time
of partition in 1947, in the division of assets between the two Armies, both India’s share
was only two LAA Regiments with Pakistan getting two HAA and two LAA Regiments.
However India was to convert one Field Artillery Regiment to HAA Regiment ( making it
2+1 AA Regiments) while Pakistan was to convert one HAA Regiment to Field Regiment
and one LAA Regiment to Anti-Tank Regiment( ie 1+1 AA Regiments)8. The LAA Regiments
that came to India were 26 LAA and 27 LAA Regiments, and were retained as such- 26
LAA Regiment had been raised as 2 LAA regiment in 1941. The equipment required to
convert one Field Regiment to HAA Regiment was available with India but rather than
convert a Field Regiment, India raised a new HAA Regiment in 1948. The reasons for not
doing so are not clear. Most likely, Artillery Directorate ( the controlling Directorate for
AAA also at the Army Headquarters) may not have been too keen to shed one Field
Regiment hence opted for raising of a new Regiment.

The two AA Regiments that survived in to Pakistan Army were re-numbered and
designated as 5 HAA Regiment(erstwhile 18 HAA Regiment) and 6 LAA
Regiment(erstwhile 25 LAA Regiment).

Pakistan also got One LAA Battery which was later amalgamated into a new raising (14
LAA Battery of 13 LAA Regiment of Pakistan Army AD)9 . The two oldest AA
Establishment in India, i.e. I Training Battery and ‘R’ HAA Regiment had gone to Pakistan.
Of the AA Regiments, 5 Heavy Anti Aircraft Regiment which went to Pakistan was the
most technical and sophisticated unit of its time, being the only one with radar controlled
guns( 3.7” Radar Controlled Guns with a covering range upto 18 kms)10.

Pakistan Artillery(Of which AAA was a part) was initially known as Army Group of Royal
Pakistan Artillery(AGRPA) and was designated as Royal Pakistan Artillery only on March
23, 195611.

The Formative Years

The first task given to the AA Regiments post Independence was to assist in maintaining
law and order in wake of the riots following the partition. The role of 26 LAA Regiment
stands out in this, deployed as they were at Delhi Railway Station and were placed under
1 Armoured Division. The unit was used to escort trains from Hazrat Nizamuddin Railway
Station to Atari on the Indo-Pak border. Ensuring safe passage of refugees, the
Regiment excelled in face of daunting odds and two of its personnel viz Major Gurcharan
Singh and Naib Subedar Dhan Singh were awarded two Ashoka Chakra Class II (Now
called the Kirti Chakra) for their act of valour12. No sooner had the riots brought under
control that Pakistan invaded Kashmir in an attempt to annex it by force. While the
Kashmir conflict was still raging, India raised three more AA Regiments viz 19 HAA
Regiment, 45 LAA and 46 LAA Regiments in April 1948, taking the total AA Regiments
to five13. None of the units however participated in the first war after independence as
the PAF kept away and even IAF was used for logistic support only. However, the Indian
AA was put on alert and deployed for protection of the static tasks including the national
capital. Pakistan AAA participated in the war albeit in direct firing role and not for
providing air defence. During May 1948, the 3.7 inch Heavy Anti Aircraft guns of 5 Heavy
Anti Aircraft Regiment, Pakistan Army and 40 mm Anti Aircraft guns of 6 Light Anti
Aircraft Regiment, Pakistan Army were employed in ground role to augment the fire
power of field Artillery. At places these Anti Aircraft guns proved more effective than
the field artillery guns as direct firing weapons. In Pandu and Chota Kazi Nag Sector,
four Anti Aircraft guns were deployed besides Medium and field artillery while two
Heavy Anti Aircraft guns and four Light Anti Aircraft guns were deployed in direct firing
role in Uri and Akhnur Sectors14.

In 1949, India enacted the new Territorial Army legislation which paved the way for
raising of new AA Regiments(TA). This led to raising of four Heavy AA Regiments(TA)
using the World War II vintage 3.7” HAA guns lying in Ordnance Depots. These were 103
HAA, 104 HAA, 105 HAA and 107 HAA Regiments(TA). Interestingly, they were raised
as HAA Regiments not because of any threat assessment but only because there was a
ready stock of these guns available in ordnance depots. This was followed by raising of
three LAA Regiments(TA) in 1951. These were 126 LAA, 127 LAA and 128 LAA
Regiments(TA). There is an interesting anecdote about these raisings also. Apparently,
UK had demanded return of its World War II stocks of AA guns especially 3.7” HAA
guns and as there were no more HAA guns available, the units were raised as LAA
Regiments. Even otherwise, there was a need to do away with HAA guns as they were not
found to be suitable in the jet age with the enemy aircraft getting faster and more
maneuverable beyond the capability of the lumbering heavy guns. The ideal guns were
thought to be in the range on 20 to 40mm. Hence a shift away from HAA guns. The
Regiments raised hereafter were all LAA Regiments.

One major development during this time was the raising of 3 AA Brigade by Pakistan
Army which was placed directly under General Headquarters15. The Brigade
Headquarters were to coordinate all AD functions in the Pakistan Army. This was much
before India raised any AA formation headquarters of its own.

