LECTURE 1 FOLDS

FOLD TERMINOLOGY
Axis

LECTURE PLAN
SYMMETRIC FOLD
Hinge b (Limb lengths equal)
L im
zone
Close
upwards Inflexion
(antiform) points

1) FOLD TERMINOLOGY
2) FOLD CLASSIFICATION
Close downwards
Back to Fold axial Back to (synform)
text plane text

3) STRAIN IN FOLDS
4) SMALL-SCALE STRUCTURES WITHIN FOLDS
5) FOLDS ASSOCIATED WITH FAULTS
PERSON FOR SCALE FOLD AXIS

1) FOLD TERMINOLOGY
LIMB

Folds form where tectonic motions cause layers to bend. The line Back to
text
Back to
text
Symmetric fold in Carboniferous sandstones,
Bude , U .K.

of maximum curvature is known as the fold axis. Fold limbs occur

on either side of the fold axis. Where multiple layers are involved,
a plane containing all the fold axes for the various layers is known
as the fold axial plane. Folds can close upwards, or downwards,
and these structures are termed antiforms and synforms respec-
tively. If the fold closes sideways, it is known as a recumbent fold.
If the limbs are the same length, the fold is known as a symmetri- Back to
text
Antiform and synform in Skiddaw Slates ,
Caldew River, Lake District, U.K.
Back to
text

cal fold.

A recumbent of neutral fold in Mesozoic limestones

Haut Giffre , Western Alps

Course Homepage Geology Department

A recumbent or neutral fold in Mesozoic limestones

Lecture 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Haut Giffre , Western Alps: oblique view.
Back to Back to
text text

Practical 1 2 3 4 5 6 71 8 9 10
Lines of no curvature at the boundary between adjacent an-
tiforms and synforms are known as inflexion lines (inflexion
points in 2 dimensional cross-sections. Fold wavelength
Inflexion points

Amplitude

The wavelength is the distance between adjacent hinge Enveloping

lines or inflexion points.

surface

The amplitude is the perpendicular distance between a line Asymmetric fold Back to
text
joining the inflexion points of a fold and the extremity of the (Limb lengths different lengths)
Long Limb

folded layer. Short Limb

All of these terms can be used in the field to describe the ge-
ometries of folds, such as this asymmetric anticline in the
French Alps. Note that the layers become overturned on the
steeply-dipping, short limb. The long-limb is almost horizon-
tal. Such folds, where one limb is almost horizontal is known Asymmetric anticline in the French Alps.
as a monocline.

Fold Axial Trace

(antiform)
Back to Fold Axial Trace
text (synform)

Start of this Lecture

If the ages of the layers involved in folding are known
we can use the terms: AGE RELATIONSHIPS IN FOLDS
Back to
1) Anticline - oldest rocks in the core of the fold. 3 Unit 1 is older than Unit 2
The symbol indicates the text
2) Syncline - youngest rocks in the core of the fold. 2 younging direction.
1
Erosion level
3
Non-cylindrical folds occur where the shape of the fold 2
1
varies along the fold axis. In reality, all folds are non- 3
2

cylindrical as the amplitude decreases along strike.

1

However, is some instances it may be advantageous to

consider a fold as cylindrical, for example, where the 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 1
2 3
fold continues for many kilometers along strike outside
of the area that you are mapping studying.
Anticline: Oldest rocks in the fold core Syncline: Youngest rocks in the core

Amplitude CYLINDRICAL FOLD

remains
constant
along strike
Non-cylindrical fold, Bude, ,
SW England
Back to

Fold axis plunging

text

away from viewers

NON-CYLINDRICAL FOLD
plunging fold
hinges Fold amplitude
decreases away
from viewers
Back to
text
Back to
text

Start of this Lecture

Rotations about vertical axes during folding
plunging fold
Consider what happens when a plunging fold hinge hinges
forms. The rocks must rotate about a vertical axis as
rocks where the fold dies out are not shortened,
whilst rocks along the fold are. This can be measured
with palaeomagnetism. Magnetic needles of mag-
netic included in the rock when it forms will no longer
point towards the north magnetic pole after folding.
Measurements of the orientations of such magnetite
needles can reveal the history of rotations during
folding.

Plunging antiform shown on a map

3D view of rotations

New orientation of
magnetite needles

Rotation
angle
Start of Lecture
A large number of names are used to describe spe-
cific fold geometries. For example: Anticline Anticline

Syncline

Parallel folds- Where the thickness perpendicular Syncline

to the folded surface is constant.

Similar folds- Where the thickness of the layer par- Back to
allel to the axial plane is constant. Chevron folds with layers that have constant thickness
(parallel folds) at Hartland Quay, Devon, U.K. text

Intra-folial folds- folds contained within the layering

or foliation.
Back to
text

Chevron Folds- Angular folds with planar limbs and Fold dies out
sharp hinges. into lower layers

Isoclinal folds- Fold where the limbs are parallel.

Back to
text
Intra-folial folds in Pre-Cambrian quartzites, Moine thrust belt, Scotland.

Similar fold
Parallel fold
(Thickness constant) (Thickness constant parallel to
the fold axial plane).

Back to
text

Isoclinal folds in Pre-Cambrian quartzites, Moine thrust belt, Scotland.

Start of this Lecture

 CLASSIFICATION BY INTERLIMB ANGLE

2) FOLD CLASSIFICATION Interlimb angle:

Gentle 180~120
o
o
Open 120~70
o
Close 70-30
Folds are classified by:- Tight 0~30
Isoclinal 0
o
o

a) Their interlimb angles and tightness of the fold.

b) The attitude of their hinge lines Back to
text

and the attitude of their axial planes or surfaces

c) Shapes of the folded layers
Interlimb angle Fold in Carboniferous sandstones and
c. 40-50 degrees mudstones, Milook Haven, Devon, UK.

a) Tightness of folds- The interlimb angle measured between

the inflexion points can be used to measure the tightness of
folds.

Interlimb angles Name for fold

Back to
180-120o Gentle text

120-70o Open
70-30o Close Interlimb angle

30-0o
c. 120 degrees
Tight
0o Isoclinal
<0o with a -ve angle Ptygmatic
Fold in Mesozoic limestones,
Vercors, French Alps

Back to Back to
text text

Start of this Lecture

b) Attitude of the fold- Plunge and plunge direction of the fold
axis and dip and strike of the fold axial plane.

ATTITUDE OF THE AXIAL PLANE Recumbent Upright

0-10o RECUMBENT FOLD

10-30o GENTLY INCLINED FOLD
30-60o MODERATELY INCLINED
60-80o STEEPLY INCLINED FOLD
80-90oUPRIGHT FOLD
Back to Recumbent and upright chevron folds in Carboniferous sandstones and shales,
text Devon, U.K.

ATTITUDE OF THE FOLD AXIS

0o HORIZONTAL FOLD
1-10o SUB-HORIZONTAL FOLD
10-30o GENTLY-PLUNGING FOLD Dip isogon: line joining points

30-60o MODERATELY PLUNGING

of equal dip on adjacent layers

60-80o STEEPLY PLUNGING FOLD

80-89o SUB-VERTICAL FOLD
90o VERTICAL FOLD

Class 1: Convergent dip isogons Class 2: Parallel dip isogons

c) Shape of folds and the use of dip isogons

Dip isogons- Dip isogons join points of the same dip on folded layers.
The reference datum is the tangent which passes through the fold axis
of the folded surface.

There are 3 main classes of fold:- Class 3: Divergent dip isogons

Back to
Class 1 Folds- dip isogons converge when traced from the outer to the text

inner arc of the fold because the inner arc is more curved than the outer Start of this Lecture
arc.
Class 1A- Isogons are strongly convergent. Dip isogon: line joining points
of equal dip on adjacent layers

Class 1B- Isogons perpendicular to bedding.

Class 1C- Isogons are weakly convergent.

Class 1: Convergent dip isogons Class 2: Parallel dip isogons
Class 2 Folds- parallel dip isogons which imply that the folded
surfaces are identical.