With the induction of jet combat aircraft in the Sub-continental Air Forces, there was
a need to have a re-look at the AA defences and upgrade the AAA to take on the
emerging threats. As the mainstay of Indian AAA was still the 40mm L/60 Bofors AA
Gun, a search was on to find a radar controlled AA gun to equip the AA Regiments. While
the choice of gun was simpler as Bofors had already developed the 40mm L/70 AA gun,
the search for a suitable fire control radar took a little more time. In the end four
vendors were shortlisted – Contraves of Switzerland, Arenco of Sweeden, Aldebaran of
Italy and CSF of France. After extensive trials during 1960-61, Radar Superfledermaus
of Orleikon Contarves was selected to be used with 40mm L/70 guns. An agreement to
produce the radars under license by BEL was signed in June 1961 with the production to
commence by 196316.

India signed an agreement with Switzerland in 1962 for development of intermediate

range surface to air missile, codenamed Project Indigo17. Switzerland had a long history
of developing and perfecting weapons including missile systems and as a ‘neutral’ country,
an obvious choice for a non-aligned country for weapon development.

Before any major developments could take place in AAA, China invaded India in October
1962. During 1962 Sino Indian War, a total of six AD Artillery units were employed in
Assam/Bengal in AA as well as non AA role. As there were no AA Regiments for the
mountainous sectors, the LAA Regiments with Infantry Divisions were detached and
deployed in the East18. 107 HAA Regiment(TA) at Calcutta was also moved to Tezpur and
was used in non-AA role.

The war changed the strategic scenario as India. Shocked by the blatant Chinese
aggression, India turned towards the West especially US for military aid including an Air
Defence umbrella. US occupied with the Cuba Missile crisis did not respond immediately
and by the time the US response could be firmed up, Chinese had declared a ceasefire.
As a SEATO and CENTO member, Pakistan must have been a factor in the decision
making process by US. However, with containing communism being one of the aims, US
reached out with a proposal of a Military Aid Package(MAP). The initial aid provided was
modest: military advisors, ammunition, rifles, mortars and airlift support20. On November
19, Nehru wrote to Kennedy for a more specific aid for an Air Defence umbrella – to
include ‘twelve squadrons of all weather supersonic fighters’ and a modern radar cover.
Before US could even consider the request China declared an unilateral ceasefire.
Nevertheless, as a follow up action a US military mission toured India and recommended
joint Air Defence Exercises. The first such exercise took place in November 1963 and
was rightly described as a precedent setting. The US/UK/Indian exercise (SHIKSHA)
was aimed to (1) augment, exercise, and improve the Indian air defense system, (2) train
Indian air defense personnel, and (3) familiarize US and UK personnel with operating
conditions in India. One USAF fighter squadron, two mobile USAF radar units, and one
RAF fighter interceptor squadron participated in the exercise with Australia providing
some communication personnel and aircraft19. Following an outcry in the media against
US military personnel being stationed on Indian soil, phase two of the exercise never
took place. The Exercise however brought out some glaring deficiencies in the Air
Defence setup – more notably the absence of a radar cover. In order to help setup an
effective AD system, US provided Star Sapphire Radar systems with Project Indigo
early warning communications system as a gift to be used on the northern borders only20.

When India put out a wish list for a military aid package worth Rupees 500 million, the
US offered aid worth Rupees 150 million only with the catch that no combat equipment
would be given21. In addition, British Bloodhound or Thunderbird missiles were to be
offered. Reportedly, trials were also conducted but the overall MAP being not up to the
desired level, the proposal fell through. Meanwhile Soviet Union came up with a more
agreeable aid package which included Mig-21 and SA-2 Surface to Air Missiles. It is
worth remembering that Soviet Union had only provided MiG-19s to China by that time.
Included also in the aid package was P-35 Radar system. Thunderbird SAMs were not to
be inducted by India after all. With the responsibility of AAA being limited to low level
air defence, the SAM system went to the IAF after a lot of haggling between the Army
and IAF22.

The post 1962 period saw the de-induction of 3.7” HAA guns and the Indian AAA being
left with only 40mm L/60 AA guns. With only one type of gun system and revised
responsibility, the need to differentiate between HAA and LAA Regiments was no longer
there and all Regiments were now classified as Air Defence (AD) Regiments.

Things were moving fast. India inducted SA-2, acquired Soviet radars, 40mm L/70 AA
guns were being manufactured in India23 as were Radar Superfledermaus, even as HAA
guns were no longer in service, new AD Regiments were raised and by the time India had
to again go to War, India had twenty one AD Regiments. Pakistan had only nine.

With the induction of Soviet SA-2 SAMs, Project Indigo for indigenous development of
surface to air missiles with Swiss aid was also scrapped24.

In a related development, even as AAA was evolving and expanding, the responsibility
for Seaward Defence was entrusted to the Navy in 1963. The Coast Batteries which till
then were manned by the Army were taken over by the Navy25. Right from the beginning,
AAA and Coastal artillery have had an umbilical relationship, with a common training
establishment (Coastal and AA Artillery School at Karachi). This change in responsibility
was another break from the past and was to put AAA on an independent trajectory.

Notes
1. How was the first military airplane shot down. National Geographic. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
http://www.nationalgeographic.rs/vesti/3842-prvi-ratni-avion-oboren-u-istoriji-pao-na-
kragujevac.html

2. A Short History of the Royal Air Force, Chapter 2, The Inter War Years, 1919-1939 Page
62 http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafcms/mediafiles/F21C6257_ABD1_7132_E8716B8C2DA98948.pdf
3. Anti Aircraft Warfare https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare

4. History of Army Air Defence

http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=4Fm+GZejNPYci/u/K
MAV7g==&ParentID=M/DOGn6JXk49a1ugLTlLfA==History

5. Coast Artillery Corps (CAC) served as the foundation of what has evolved into modern ADA for
two reasons. First, with reduced threat to coasts during the World War I, CAC had the trained
manpower which could be used for raising of AAA units and establishments. Second, the CAC was
the only branch that had any experience at all in firing at moving targets.
‘History of Air Defence and Early Weapon systems’ at Globalsecurity.org at
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/accp/ad0699/lesson1.htm#less1

6. History of Army Air Defence. As per History of Regiment of Artillery : Pangs of Partition,
the first Indian AD Unit was ‘K’ Indian Anti Aircraft Regiment raised on 1 August 1940 at
Hyderabad. There is however no mention of ‘K’ AA Regiment in the History of Army Air Defence
given at the Indian Army website or other sources.
(http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=8Z5bhvBfqykVyUp0S
k8YRQ==&ParentID=iyOBZ+iSBXrLmgvH+uj7Iw==)

7. History of Army Air Defence.

8. Partition of Personnel and Units of Armed Forces Fourth Meeting of Partition Council,
Allocation of Armoured Corps and Infantry Units, Partition Proceedings, vol.5, p.44.
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/14220/8/08_chapter%204.pdf
Also refer to History of Artillery: Pangs of Partition
http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=8Z5bhvBfqykVyUp0S
k8YRQ==&ParentID=iyOBZ+iSBXrLmgvH+uj7Iw==

9. http://www.pakarmymuseum.com/exhibits/history-of-air-defense/

10. Since PAF had yet to be created, the base of Air Defence in Pakistan was laid by 5 Heavy Anti
Aircraft Regiment. The Regiment has unique honour of being the First unit of the Armed Forces
of Pakistan to be inspected by Muhammad Ali Jinnah on 21 February 1948.
https://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=22&rnd=451

11. http://www.pakarmymuseum.com/exhibits/air-defense/

12. Army Air Defence : Honours and Awards

http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTempSimple.aspx?MnId=J/zXDlNTLbHJcLV9
XbqXYw==&ParentID=PLGF03ZMmYFgIZwZYehe/A==

13. There is no source(s) giving details of raising of all 21 AD Regiments which were on the Order
of Battle of Indian Army. The dates of raising of AD Units has been collated from various sources
like newspaper articles about the Raising Day celebrations of the Regiment(s), Issue of First day
covers and like including anecdotal knowledge of veteran AD Officers.

14. History of Army Air Defence Corps

https://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/AWPReview/TextContent.aspx?pId=22&rnd=451

15. Shaukat Raza, Major General (Retd) The Pakistan Army War of 1965 Natraj Publishers, Dehra
Dun 1977 ISBN 85019-60-6 p 26

16. S Prabhala, Koshy KV, Krsihnan S Inside the Solid State - The Story of Bharat Electronics
Westland 18 April 2014 ISBN-10: 9384030139
17. Project Indigo https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Indigo. Also see Timothy V. McCarthy,
"India: Emerging Missile Power," in William C. Potter and Harlan W. Jencks, eds., The International
Missile Bazaar: The New Suppliers' Network, (Boulder: Westview Press Inc., 1994).

18. The LAA Regiments used to be integral to Infantry Divisions till 1962 but due to the emergent
requirement of AA Regiments in High Altitude areas along the border with China, especially in
North East, the AA Regiments were taken away from Infantry Divisions and deployed separately.

19. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/forgotten-war-himalayas

20. https://www.archives.gov/files/declassification/iscap/pdf/2011-056-doc22.pdf

21. Subrahmanyam K Arms and Politics Strategic Analysis January 2005 Volume: 29
Issue: 1 http://www.idsa.in/strategicanalysis/ArmsandPolitics_ksubrahmanyam_0305
Also see ‘Memorandum for Henry Kissinger’, January 26, 1972 Foreign Relations 1969-76 US
Department of State Archives https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/ nixon/e7txt/
49244.htm
23. L/70 production started by Ordnance Factory http://ofbgcf.nic.in/#
Also http://www.ofbindia.gov.in/units/index.php?unit=gsf&page=about&lang=en

24. Timothy V. McCarthy, "India: Emerging Missile Power," in William C. Potter and Harlan W.
Jencks, eds., The International Missile Bazaar: The New Suppliers' Network, (Boulder:
Westview Press Inc., 1994), p. 202.

25. Hiranandani GM Vice Admiral Transition to Triumph Indian Navy 1965-1975 Page 16
https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/transition-triumph