Class 3 Folds- dip isogons diverge when traced from the outer
to inner arcs because the outer arc of the fold curves more
than the inner arc. Class 3: Divergent dip isogons

Back to
text

TLS FOLDS

3) STRAIN IN FOLDS

a) Buckle folds- Also termed Tangential Longitudinal Strain tension

Ex
(TLS). TLS folds develop in massive lithologies which have
poorly defined or nonexistent planar anisotropies such as mpressio
Co n
bedding or banding. No layer parallel shear occurs.

All strains are pure shear. TLS Folds develop by buckling and
have extensional strains on the outer arc and contractional
strains on the inner arc. Back to
text

Start of this Lecture

A plane of no strain exists within the folded layer (neutral
surface), which moves towards the inner arc as the fold FLEXURAL SLIP FOLD
tightens. Cleavage, extensional fractures and minor faults can
all accommodate buckling.

b) Flexural slip folds- These are parallel folds produced by the

slip of layers over each other.

The limbs exhibit low strains as displacements are Layers slide over each other leaving striations

accommodated by slip along bedding surfaces. Bedding plane

slip can be recognised by the presence of bedding planes with
either slickenside surfaces on which are striated, or have linear Back to
text
crystal growths upon them.
CLEAVAGE-BEDDING RELATIONSHIPS g
nin

Flexural flow may occur in finely laminated strata, and the Le

ng
the

va
ge
ea
layers undergo simple shear so that the outer arc of the fold is Cl

Sh
rotated with a vergence towards the fold axis.

or
ten
Cleavage forms at right

ing
angles to the shortening
direction during simple
shear

In folded sedimentary sequences some layers may deform by

flexural slip whilst others layers may deform by TLS Thus, cleavage can form when folded layers
are deformed by simple shear.

mechanisms. Thus, the different layers may exhibit different

strain states. An example of this is cleavage refraction. Back to
text

4) THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SMALL SCALE STRUCTURES

ASSOCIATED WITH MAJOR FOLDS

a) Symmetries of parasitic minor folds Vergence of a small parasitic

fold (top to the right) produced
by clockwise rotation.
Z, S and M symmetry minor folds can be recognised by
considering the arrangement of short and long limbs of folds. Back to
text
Start of this Lecture
 1. Undeformed layer

2. Scenario 1 - Fold with parasitic fold. The vergence is always the same on long
limbs as the overall fold (and opposite on the
short limb).

imb
Long l b
r t lim
o b
Sh g lim
Lo n

3. Scenario 2 - Fold with parasitic folds and flanking structures, some of which show opposite vergence.

Flanking structures can make it more

complicated because small folds
produced by flanking structures do
not have to have the correct vergence
for the long and short limbs - they can
be opposite and therefore confusing!

See further reading on flanking

structures.
These shapes emerge form the fold below. The trouble m-shape
is if you imagine looking from behind the page the s z-shape
looks like a z, and z looks like an s (potentially
confusing!). So we have a convention that we always
describe it as we are looking down the plunge of a
fold.
s-shape

Diagram of parasitic folds

imb
Long l b
lim
ort b
Sh g lim
Lon

epahs-m This is what you would

epahs-z
see looking from behind
the page - the s looks like
a z, and z looks like an s!

epahs-s
Always determined by looking down the plunge of a minor fold.
The sense of symmetry of minor folds varies around the profile
of a major fold. S and Z folds indicate the limbs of folds
whereas M folds indicate the hinge region.
CLEAVAGE-BEDDING RELATIONSHIPS g
nin
the
ng
Le e
g
b) Vergence Cl
ea
va

Sh
or
ten
Cleavage forms at right

ing
Vergence is a term which is used to indicate the sense of angles to the shortening
direction during simple
shear
movement and rotation that occurred during deformation.
Vergence of asymmetric fold is defined as the horizontal Thus, cleavage can forms when folded
layers are deformed by simple shear.

direction movement of the upper component of a fold

measured in the profile plane. Vertically plunging folds may
Back to
have a sinistral or dextral vergence. text

S and Z folds change vergence across major folds.

c) Cleavage bedding relationships in major folds

Vergence of a small parasitic
fold (top to the right) produced
Cleavage/bedding relationships can be used to define where a by clockwise rotation.

particular outcrop is situated in the overall structure. Back to

text

Normal Limb- Cleavage is steeper than bedding.

Overturned limb- Bedding is steeper than cleavage.

Fold Hinge- Cleavage and bedding are perpendicular.

The cleavage/bedding intersection lineation is parallel to the

fold axis.
Start of this Lecture
Progressive rotation of cleavage relative to bedding as the amount of folding and strain increases.

Cleavage development in this box is illustrated below.

This angle between bedding and cleavage changes as I increase the amount of shear.

Thus, there is no characteristic angle between bedding and cleavage; it changes as

strain increases. The sense of rotation is always the same though!
 Bedding cleavage relationships help you decide whether you are on the short or long limb of a fold.

Cleavage here is steeper than bedding Cleavage here is less steep than bedding

limb mb
Long li
ort
Sh

Thus, in an area that is not well-exposed, as below, one can infer the overall vergence of the fold by looking at cleavage-bedding relationships.

Cleavage steeper than bedding Bedding steeper than cleavage Cleavage steeper than bedding

An outcrop surrounded
by no-exposure
(a) Normal fault breaks the surface
Reverse drag
(a) Normal fault at depth (blind fault)
(c) Normal fault with a listric geometry
Folding occurs associated
with thrusting in two ways.
Restored Cross-Section
Fault-bend folds can form
Thrust trajectory
due to curvature of the fault
plane. Fold-propagation
folds form due to strain
Deformed Cross-Section
ahead of propagating fault
tips; the fault can be
perfectly planar in this case.

Footwall Flat Footwall Ramp

Hangingwall Flat Hangingwall Ramp

Folding can occur around normal faults even though the area is extend-
ing. “Reverse drag” , where the rocks appear to be deflected in the
wrong sense, occurs due to the elastic/flexural properties of the rocks Fault propagation fold cut by a propagating thrust Back to
during deformation. “Normal drag” looks like the sketch below, but is text
actually quite rare in natural examples compared to “reverse drag”.

Normal Drag
Tip
Back to
text

Folds can form through drag

associated with strike-slip faults.
Here, the Dead Sea Transform Close-up of folds
fault has left-lateral motion associated with
across its north-south trace. This the Dead Sea
has produced large anticlines Transform Fault
that oblique to the fault trace in
Sinai and Lebabon

Back to Back to
text text
These are some of the largest folds on the Earth. Where India has collided with Eurasia, and sheared past it as it indents into Eurasia, the Zagros-Makran
fold belt has formed. Early-formed folds strike E-W, but have been re-folded by the indentation to form enormous arcuate fold belts.

1) 2)
2)

Eurasia

3)
India

Zagros-Makran
Fold Belt
Motion of
India
Half-arrows show left-lateral shear Back to Back to
sense between India and Eurasia. overview overview

3) 4)

ne
cli
n
Sy
icline
Ant

4)
e
lin
nc
Sy

Back to
overview Back to
Arrows show the plunge directions
overview
of these asymmetric folds

These images are shaded elevation images made from radar topographic data from the Space Shuttle (SRTM data).
 Matterhorn
The famous “Morcles Nappe” is a fold carried on a
large thrust fault. Cretaceous rocks have been
turned upside down by the folding, so that the
Cretaceous sequence from oldest to youngest
(Valanginian, Hauterivian, Urgonian), is exposed
with the Urgonian at the bottom! (2 famous
mountains are named for reference).
NW
SE

Dents du Midi

Inv
erte
d li Valanginian
mb
of t
he
Mo
rcle Hau
s Nap teriv
p e i an
Mo
rcle Urg
s Thr on
ust ian
 Mt. Blanc Massif Another view onto
the Morcles Nappe.
The thrust moved
towards the NW.

Urgonian

Hautervian

Valanginian

Urgonian

Morcles Thrust

SE NW